Ecological Engineering 12 (1999) 39 55

Constructed wetlands in Queensland: Performance efciency and nutrient bioaccumulation

Margaret Greenway a,*, Anne Woolley b
a b

Faculty of En6ironmental Sciences, Grifth Uni6ersity, Nathan, Qld 4111, Australia Department of Natural Resources, GPO Box 2454, Brisbane, Qld 4001, Australia Accepted 22 May 1998

Abstract Nine pilot wetlands (eight free water surface and one subsurface ow) have been constructed in Queensland as joint projects between the State and Local Governments, to treat municipal wastewater. The wetlands are in several geographical locations which include tropical, subtropical and arid climates. Each wetland is a different conguration and contains a variety of macrophyte types and species. Most species are native and were collected in the locality or self colonised. This paper examines the performance efciency of the wetlands and nutrient bioaccumulation in wetland plants. Biochemical oxygen demand concentrations were reduced by 1789% and suspended solids concentrations by 14 77% to produce wetland efuent with BOD less than 12 mg l 1 and suspended solids less than 22 mg l 1. Reduction in total nitrogen concentrations ranged from 18 to 86%, ammonia nitrogen from 8 to 95% and oxidised nitrogen from 55 to 98%, producing efuent with total nitrogen between 1.6 and 18 mg l 1. Reduction in reactive phosphorus concentration was less than 13% in the free water surface systems with concentration in the efuent exceeding the inuent in many of the systems over long term operation. In contrast reduction through the single household subsurface system was 65%. Nutrient bioaccumulation was investigated in 60 species. Submerged (Ceratophyllum) and free oating species (duckweed) had the highest tissue nutrient concentrations, followed by the waterlily (Nymphoides indica), aquatic vines (Ipomoea spp., Ludwigia peploides), and waterferns (Ceratopteris, Marsilea). All these species remove nutrients from the water column. Emergent species had lower nutrient concentrations with the highest nutrients occurring in the exotic sedge Cyperus in6olucratus. Aquatic grasses including Phragmites had higher nutrient content than the sedges. Nitrogen
* Corresponding author. 0925-8574/99/$ - see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII S0925-8574(98)00053-6

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concentrations were higher in leaf/stem tissue compared to the root/rhizome, whereas phosphorus was higher in root/rhizome tissue. Emergent species had a greater biomass than submerged or free oating species and were therefore able to store more nutrients per unit area of wetland. Cropping the shoots of emergent species increased nutrient content in new shoot growth. 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Australia; Aquatic plants; Bioaccumulation; Biomass; Constructed wetlands; Municipal efuent; Nutrients; Performance efciency

1. Introduction In Queensland, Australia, there is a growing interest by the State government, local authorities, land developers and municipal engineers, in the use of constructed wetlands as low cost, environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional wastewater treatment processes. Constructed wetland systems are particularly attractive alternatives for small communities where land is available and the costs of installing tertiary treatment or Biological Nutrient Removal plants is prohibitive. In 1992, the Queensland Government established an Articial Wetlands for Water Pollution Control Research Program and received a grant under the National Landcare Scheme to fund research projects which would provide information on design suitability and management options for constructed wetlands in Queensland (McCourt and Woolley, 1997). The potential to reuse water discharged from these wetlands was also recognised and applications include irrigating crops, pastures, tree lots, golf courses, parks and the restoration of natural wetlands (Greenway and Simpson, 1996). The Research Program recognised that information was needed on native plant species that could potentially be used in Queensland constructed wetlands. Research overseas has focussed on either non-native species, e.g. Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) a noxious aquatic weed in Queensland; Sal6inia molesta (water fern) and Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) (Reddy and De Busk, 1987; Tripathi et al., 1991), also aquatic weeds; or cosmopolitan species such as Typha spp. and Phragmites australis (Reddy and De Busk, 1987; Gumbricht, 1993) which, due to their aggressive growth in Queenslands subtropical/tropical climate, can also become potential weed species, dominating a wetland by forming dense monospecic stands. Between October 1992 and July 1994, nine pilot wetlands were constructed as State Government joint projects. Eight wetlands are free water surface and treat secondary sewage efuent, one wetland is subsurface ow and treats all domestic household efuent from a private landholder at Wamuran. Two University-Local Government constructed wetlands have also been established (Bolton and Greenway, 1997; King et al., 1997). Each pilot wetlands has a different design conguration (Table 1). Retention times and loading rates also vary between wetlands (Table 1). Plant species were collected from local stock growing in natural wetlands and/or

Table 1 Summary information: design characteristics of Queenslands pilot constructed wetlands Cairns Tropical-wet April 94 3 linear 8:1 400 710 (a)1355 (b)1119 20 300 3 400 7 16:1 16:1 20:1 600 (a) 3 (b) 5 (a) 736 (b) 1215 Tropical-wet February 1993 3 U-shaped Tropical-dry May 1994 2 U-shaped Sub tropical January 1994 5 linear Ingham Townsville Mackay Emu Park Blackall Arid February 1993 4 linear Goondiwindi Arid June 1994 5 linear 12:1 500 7 Wamuran

Characteristics

Climate Construction Channels

Length:width

Tropical-dry March 1993 4 linear, 1 Ushaped 15:1

Sub tropical October 19c 5 circular pits+pond 2 m diameter subsurface4 4 230

Depth (mm) HRT (days)

HLR (m3 ha1 d1) 458 (2) (b) 320 (1) 488 (2) (b) 1210

13:1(1), 4.2:1 (2) 500 17 (1) 10 (2) (a) 269 (1) 500 (a) 12 (b) 2 (a) 391

a,b

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denotes different trial periods/conditions for same wetlands. October 1992 to January 1994, separate treatment grey and black water; since January 1994 co-treatment black and grey water. (1) or (2), species number of channels.

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waterways. The species were band planted, i.e. sections of the wetland channel were planted with a different species. Open water sections were colonised by duckweed. This paper presents data on water quality monitoring and phosphorus and nitrogen accumulation in macrophytes in wetlands from eight geographical locations (Fig. 1).

2. Material and methods

2.1. Water quality monitoring

Monitoring of inuent and efuent has been conducted by each Local Authority for a range of parameters including biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids (SS), total nitrogen, ammonia, oxides of nitrogen, total phosphorus and

Fig. 1. Location map of constructed wetlands in Queensland, Australia.

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43

reactive phosphorus. The parameters measured vary with each wetland depending on the project objectives. The frequency of sampling is highly variable between Local Authorities. Hach DR2000 procedures (Hach, 1992) were used to measure reactive phosphorus and oxidised nitrogen for the Mackay, Ingham and Emu Park systems. Standard laboratory procedures were used for all other tests (Apha, 1992).

2.2. Plant tissue nutrient accumulation

Wetland plants were collected in 1994, 1995 and 1996. At least three replicates of each species were sampled from each wetland each year. For some species, plants were sampled at inlet and outlet sections of the channels. Roots and rhizomes were thoroughly washed to remove any adhering sediment. Plants were oven dried at 60C for 48 h. Emergent macrophyte species were divided into plant components leaves, stems, roots and rhizomes. All samples were ground in a Rocklab ring grinder to a ne powder. Total phosphorus was determined using a mixed acid digestion technique followed by the ascorbic acid method for colourmetric determination. Total nitrogen and carbon were determined with a Europa ScienticTracer Mass Stable Isotope Analyser. The Roboprep-CN Biological Sampler Converter burns the sample and the resultant nitrogen and carbon dioxide piped into the Analyser.

2.3. Plant biomass

In February 1997 plant biomass was estimated for the plants growing in the Cairns wetland. Quadrants 1 and 0.25 m2 were used as the sampling units and for each plant species there were ve replicates. All plant components (shoots, roots, rhizones) were removed from the sampling units. Roots and rhizomes were washed to remove any adhering sediment. Plants were separated into components, oven dried at 75C for 48 h and weighed. The emergent leafy shoots of all plants within the wetland were then harvested 5 10 cm above the water level. The harvested shoots were removed for composting. In June 1997, after 4 months of regrowth, plant biomass was estimated again.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Water quality and performance efciency

Table 2 is a summary of performance data for each wetland system based on results provided by the Local Governments. These systems had a wide range of operating conditions with hydraulic retention times (HRT) from 2 to 17 days and hydraulic loading rates (HLR) of 20 1736 m3 ha 1 d 1 (Table 1). Monitoring periods reported on are of the order of 2.53 years at Cairns, Townsville, Ingham, Blackall and Mackay, and 12 18 months at Goondiwindi, Wamuran and Emu Park.

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Table 2 Summary performance data (median values) for Queenslands pilot constructed wetlands Cairns (a): 70 (b) 30 November 1994 June 1997 (a) 9 7 18 8 56 61 25 7.5 25 7 72 (a) 23 76 230 74 30 (b) 21 18 14 54 22 15 12 23 56 3.0 8.4 (a) (a) 5 4 (b) 2 5 111 1.8 (b) 4 9 (a) 22 11 49 (a) 18 19 February 1993 June 1996 May 1993 January 1996 October 1994 December 1996 May 1994 December 1995 June 1993 December 1996 Ingham (a) 8 (b) 70 Townsville 65 Mackay (a) 60 (b) 16 Emu Park 6 Blackalld (a) 6 (b) 7 Goondiwindi 17 total Wamuranc 9 sets

Parameter Number samples/ channel Monitoring period

February 1995 February 1996

February 1995 March 1996

BOD In mg l1 Out mg l1 % redn conc % redn mass LR kg ha1 d1 (a) 24 22 11 47 (b) 32 22 31 58 38

(b) 19 11 42 54 22

(b) 18 11 39 70 18

(a) 12 10 17 33 23

(b) 13 8 38 61 15

46 9 80

110 12 89 25 74 17 77 26 13 50 6.0 8.9 7.5 16 8.9 2.7 70 2.1

SS In mg l1 Out mg l1 % redn conc % redn mass LR kg ha1 d1 39 1.6 (a) 1 2 18 27 3.6 6.8 7.1 4 2.7 (a) 6.1 5.4 11 6.2 6.5 4 2.4 (a) 19.5 9.7 50 7.6 (b) 31.5 6.9 78 (b) 8.3 7.9 5 26 10 (a) 5.5 5.6 9 51 7.2 (a) (b) 6.0 6.9 15 33 6.4 (b) 35.9 18.0 50 72 39 6.2 5.5 11 3.2 (a) 5 6 13 22 3.0 (a) 9.2 1.6 83 86 3.7 (b) 5.9 1.7 73 70 2.6 (b) 7.9 6.8 13 16 3.4 (b) 8.3 7.2 13 14 3.6 (a) 6.8 6.2 9 (b) 135 0.9

(b) 24 16 33 48 29

Total P In mg l1 Out mg l1 % redn conc % redn mass LR kg ha1 d1

(a) 3 4 36 27 8 (a) 2.1 3.1 48

(b) 3.3 4.2 27 12 4.0 (b) 3.2 4.2 31 11 3.8 (a) 16.6 13.6 18 35 33 (b) 17.8 11.0 38 58 22

8.1 2.8 65 1.9 37 18 52 62 8.4 86 14

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Reacti6e P In mg l1 Out mg l1 % redn conc % redn mass LR kg ha1 d1

Total N In mg l1 Out mg l1 % redn conc % redn mass LR kg ha1 d1

Table 2 (Continued ) Cairns (a): 70 (b) 30 Townsville 65 Mackay (a) 60 (b) 16 October 1994 December 1996 May 1994 December 1995 June 1993 December 1996 Emu Park 6 November 1994 June 1997 (a) 0.3 0.2 11.5 2.2 81 28 15.8 0.3 98 (a) 6.6 1.1 83 81 8.0 (b) 6.3 1.0 84 91 6.2 1.0 14.5 0.85 94 7.3 2.0 0.15 93 (b) 0.2 0.2 (a) 7.7 5.4 29 3.0 (a) 9.7 2.9 70 3.8 (b) 2.2 1.0 55 64 2.7 (b) (a) 20.7 6.2 70 February 1993 June 1996 May 1993 January 1996 Ingham (a) 8 (b) 70 Blackalld (a) 6 (b) 7 Goondiwindi 17 total Wamuranc 9 sets

Parameter Number samples/ channel Monitoring period

February 1995 February 1996

February 1995 March 1996

18.6 7.5 60

50 2.6 95

Ammonia N In mg l1 Out mg l1 % redn conc % redn mass LR kg ha1 d1 0.2 (a) 5.7 B0.1 \98 93 2.2 (b) 4.2 B0.1 \98 98 1.8 0.1

(b) 23.5 14.0 40 73 26

(a) 9.5 8.7 8 28 19 (a) 3.4 0.2 94 97 6.7

(b) 8.6 7.8 9 37 11 (b) 5.0 0.1 98 99 6.1

Oxid N In mg l1 Out mg l1 % redn conc % redn mass LR kg ha1 d1

1.5 1.5 0

0 1.2

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(a) and (b) denote different trial periods/conditions for same wetland. Combined grey+black water treatment by SSF wetland+pond. Only laboratory results reported; monitoring supported by weekly HACH tests which conrm performance trends.

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3.2. BOD and SS

In wetland systems, BOD is principally removed by microbiological activity with plants and litter providing surfaces for biolm growth. Wetlands also provide quiescent conditions for settling of SS and particulate BOD for subsequent anaerobic or aerobic digestion of organic settleable matter depending on the oxygen status at the point of deposition (Reed et al., 1995; McCourt and Woolley, 1997). Except for some periods at Cairns and Mackay, reduction in the mass of BOD ranged from 33 to 70% for loadings ranging from 3 to 25 kg ha 1 d 1. Reduction in BOD concentration ranged from 23 to 89% to produce efuent with concentrations in the range of 7 12 mg l 1. Likewise the reduction in the mass of SS ranged from 11 to 58% for loadings of the order of 1.6 to 47 kg ha 1 d 1. Reduction in SS concentration ranged from 14 to 77% producing efuent with concentrations from 4 to 22 mg l 1. This performance is consistent with that of wetland systems in North America which consistently produced BOD and SS of less than 20 mg l 1 for inputs of up to 80 mg l 1 for BOD and up to 160 mg l 1 for SS (Reed et al., 1995). At Cairns, where exceptionally low BOD and SS levels occurred in the inuent, BOD and SS in the efuent frequently exceeded that in the inuent on both a mass and concentration basis. These results are in agreement with the general consensus that reduction of BOD and SS below about 5 mg l 1 is unlikely because of background levels generated within the wetland (Reed et al., 1995; Kadlec and Knight, 1996). In the Mackay system, plant establishment was poor. Extensive algal growth in the large areas of open water together with the dispersion of clay from the bare banks by wind action, high ow rates and a lack of vegetation at the outlet contributed to an initial increase in SS in particular and BOD. This system took more than 12 months to stabilise and reduce BOD and SS (Table 2).

3.3. Nitrogen
The nitrogen cycle in wetlands is complex and is discussed in detail by Kadlec and Knight (1996) and Reed et al. (1995). Nitrogen transformation in wetlands occurs by ve principal biological processes: ammonication, nitrication, denitrication, nitrogen xation and nitrogen assimilation. For secondary treated sewage in which the predominant forms of nitrogen are ammonia and nitrate, nitrication and denitrication are generally indicated as the principal processes for nitrogen reduction together with some assimilation by biota. The magnitude of the reduction depends on factors such as temperature, pH, alkalinity, organic carbon, dissolved oxygen and biota (Reed et al., 1995; Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Plants and litter provided surfaces for growth of many of the micro-organisms which mediate these processes. Reduction in total nitrogen occurred in all of the pilot systems ranging from 35 to 86% on a mass basis and from 18 to 86% on a concentration basis for loading rates between 2.6 and 39 kg ha 1 d 1. Extended aeration (activated sludge)

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treatment at Cairns produces sewage efuent in which oxidised nitrogen is the dominant form. This was readily removed through the wetland to produce efuent with total nitrogen less than 2.0 mg l 1. At Emu Park the wetland is preceded by lagoon treatment (approximately 28 d HRT) of the sewage efuent (activated sludge treatment) during which almost complete nitrication occurred. Nitrate concentrations in the wetland inuent were highly variable ranging from 1.2 to 25 mg l 1 in the six samples tested, but removal through the wetland was almost complete. Townsville, Blackall, Ingham and Goondiwindi all receive efuent from biolter plants containing both ammonia and oxidised nitrogen in varying amounts. Some reduction in both forms has occurred in Townsville and Ingham with HRTs of 7 12 days. Ammonia reduction was the main process through the Goondiwindi system where organic nitrogen was a major component of both inuent and efuent. The Blackall system, with shortest HRTs (35 days) was least efcient in reducing nitrogen, with nitrication appearing to be the limiting factor. This correlation between nitrogen removal and HRT is consistent with the ndings of Sakadevan et al. (1995). The nitrogen levels in the efuent at Cairns (total N 1.7 mg l 1, ammonia N 0.2 mg l 1, oxidised N B 0.1 mg l 1) are consistent with background levels of approximately 1.5 mg l 1 organic nitrogen generated in FWS wetlands as reported by Kadlec and Knight (1996).

3.4. Phosphorus
The utilisation of phosphorus in a wetland involves many pathways in a complex biogeochemical cycle which is discussed in detail by Kadlec and Knight (1996). Principal mechanisims of reduction include sedimentation of particulate phosphorus, adsorption of soluble phosphorus on to clay particles, precipitation, complexation and uptake by biota. Phosphorus in secondary sewage efuent is normally well in excess of biota requirements. The absorption capacity of wetland soils and sediments is variable and may be rapidly exhausted. The pilot FWS systems have not proved to be an effective method for reducing the concentration of phosphorus in secondary treated sewage efuent (concentrations of the order of 2 8 mg l 1) in the long term. For reactive phosphorus loadings in the range of 2.410 kg ha 1 d, long term reductions in mass ranged from 15 to 51% with corresponding reductions in concentration ranging from 48 to 13%. As has been reported elsewhere (Reed et al., 1995) there were indications of reductions during the early stages of operation but over time export of phosphorus, particularly on a concentration basis. occurred. This is illustrated in Fig. 2 for the Mackay wetland (McCourt and Woolley, 1997) where there was an initial average reduction in concentration of 55% during the rst 6 months, reducing to 8% for the next 10 months after which concentration in the efuent always exceed the inuent. In contrast, a reduction of 70% in total phosphorus occurred through the Wamuran single household system of SSF beds plus pond.

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Fig. 2. Change in reduction in reactive phosphorus over time in the Mackay wetland.

3.5. Nutrient bioaccumulation

A total of 60 wetland plant species from 25 families were identied (Greenway, 1997). Tables 3 5 provide a comparison of the phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon content of some of the more commonly occuring wetland species growing in Queenslands constructed wetlands.

3.6. Comparison between plant types and components 3.6.1. Emergent macrophytes In the emergent macrophytes, phosphorus tended to be slightly higher in the below ground components (root/rhizome) whereas nitrogen and carbon were generally higher in the above ground (leaf/stem) components. Of the sedges (Cyperaceae), Cyperus exaltatus had the highest phosphorus content; C. in6olucra tus had the highest nitrogen content. Leaf/stem values were not signicantly different between species. Values for C. in6olucratus are comparable to those of Hocking (1985) in temperate Australia. Studies by Tanner (1996) in New Zealand found lower phosphorus in Bolbosoloenus and higher nitrogen in Schoenoplectus. The aquatic grasses (Gramineae) generally had higher nitrogen and carbon content than the sedges; however Phragmites, a species widely used in constructed wetlands had the lowest phosphorus content. There was no differences in the nutrient content of the two species of Typha. Phosphorus in the leaves was signicantly lower than in the root/rhizomes. Melaleuca trees had the lowest phosphorus and nitrogen content but the highest carbon content.

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The phosphorus content of Phragmites was comparable to that recorded by Hocking (1985), Reddy and De Busk (1987) and Gumbricht (1993). The nutrient content of Typha was comparable to other studies for leaf tissue but higher for root/rhizome (Reddy and De Busk, 1987; Gumbricht, 1993; Adcocok and Ganf, 1994).

3.6.2. Submerged and free -oating macrophytes and aquatic 6ines Submerged and oating macrophytes (Table 4) had higher phosphorus and nitrogen content than emergent species with Ceratophyllum and duckweed (Spirodela spp.) yielding the highest phosphorus content. Duckweed also had the highest nitrogen content. Values for duckweed, Pistia and Sal6ina were comparable to other studies using these species for wastewater treatment (Reddy and De Busk, 1987; Tripathi et al., 1991). Of the aquatic vines Ipomoea had the highest phosphorus content. With the exception of Paspalum distichum (water couch), which had similar phosphorus and nitrogen content to the emergent grasses (Gramineae, Table 3), the other vines/creepers all had higher nitrogen content than the emergents.

Table 3 Phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon content (mg g1) for below ground (root/rhizome) and above ground (leaf/stem) components of emergent macrophytes and Melaleuca trees (mean 9 S.D.) Emergent macrophytes Root/rhizome P Cyperaceae Bolbosoloenus caldwellii Cyperus eragrostis Cyperus exaltatus Cyperus in6olucratus a Eleocharis acuta Eleocharis phillipensis Eleocharis sphacelata Rhynochosporus corymbosa Schoenoplectus 6alidus Scleria poiformis Gramineae Echinochloa crus -gali a Echinochloa polystachya a Hymenachne acutigluma Phragmites australis Typhaceae Typha domingensis Typha orientalis Myrtaceae Melaleuca quinquener6ia b
a b

Leaf/stem C P N C

4.3 9 1.5 3.7 9 1.8 5.0 9 4.0 3.8 9 2.2 4.0 9 2.7 4.4 9 2.0 4.3 9 2.5 2.5 9 1.9 4.0 9 1.9 2.8 9 0.8 4.0 9 1.2 4.3 9 1.7 4.2 9 0.9 3.2 9 1.4 4.0 9 1.7 4.2 9 1.7 2.7 9 0.6

13.5 9 5.0 20.0 9 9.6 15.0 9 7.0 26.9 9 13 14.0 9 5.0 14.0 9 4.8 13.5 9 5.7 13.9 9 0.6 14.5 9 7.0 12.3 9 2.5 18.5 9 4.6 18.0 9 6.5 21.0 9 8.0 17.3 9 7.0 16.8 9 10 14.7 9 3.4 11.0 9 2.2

370 9 60 352 9 60 360 9 60 445 9 98 320 9 80 365 9 50 350 9 65 395 9 3 356 9 50 373 9 34 385 9 16 415 9 27 395 9 28 395 9 80 365 9 54 366 9 45

3.0 9 1.4 3.7 9 1.7 3.8 9 1.8 2.6 9 1.0 3.4 9 1.5 3.5 9 1.2 2.7 9 1.0 2.5 9 0.6 2.6 9 1.2 2.6 9 1.0 3.6 9 1.2 5.7 9 1.8 4.0 9 1.3 2.0 9 0.6 2.0 9 0.8 2.3 9 1.0 1.5 9 0.5

14.3 9 5.4 16.5 9 4.2 16.7 9 6.8 22.3 9 7.8 18.8 9 5.4 17.2 9 4.9 15.8 9 4.0 16.9 9 2.4 14.6 9 5.0 16.0 9 4.0 16.3 9 7.0 23.7 9 12 21.4 9 9.0 20.4 9 8.0 15.8 9 6.0 15.6 9 6.7 12.0 9 5.0

390 9 31 390 9 35 405 9 30 420 9 18 395 9 28 393 9 25 392 9 26 391 9 10 396 9 50 415 9 24 387 9 10 410 9 30 400 9 25 420 9 25 412 9 27 420 9 31 500 9 30

Exotic Tree

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Table 4 Phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon content (mg g1) of submerged and free oating macrophytes and aquatic vines/creepers (mean 9 S.D.) Macrophyte type Whole plant P Submerged macrophytes Ceratophyllum demersum -hornwort Potamogeton pectinalis Free oating macrophytes Azolla spp. Water fern Duckweed (Spirodela; Wolfa ) Monocharia cyanea b Pistia stratiotes -water lettucea Sal6inia molesta -water ferna Vines/creepers Alternanthea philoxeroides -alligator weeda Bacopa monniera Ipomoea aquatica Ipomoea diamentinensis Ludwidgia peploides -water primrose Paspalum distichum -water couch Persicaria orientalis a
a b

10.3 9 2.5 4 (n = 1) 7.4 9 0.6 10.5 9 2.9 7.7 9 3.1 7.5 9 2.0 6.2 9 1.8 6.0 9 1.1 4.8 9 1.1 6.4 9 1.2 7.5 9 2.1 5.3 9 2.3 4.1 9 2.0 4.2 9 1.7

27.0 9 6.3 29.3 (n = 1) 40.0 9 4.0 39.6 9 10.3 20.9 9 9.0 30.0 9 7.4 29.0 9 7.4 33.4 9 11.4 30.0 9 11.2 30.7 9 12.4 37.3 9 11.9 32.7 9 12.3 18.6 9 11.0 24.9 9 11.4

384 9 24 385 (n = 1) 421 9 3 389 9 34 345 9 21 320 9 32 366 9 52 400 9 14 381 9 35 392 9 29 342 9 68 395 9 49 415 9 50 416 9 34

Exotic species. Also grow as attached plants.

3.6.3. Floating lea6ed -attached macrophytes The phosphorus and nitrogen content of the water lilies and water ferns (Table 5) was higher than in the emergent macrophytes. Nymphoides indica had particularly high phosphorus bioaccumulation in the roots. The aquatic ferns had similar phosphorus and nitrogen content to the free oating macrophytes. Nymphoides, Ceratopteris and Marsilea produce roots enabling them to remove nutrients from the water column as well as the sediment. 3.7. Comparison of species bioaccumulation between inlet and outlet sections of channels
A total of 34 pairs of data were examined and the only signicant differences were at Cairns for duckweed-inlet (14.5 9 0.7 mg P g 1, 42.6 9 2.7 mg N g 1); outlet (10.1 9 0.8 mg P g 1, 28.3 9 0.9 mg N g 1). At Cairns low nitrogen oxides in the wetland outow (0.1 mg l 1) may have limited nitrogen bioaccumulation in duckweed growing at the outlet. The lack of any other differences between inlet and outlet sections suggest that nutrients are not limiting for other wetland species.

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3.8. Comparison of species bioaccumulation between wetlands

A comparison of six species (Table 6) which occurred in nearly all wetlands showed the lowest leaf nitrogen and phosphorus content at Emu Park, followed by Cairns (for low nitrogen). Pooled data for all species at each wetland (Greenway, 1997) similarly showed the plants at Emu Park had the lowest nutrient bioaccumulation. The lower values at Emu Park suggest less available nitrogen and phosphorus for plant growth, however this is not supported by the water quality data (Table 2). Low loading rate for oxides of nitrogen and efuent concentrations at the Cairns wetland (Table 2) may have limited nitrogen bioaccumulation in comparison to the other wetlands.

3.9. Biomass of plant species at Cairns

Table 7 provides a comparison of plant total biomass (g m 2 DW) of aquatic macrophytes at the Cairns wetland in February 1997 at the time of harvesting, and in June 1997 following 4 months of regrowth; and the harvested biomass (g m 2, g P m 2, g N m 2). Typha had the highest initial total biomass (shoots/rhizomes/roots) of which 64% (1120 g m 2) was harvested i.e. shoots 10 cm above the water level. The harvestable yield of Schoenoplectus and Eleocharis shoots were only 2025% of the Typha shoot biomass. Floating mats of Paspalum (water couch) were totally removed and gave a yield of 860 g m 2, there was no recolonisation of Paspalum. The initial harvest of duckweed (predominantly Spirodela spp.) yielded twice the biomass when growing in open water compared to among the Typha. Total biomass of the emergent species 4 months after the initial harvest was lower in Typha and Schoenoplectus but had a 100% increase in Eleocharis. New
Table 5 Phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon content (mg g1) of oating leaved-attached macrophytes (mean 9 S.D.) Floating leaved- attached Root/Rhizome macrophytes P Water lilies Nymphea capensis a Nymphea gigantea Nymphoides indica Aquatic ferns Ceratopteris thalicoides aquatic fern Marsilea spp. (nardoo)b
a b

Leaf/Stem

7.1 9 0.7 12.1 9 3.7

30.3 9 1.7 19.8 9 6.3 Whole plant Whole plant

300 9 47 4.0 9 1.0 4.2 9 2.0 346 9 12 6.6 9 2.0 8.3 9 1.0 8.1 9 2.5

36.0 9 6.0 24.0 9 8.6 25.8 9 11 30.0 9 9.0 29.4f 9 9.0

367 9 26 364 9 48 366 9 24 390 9 20 378 9 56

Exotic species. Also grows as free oating once established.

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Table 6 A comparison of nutrient content (mg P, mg N) in leaf tissue of selected species from all wetlands Cairns Ingham Townsville Mackay Emu Park Blackall Goondiwindi Wamuran

Species

Typha

Phragmites

Schoenoplectus

Eleocharis

Paspalum

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Duckweed

N P N P N P N P N P N P

2.49 9 0.74 13.8 9 4.8 2.82 9 1.44 14.2 9 4.6 2.93 9 1.22 16.6 9 3.20 3.5 9 1.5 16.0 9 8.0 11.74 9 2.52 36.6 9 7.3

3.82 9 0.86 22.0 9 7.5 2.43 9 0.22 33.1 9 5.4 2.31 9 0.65 16.7 9 3.6 3.36 n1 17.13 n = 1 10.65 9 1.62 47.5 9 7.2

1.84 9 0.90 16.0 9 3.6 2.11 9 0.52 26.0 9 6.2 2.82 9 0.81 16.01 9 1.6 2.83 9 1.0 17.74 9 3.7 3.25 9 1.35 26.5 9 11.5 11.20 9 6.67 46.3 9 16.8

2.42 9 0.43 18.4 9 5.3 2.91 9 0.50 19.8 9 3.4 5.00 9 1.93 23.0 9 12.0 11.4 9 0.82 48.6 9 12.1

1.24 9 0.90 9.0 9 2.5 1.63 9 0.78 23.6 9 4.0 3.86 9 0.97 6.5 9 0.83 2.71 9 0.74 12.0 9 2.1 3.84 9 1.17 15.9 9 7.0 9.05 9 0.78 32.8 9 3.7

2.28 9 0.67 18.2 9 6.6 5.00 9 1.22 23.0 9 11.0 9.93 9 2.6 44.1 9 12.2

1.83 9 0.1 19.0 9 0.7 2.31 9 0.1 30.3 9 1.2 2.54 9 1.6 19.4 9 3.8 4.73 n = 1 24.6 n = 1

2.36 9 0.84 20.8 9 4.7 1.77 9 0.48 27.8 9 5.7

Table 7 Biomass, harvested biomass and nutrient content of initial standing stock (February 1997) and regrowth (June 1997) at Cairns Total biomass (g m2 initial) 1750 9 500 900 9 525 330 9 200 1300 9 700 Harvested biomass (g m2, g N m2, g P m2 initial) Total biomass (g m2 regrowth) Harvested biomass (g m2, g N m2, g P m2 regrowth)

Species

Typha domingensis

Schoenoplectus 6alidus

Eleocharis sphaceolata

300 9 140

1020 9 230

740 9 125 12 9 2 g N 2.2 9 0.4 g P 190 9 136 1.9 9 1.4 g N 0.5 9 0.3 g P 300 9 70 5.7 9 1.3 g N 0.6 9 0.1 g P

Paspalum distichum

860 9 110 18 9 2.4

Duckweed (among Typha )

1120 9 320 12 9 35 g N 2.24 9 0.6 g P 300 9 170 2.1 9 1.2 g N 0.6 9 0.3 g P 230 9 50 1.4 9 1.3 g N 0.6 9 0.1 g P 860 9 110 10.3 9 1.3 g N 2.6 9 0.3 g P 18 9 2.4 no regrowth 22 9 5.0

22 9 5.0

Duckweed (open water)

40 9 10

0.7 9 0.09 g N 0.3 9 0.04 g P 40 9 10

30 9 2.3

0.88 9 0.2 g N 0.33 9 0.1 g P 30 9 2.3

M. Greenway, A. Woolley / Ecological Engineering 12 (1999) 3955

Ceratophyllum

90 9 30

1.5 9 0.37 g N 0.6 9 0.15 g P 90 9 30 2.7 9 0.9 g N 1.5 9 0.5 g P

210 9 70

1.2 9 0.1 g N 0.5 9 0.03g P 210 9 70 6.3 9 2.1 g N 4.6 9 1.5 g P

53

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M. Greenway, A. Woolley / Ecological Engineering 12 (1999) 3955

harvestable shoot biomass in Typha and Schoenoplectus was only 65% of the initial harvest, but 130% for Eleocharis. Duckweed biomass had increased amongst the Typha but decreased in open water. Ceratophyllum had increased to form a dense underwater mat. The rate of new shoot growth was 6 g m 2 d 1 for Typha, 1.6 g m 2 d 1 for Schoenoplectus and 2.5 g m 2 d 1 for Eleocharis. The nutrient content of the new shoot growth was higher than pre-harvest, indicating that cropping the shoots increases nutrient uptake and bioaccumulation.

3.10. Mass balance cairns wetland

From the water quality data-the total amount of N and P entering and leaving the wetland for each 6-month period was calculated. Between August 1996 and February 1997, 6.84 kg P (83% reactive P) and 64.3 kg N (60% NOx) were retained within the wetland. In February 1997 total plant biomass contained 7.33 kg P and 20 kg N. Assuming a 6-month turnover of plant biomass (which is a gross overestimate for species like duckweed), the data indicate that potentially all of the reactive phosphorus and 52% of the nitrogen oxides could have been incorporated into plant biomass.

4. Conclusion These trials in Queensland have demonstrated that constructed free water surface wetlands are a viable option for further improving the quality of secondary sewage efuent by reducing BOD and SS, and with careful design, nitrogen. In general the studies have shown that a wetland with low HLR and long HRT favours efuent polishing. Effective long term phosphorus removal was not achieved. Performance was consistent with that reported for constructed wetlands elsewhere (Reed et al., 1995; Kadlec and Knight, 1996). The quality of efuent from a constructed wetland is limited by the background levels of organic matter, solids and nutrients generated within the wetland. A dual subsurface ow and pond system has been particularly effective at treating wastewater from a single household producing efuent of a quality on a par with secondary sewage treatment. Which ever system is selected, the Queensland experience shows that a wide range of native species can live and thrive in sewage-efuent enriched consructed wetlands. Although emergent species had lower phosphorus and nitrogen tissue content than the free oating, submerged and aquatic creepers, biomass (i.e. nutrient storage capacity in plant tissue) was greater in the emergents. Harvesting shoot biomass in the emergents therefore removes more nitrogen and phosphorus per unit area of wetland. Eleocharis sphacelata responded well to harvesting of the shoots. Schoenoplectus did not produce dense stands of shoots-however this allowed both duckweed and Ceratophyllum to coexist, due to the lack of substantial shading. Such a combina-

M. Greenway, A. Woolley / Ecological Engineering 12 (1999) 3955

55

tion of emergent, free oating and submerged species maximises nutrient removal in free water surface systems and should therefore be encouraged.

Acknowledgements Funding for this work was provided through a joint Grifth University and Queensland Department of Natural Resources Collaborative Grant. John Howdle, Steve Marston, Dave Arbuckle and Alex Watt, Environmental Engineering, Grifth University, analysed the plant samples and provided data for this paper. The comments of two anonomous referees are also acknowledged.

References
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