NON-ABELIAN TENSOR GAUGE THEORY ON LOWER RANK FIELDS

By Spyros Konitopoulos

SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AT NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS ATHENS, GREECE MAY 2009

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL OF APPLIED MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance a thesis entitled Non-Abelian Tensor Gauge Theory on lower rank elds by Spyros Konitopoulos for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Dated: May 2009

Research Supervisor:
Georgios Savvidis

Examing Committee:
George Zoupanos

George Koutsoumbas

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NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS IN COLLABORATION WITH THE NATIONAL CENTER OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DEMOKRITOS
Date: May 2009 Author: Title: Spyros Konitopoulos Non-Abelian Tensor Gauge Theory on lower rank elds Department: School of Applied Mathematical and Physical Sciences Degree: Ph.D. Convocation: May Year: 2009

Signature of Author

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To Giannis Vasilogiorgakis (R.I.P.)

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents Acknowledgements Introduction 1 Basic formulation 1.1 Yang-Mills . . . . . . . . . 1.2 rank-2 tensor (part I) . . . 1.3 Geometrical Interpretation 1.4 rank-2 tensor (part II) . . v vii 1 10 10 19 22 28 31 31 32 33 34 36 37 42 44 48 52 53 58 58 62 63

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - Gauge bosons . . . . . . . . .

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2 Unitarity of the theory at the non-interactive level 2.1 A method for counting the propagating modes of a gauge 2.1.1 The method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Vector Gauge Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Symmetric Tensor Gauge Field . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4 Antisymmetric Tensor Gauge Field . . . . . . . 2.1.5 Rank-2 tensor gauge theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 The Energy-Momentum Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Geometrical representation - Fermions . . . . . . . . . .

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3 Unitarity of the theory at the interactive level-Processes 3.1 Feynman rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 TT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 The Feynman diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Gauge Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Squared Matrix Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

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3.3

3.2.4 Evaluation of Traces 3.2.5 Cross Section . . . . 3.2.6 Helicity Structure . . VV-TT . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Feynman diagrams . 3.3.2 Gauge Invariance . . 3.3.3 Helicity Amplitudes

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67 72 72 77 77 81 84 89 91 92 95 97 101 101 101 102 103 107 107 110 112 114 114 115 115 117 121 124

Conclusions Appendices A Free rank-2 Tensor Gauge Boson Equation Matrix B Elements of Group Theory C Evaluation of Traces D Processes D.1 f f V V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.1 Feynman diagrams-the scattering amplitude D.1.2 Gauge invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.3 Cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 V V V V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.1 Feynman diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.2 Gauge invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.3 Scattering amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.4 Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3 e+ e W + W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3.1 Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3.2 Feynman diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + + D.3.3 e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R eL W W + + D.3.4 eR eL W W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography

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Acknowledgements
First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. G.Savvidy for the pedagogical guidance and support. Without his patience and tolerance I would not be able to get in touch with the Russian-school perspective. In days of cultural crisis, where all aspects of human relations are overwhelmed by a commodity exchange value fetishism, this man realizes a rebirth of the notion of the teacher. The least I can do is to express him my deepest appreciation. Many thanks to Prof. S.Bonanos for letting me use his Mathematica programm for doing tensor algebra calculations. His program was an essential prerequisite for my further programming. The University of Crete has poisoned my brain irreparably. This was the place where the seeds of doubt and method were sown upon me. S.Trahanas played an important role on my decision to focus on theoretical physics, Prof. T.Tomaras he who initiated me in its secrets and P. Ditsas the one who trusted and encouraged me to carry on. I thank them all. People outside the physics community have their share on my present development. I would like to thank E.Karidi (pushed me o the beaten track ), E.Gavra (opened my eyes to self-realization), D.Papaevagelou, D.Zaglis, F.Dilari, Th.Papagergiou for uncovering and illuminating my inner contradictions. Finally, I cannot resist the temptation to attribute my respect to some writers and artists whose inuence was enormous to my cultural and mental evolution. F.Nietzche, K.Marx, M.Bakunin, S.Freud, C.Castoriades, N.Kazantzakis, F.Dostoyevsky, S.Beckett, J.S.Bach, L.W.Beethoven, P.Gabriel, I.Anderson, R.Fripp, Judas Priest, Psychotic Waltz... Demokritos, Athens, Greece May 24, 2009 vii Spyros Konitopoulos

Introduction
For more than 45 years the research in high energy physics has been conducted under the guidance of the gauge principle. Demanding the localization of the global, continuous symmetries of a theory one is straightforwardly led to the introduction of some new vector gauge elds with uniquely determined dynamics. These elds mediate the interactions between the initial fermionic elds in accordance with the normative principles of locality, causality and Lorentz invariance [1, 2]. In the early 70s, a self consistent theory of the elementary particles and their interactions was constructed, named the standard model (SM) [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12]. The basic elements of the theory are the principle of local gauge invariance and the Higgs mechanism [8, 9, 10]. Leptons and quarks are classied in 3 generations in each of which they are eigenstates of 5 irreducible representations of the symmetry group SU (3) SU (2)L U (1)Y . In addition, a complex doublet of scalar elds should accompany the initially, free, massless fermions, giving the vacuum a non-vanishing expectation value. Demanding the theory be locally invariant under the symmetry group SU (3) SU (2)L U (1)Y , gives rise to 12 massless, bosonic elds and uniquely determine their dynamics. They are the agents of the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces. It can be seen, that the initial symmetry is spontaneously broken to SU (3) U (1)em and that the 3 degrees

of freedom which would correspond to the massless Goldstone bosons are absorbed by linear combinations of the SU (2)L U (1)Y gauge elds casting them massive. The Higgs mechanism completes its mission when the initial Lagrangian is supplemented by Yukawa interaction terms which will provide masses to the fermions. One nally ends up with a theory which needs 25 external input parameters to work. Up to energy scales of 100 GeV , the theory is more than successful. Most of the predictions of the model have already been tested (neutral weak interactions, W , Z 0 parameters, top quark etc.)[53]. There is however one piece that escapes the experimental conrmation: The Higgs boson. For perturbation theory to work, the spontaneous symmetry breakdown is expected to occur at the regime of 250 GeV . Hence, it is expected that the mass of the Higgs boson should be less than 1 T eV [16, 17]. Fortunately this lies within the potentials of the LHC and hopefully it will be detected. Despite the experimental conrmations that the model has succeeded, and the fact that there is no experimental evidence against it, there are theoretical arguments that the SM does not provide us with a complete theory of particle physics and their interactions. First of all, gravity escapes the unication scheme. A renormalizable quantum theory of gravity has become a torturing accomplishment due to the divergences the theory exhibits. The theory breaks down at the singularities at energies of the order of Mp 1019 GeV [15]. But even if one stays in lower energy scales, one will confront the so called naturalness problem [16]. This problem rises from the very existence of the fundamental

scalars of the theory. It can be seen that the the Higgs mass receives quadratic divergent contributions from higher order diagrams. This means that the Higgs mass is expected to be of the order of the cut o, above which yet undiscovered physics prevail. But, as it was mentioned above, in order for the perturbation theory to work -small coupling constants- the Higgs mass should be less than 1 GeV . The only way to overcome this problem, within the framework on the SM, is to make some high accuracy assignments (ne tuning) that will drop the value of the Higgss mass down to the preferred energy scale. Along with the naturalness problem comes the hierarchy problem [18, 19]. It seems that something is missing. Something that would give an adequate explanation why there is such a big gap between the energy scale at which the spontaneously symmetry breakdown occurs and the scale at which new physics dominate. One might legitimately guess that that there is a hidden symmetry which, broken in our energy region, gives rise to non-zero, small parameters. Finally, a theory with such a huge parameter space (25 input parameters) cannot fulll ones aesthetic demands. Many questions concerning the choice of the specic pattern, the electric charge quantization etc, remain unanswered. An interesting suggestion beyond the SM is provided by the grand unication theory (GUT)[20]. The theory proposes that above the energy scale of 1015 GeV the symmetry group of the SM is unied to a semi simple group (usually SU (5)). The three interactions with their three coupling constants are combined in one, while the particles are now classied in 2 representations of the symmetry group. It is proposed that the initial gauge symmetry breaks spontaneously at 1015 GeV to the standard model group SU (3) SU (2)L U (1)Y . Despite its magnicent tested prediction of

the weak mixing angle, the theory predicts a proton lifetime of the order of 1031 years, which contradicts with experiment. Another problematic issue of the model is that the running coupling constants do not meet at an exact point, though they come very close at 1014 GeV . The next revolutionary step comes with the advent of Supersymmetry[21, 22]. The theory is motivated by the naturalness and hierarchy problems of the SM. It is suggested that for every SM particle, a Supersymmetric partner should be introduced and that above an energy scale, the world is symmetric under the interchange of ) bosons with fermions. The gauge bosons (S=1) are accompanied with gauginos (S= 1 2 ) with complex scalars (S=0). Self consistence of the and the chiral fermions(S= 1 2 theory demands the introduction of an additional complex scalar doublet, together with their fermionic superpartners (S= 1 ). The role played by the partners is amazing! 2 They contribute in the higher order corrections of the Higgs mass, in such a way that they cancel the quadratic divergences. Now, the value of the Higgs mass drops down to the scale where the spontaneous symmetry breakdown SU (3) SU (2)L U (1)Y SU (2)L U (1)Y occurs, rendering the model natural[23]. Not only does Supersymmetry provide stability and naturalness to the Standard Model, but also corrects the problems encountered in the framework of GUT. The contributions of the Supersymmetric partners to vacuum polarization lead to an accurate unication of the running coupling constants at 1016 GeV . Also, the prediction for the life time of the proton extends to more that 1032 years, thus overcoming the conict with experiment. Many ambitions have been invested to Supersymmetic theories, the greater of

which lies on its local version: Supergravity. It is believed that this is the direction towards the unication of gravity with all other forces. A dierent proposal for a theory of everything comes from string theory. To solve the divergence problem of quantum gravity, it is suggested that the interactions are spread out by means of increasing the dimensions of the elementary particles. Assuming that the structural elements of nature are 1 dimensional objects (strings), a short distance cut-o is provided in harmony with Lorentz invariance and causality [15]. Many models in string theory predict an innite tower of particles of arbitrary high spin in their spectrum [14, 15]. Especially, in the low energy limit of the open string theory with Chan-Paton charges [27], the massless states can be identied with Yang-Mills quanta. It would be interesting if these states would appear in the spectrum of a Quantum Field Theory Lagrangian. This motivates a generalization of Yang-Mills symmetry to include non-Abelian tensor gauge elds[31]. Under such a generalization, Quantum Field Theory is extended to a theory which includes in its description elds of arbitrary high spins. Following the Yang-Mills paradigm, the extended gauge transformations for higher rank elds are suitably chosen, in order to form a closed algebraic structure [31]. Interpreting geometrically the tensor gauge elds as coecients of the expansion of an extended gauge eld over its tangent space, it has been seen that there are two series of gauge invariant Lagrangians, each of which sums up all corresponding invariant Lagrangians of every rank [31]. A similar procedure has been followed in the description of fermionic and bosonic matter tensor elds, making possible an extension of the symmetry breaking mechanism and thus of the electroweak theory to include particles of arbitrary high

spins [31, 33]. It was further seen that the linear combination of the two Lagrangians that describe the free rank-2 tensor gauge bosons, exhibits an enhanced gauge symmetry. In addition to the original gauge transformations of tensor elds, the theory is shown to be symmetric under a complementary transformation for a special choice of the ratio of the weights with which the two gauge invariant Lagrangians participate in the linear combination. It is because of the enhancement of the gauge symmetry that the cancellation of the pure gauge modes is possible [31]. The same program has been followed in the series of Lagrangians that describe elds up to the fourth rank. It has been shown that for a suitable choice of the coecients, the total Lagrangian exhibits an enhancement of the gauge symmetry, a condition which may possibly be proven enough to guarantee the unitarity of the theory [34],[35]. It remains an open subject if the theory so far described is self consistent. Inspired from the complementary gauge symmetry the theory of free gauge elds exhibits, two dual rank-2 Lagrangians have been constructed which are invariant under the full complementary gauge transformations [37]. It has been seen that these two Lagrangians are mapped to the original ones by a dual transformation. Perhaps in a complete theory, one has to include both the original series of gauge invariant Lagrangians and their dual counterparts. On this thesis, we will focus our attention on tensor gauge elds of rank-2. The theory is extensively described and its self-consistence is examined. In the rst section, we present the fundamentals of Tensor Gauge Theory. Gauge principle is generalized to tensor elds of rank-2 and 3 and two series of gauge invariant Lagrangians describing the gauge elds of rank-2 are constructed.

Further, we check the unitarity of the theory on the free level. In previous articles it has been shown that for the special choice of the ratio
g2 g2

= 1, the free theory

(g = 0) exhibits an enhanced gauge symmetry [31]. It is because of this symmetry enhancement that the cancellation of longitudinal modes occurs, allowing the free propagation of three physical, transversal degrees of freedom. Two of them are the polarizations of a symmetric tensor gauge eld of rank-2, which behaves like a particle of spin 2, while the third describes an antisymmetric gauge eld of rank-2, behaving like a scalar. What was not known however, was the fact that the specic choice of the ratio
g2 g2

= 1, far from being arbitrary and imposed externally, is directed by the

Bianchi identities of the free theory [36]. After having specied the value of this ratio, one can determine the number of the physical propagating modes, my the standard methods of gauge xing [31]. Nevertheless, since the number of the physical modes of a gauge theory is an experimentally tested result, and thus independent of the specic choice of the gauge, we considered instructive to develop a general method for counting the propagating modes of a gauge theory which, based on the rank of the free equation matrix, leaves the gauge freedom of the theory unxed. Implementing this method in the case of rank-2 tensor gauge theory, we nally arrive at the same, previously mentioned result [36]. As a next step, the energy momentum tensor for the free 2nd rank tensor gauge eld is constructed, conrming from another point of view the fact that there are three physical propagating modes contributing to the energy of the free eld. Finally, the generalization of the gauge principle to fermions of spin 3/2 is exposed and the full Lagrangian is constructed. In the next section we pass from the free theory to the interactive. Our aim is to

check the unitarity on the interacting level. For this, we focus on the processes of pair production of rank-2, symmetric, tensor gauge bosons, rst through the annihilation of two fermions [44, 45] and next through the annihilation of two vector gauge bosons [46]. In both the processes, to check unitarity, one of the outgoing tensor particles is put in longitudinal polarization leaving all other particles transversal. In the rst case the scattering amplitude indeed vanishes for the choice of the L3/2 coecient f =
g2 . 4

However, in the second process the scattering amplitude does not vanish.

This indicates the fact that contributions of higher rank particles should be added in the rank-2 propagator. In both cases, the cross section for the production of physical, transversal outgoing particles is calculated and the symmetry properties of every contributing helicity combination term are studied. The cross section for the annihilation process where the colliding particles are SM fermions, exhibits a very simple scattering angle dependence: d = 2 C2 (r)C2 (G) sin2 d, , s 64d(r)

Its sin2 behavior is dramatically dierent from from the QED case, where as outgoing particles one has two photons. In that case the cross section maximizes at small angles and has a minimum in perpendicular directions. On the other hand, things bare much resemblance with the case of the standard electroweak theory process, where the outgoing particles are longitudinal Ws. As it is known, the scattering angle dependence of the cross section is just sin2 . The cross section for the annihilation process with two gauge bosons incoming, should be compared to the annihilation process with the same incoming particles, but with two gauge bosons as nal products. The brand new result for the process with 2 tensor gauge particles outgoing is:

2 d = g2

2 (G) 419 76 cos 2 + 9 cos 4 2 C2 d s d(G) 512

As se know, in the Yang-Mills case the scattering favors forward and backward directions, where in the case of rank-2 tensor bosons, preference is shown to perpendicular directions. These results in the context of Tensor Gauge Theory are the main results to be defended on this thesis.

Chapter 1 Basic formulation

On this chapter we present the fundamentals of tensor gauge theory. In section 1.1 we give a brief review of Yang-Mills theory. In section 1.2 the free gauge theory for tensors bosons of the second rank is constructed and a rst guess for the free Lagrangian is made. To determine uniquely the free rank-2 tensor Lagrangian, a geometrical picture of the theory is needed to be presented. This is done in section 1.3 where we nd that the most general Lagrangian which describes free rank-2 tensor gauge bosons is linear combination of two terms. In section 1.4, the coecient of the linear combination is evaluated, with the aid of the Bianchi identities of the theory.

1.1

Yang-Mills

Yang and Mills proposed a generalization of the principle of local gauge invariance, from the Abelian group U (1) to the group SU (2), in an attempt to describe strong interactions [1]. This extension can be made more general to include special unitary groups of arbitrary dimension (SU (N ))[2]. The idea is to represent the fermionic wave function as an N-dimensional multiplet each element of which is a usual 4-component Dirac eld.

10

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= The free fermionic Lagrangian

2 . . . N

(1.1.1)

LF 1/2 = i remains invariant under the global gauge transformation = U ( ) where U ( ) = eig is an element of the group SU (N ) , a are arbitrary constant parameters and ta are the group Lie generators which satisfy the algebra: [ta , tb ] = if abc tc and the Jacobi identity: [ta , [tb , tc ]] + [tb , [tc , ta ] + [tc , [ta , tb ] = 0 (1.1.3) (1.1.2)

Locality demands the constant parameters to be space-time dependent and the symmetry still to hold. This can be achieved via the introduction of a number of d(G)
1

gauge elds Aa . These elds A = Aa ta can be used as a connection to parallel transport vectors inside this isospin, N-dimensional, internal space. The transformation properties of the gauge elds are so chosen that the covariant derivative of D = ( igA ),
1

(1.1.4)

The dimension of the adjoint representation of the group. For SU (N ), d(G) = N 2 1

12

transforms under a gauge transformation the same way that does. (D ) (D ) = U ( )(D ) It can be easily seen that A should transform as: i A = U A U 1 ( U )U 1 g Then the Lagrangian
FB L1/2 = LF 1/2 + L1/2 = i D = i + g A

(1.1.5)

(1.1.6)

(1.1.7)

is locally gauge invariant. Until now the gauge elds appear non-dynamical. In order to become such, a third term must be added to the Lagrangian which carries derivatives of the elds A. The standard way to nd this is to compute the commutator of the covariant derivative on a vector. This must give the analogous Riemann tensor. It can be seen that [D , D ] = igG , where G = A A ig [A , A ], is the eld strength tensor. Since ([D , D ]) = U ( )[D , D ], it is straightforward to show that the eld strength tensor transforms as the connection does but homogenously. G = U ( )G U ( )1 (1.1.9) (1.1.8)

13

Nevertheless, the trace of the product of two strength tensors is gauge invariant. Indeed tr(G G ) = tr(G G ) = tr(G G ). Having normalized the basis elements of the Lie space to unity: tr(ta tb ) = ab , one gets
a tr(G G ) = Ga G

(1.1.10)

The full Yang-Mills Lagrangian is then given as follows: + g A 1 Ga LY M = L1/2 + L1 = i Ga . 4 (1.1.11)

Let us now be more specic in order to reveal some basic properties of the YangMills Lagrangian 1.1.11. First, we focus our attention on the free bosonic part:

1 Ga L1 = Ga 4 where
a abc b c Ga A A , = F + gf

(1.1.12)

or in terms of the Lie generators ta , A = ta Aa , G = ta Ga

G = F ig [A , A ]

14

The innitesimal form of (1.1.6), the gauge transformation under which the Lagrangian is invariant, is:
a abc b c Aa A = + gf

A = ig [A , ],

which induces the homogenous transformation on the eld strength tensor:

abc b Ga G c = gf

G = ig [G , ].

It can be easily checked that the local gauge transformations form a closed algebraic structure. [ , ]A = ig A , where = [, ]. To get the equations of motion one must vary the action over Aa . We see that 1 c Gc L = G a A 2 Aa Gc d d = gf acd (g A g A ) a A Hence, L c = gf acd Ad G Aa Analogously L 1 c Gc = G a ( Aa ) 2 ( A ) Gc ac = (g g g g ) a ( A ) (1.1.15) L ( Aa ) L =0 Aa (1.1.14) (1.1.13)

15

Hence, L = Ga a ( A ) Thus, (1.1.14),(1.1.15),(1.1.16)

abc b c Ga A G = 0 + gf

(1.1.16)

(1.1.17)

Or in terms of the Lie generators ta D G = G ig [A , G ] = 0. Equivalently, (1.1.17) can be rewritten as

a a F = j

(1.1.18)

(1.1.19)

where
a c abc c j = gf abc Ab (Ab G gf A ).

(1.1.20)

The currents in the above equations stem from the fact that Yang-Mills equations are not linear. They manifest that the gauge bosons curry color and are sources of themselves. In an Abelian theory (f abc = 0) this is not the case. Expressed in terms of the As the free bosonic Lagrangian (1.1.12) appears as: 1 a a 1 2 abe cde a b c d b c L1 = F F gf abc ( Aa f A A A A )A A g f 4 4 (1.1.21)

The last two terms give us the Feynman rules for the bosonic self-interactions. The 3-vertex (VVV) is (all momenta inwards):

a,

while the 4-vertex (VVVV) is: a, b,

abcd = V = ig 2

c,

c, q k p a,

16

abc YM = V (k, p, q ) = gf abc F (k, p, q ) =

b, = gf abc (k p) + (p q ) + (q k ) (1.1.22)

f abe f cde ( ) +

d,

+ f ace f bde ( ) + + f ade f bce ( ) (1.1.23)

The propagator of the gauge boson eld can be found by the standard FadeevPopov quantization method [13]. In the Feynman gauge it is:

;ab (k ) = b, = DF

i ab . k2

(1.1.24)

17

Let us take into account the terms of the Lagrangian that include fermions. Now, to get the equations of motion for and Aa , one varies the full Yang-Mills Lagrangian (1.1.11). We need the terms: L c a = gf acd Ad G + g t Aa L = Ga a ( A ) L = i + g A L =0 ( ) Hence for the fermionic eld one has: i + g A = 0 While for the gauge eld:
abc b c ta = 0 Ga A G + g + gf

(1.1.25)

(1.1.26)

or
a a F = j

where
a c abc c a j (A, ) = gf abc Ab (Ab G gf A ) g t .

In addition to the pure bosonic vertices (1.1.22),(1.1.23) the fermion-boson term A gives us the vertex rule: g

a,

= ig ta

(1.1.27)

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The propagator of the pure fermionic eld is the well known:

(k ) = i . =D F k

(1.1.28)

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1.2

rank-2 tensor (part I)

Tensor Gauge theory is constructed under the restrictions posed by the fundamental principle of local gauge invariance. What we need for such a construction is to extend the gauge principle to higher spin gauge elds. On this thesis we will concentrate on the lowest non-trivial tensor gauge elds; those of the 2nd rank. We will see how this constructive procedure works [31, 32]. Actually, to describe the eld A we will also need to introduce an auxiliary 3rd rank tensor gauge eld A . Although the 2nd rank tensor eld have no symmetry properties between its indices, the 3rd rank tensor eld is symmetric under the interchange of its last two indices. The higher eld strength tensors are dened as follows: 2nd-rank eld strength:
a a abc c b c Ga ( Ab , = A A + gf A + A A )

(1.2.1)

or in terms of the Lie generators ta G, = A A ig [A , A ] + [A , A ] 3rd-rank eld strength:

a a abc c b c b c b c Ga ( Ab , = A A + gf A + A A + A A + A A )

= D A D A , (1.2.2)

(1.2.3) or G, = A A ig [A , A ] + [A , A ] + [A , A ] + [A , A ] = D A D A ig [A , A ] + [A , A ] . =

(1.2.4)

20

It should be noted that in the denition of the higher rank eld strength tensors apart from the tensor gauge elds of the same order, lower rank elds are also needed. We now come to the crucial point to dene the gauge transformations for the higher rank tensor gauge elds. They should be dened so as to form a closed algebraic structure. This means that the commutator of two extended gauge transformations should lead to another gauge transformation. To do this, we need to introduce higher
a a rank gauge parameters: The vector = t and the symmetric second rank tensor a a t . We dene the extended gauge transformations as follows: =

A = ig [A , ] A = ig [A , ] + [A , ] A = = ig [A , ] + [A , ] + [A , ] + [A , ] (1.2.5)

It is not hard to see that the above dened extended gauge transformations form a closed algebraic structure. Indeed, the commutator of two gauge transformations acting on a 2nd rank tensor gauge eld is: [ , ]A = ig = ig [A , ] + [A , ] [A , ] ig [A , ]

[, ] + [ , ] ig [A , ([, ] + [ , ])] ig [A , [, ]]

= ig { ig [A , ] ig [A , ] } = ig A This is again a gauge transformation with gauge parameters , which are given by the following expressions: = [, ], = [, ] + [ , ].

The commutator of two gauge transformations acting on a rank-3 tensor gauge

21

eld is: [ , ]A = ig [A , ] + [A , ] + [A , ] + [A , ] = ig [A , ] + [A , ] + [A , ] + [A , ] [, ] + [ , ] + [ , ] + [ , ] =

ig [A , ([, ] + [ , ] + [ , ] + [ , ])] ig [A , ([, ] + [ , ])] ig [A , ([, ] + [ , ])] ig [A , [, ]] = ig { ig [A , ] ig [A , ] ig [A , ] ig [A , ] } = = ig A , where = [, ], = [, ] + [ , ], = [, ] + [ , ] + [ , ] + [ , ]. =

Note that the gauge parameters are not separately closed on each order. This happens only for the lowest, Yang-Mils, case. As we depart from this, we see that the parameters of a given order mix not only between themselves but also with those of lower orders. The gauge transformations (1.2.5) induce the homogenous gauge transformations on the eld strength tensors.
abc c b c Ga ( Gb , = gf , + G )

G, = ig [G , ] + [G, , ]

(1.2.6)

abc c b c b c b c ( Gb Ga , = gf , + G, + G, + G )

G, = ig [G , ] + [G, , ] + [G, , ] + [G, , ]

(1.2.7)

22

What remains now is to nd the Lagrangian which describes the dynamics of the 2nd rank tensor gauge eld. One might guess that the most general one is the following: 1 a a 1 a L2 = Ga , G, G G, 4 4 (1.2.8)

Indeed it can be easily checked that the above Lagrangian remains invariant under the gauge transformations (1.2.6) and (1.2.7). However, we will prove that (1.2.8) is not the most general Lagrangian that can be constructed out of the eld strengths G, and G, . To do this, a geometrical picture of the above construction is needed [31, 33, 36].

1.3

Geometrical Interpretation - Gauge bosons

We can think of the tensor gauge elds A , A , A , ... as x-dependent coecients appearing in the expansion of the extended gauge eld A (x, e) over the tangent vector e [28, 29, 30].

A (x, e) =
s=0

1 a A (x)La e1 . . . es s! 1 ...s

(1.3.1)

The same holds for the eld strengths Ga a ...s .

G (x, e) =
s=0

1 a G,1 ...s (x)La e1 . . . es s!

(1.3.2)

The extended gauge eld A (x, e) is the connection, while the eld strength G (x, e) the curvature tensor on an extended vector bundle X, with a structure group G the elements of which U ( ) = eig(x,e) can be parametrized through the gauge parameters
a . These can similarly be considered as appearing in the expansion of the big 1 ...s

23

(x, e) over the tangent vector e .

(x, e) =
s=0

1 a (x)La e1 . . . es s! 1 ...s

(1.3.3)

The extended algebra space is spanned by the innite many generators La 1 ...s = La e1 . . . es , which obey the commutation relations:
b abc c [L a L1 ...s 1 ...r 1 ...s , L1 ...r ] = if

(1.3.4)

We will now prove that G (x, e) = A A ig [A , A ]

A A ig [A , A ] =

=
s=0

1 a a ( Aa 1 ...s A1 ...s )L e1 . . . es s! 1 a a b A1 ...s Ab 1 ...r [L , L ]e1 . . . es e1 . . . er = s!r!

ig
s,r

=
s=0

1 a a ( Aa 1 ...s A1 ...s )L e1 . . . es s!

ig
s

1 s!

n k

b a b Aa 1 ...k Ak+1 ...s [L , L ]e1 . . . ek ek+1 . . . es =

k=0

=
s=0

1 a ( Aa 1 ...s A1 ...s ) + s!
s

+ gf

abc k=0

n k

c a Ab 1 ...k Ak+1 ...s L e1 . . . es

= (1.3.5)

=
s=0

1 a G La e1 . . . es = G (x, e) s! ,1 ...s

The extended covariant derivative is dened as: D = ig A

24

Now we see that [D , D ] = [ ig A , ig A ] = ig A + ig A g 2 [A , A ] = = ig A A ig [A , A ] = ig G (1.3.6)

The operators D , D , D obey the Jacobi identity: [D , [D , D ]] + [D , [D , D ]] + [D , [D , D ]] = 0, which with the aid of (1.3.6) is transformed into the generalized Bianchi identity [D , G ] + [D , G ] + [D , G ] = 0. Let us now expand equation (1.3.7) over e up to linear terms. We have, [ igA igA e , G + G, e ] + cyc.perm. + O(e2 ) = 0 In zero order the above equation gives the standard Bianchi identity in YM theory: [D , G ] + [D , G ] + [D , G ] = 0, where D = igA . The linear term in e gives: [D , G, ] ig [A , G ] + [D , G, ] ig [A , G ] + [D , G, ] ig [A , G ] = 0 (1.3.8) Using the explicit form of the operators D , G and G, one can independently check the last identity and get convinced that it holds. Now, if we expand the above equation over g, the zeroth order gives the Bianchi identity for the eld strength tensor F, : F, + F, + F, = 0. (1.3.9) (1.3.7)

25

We dene the extended gauge transformation of the extended gauge eld A (x, e) = U ( )A (x, e)U 1 ( ) i U ( ) U 1 ( ) g

The gauge transformation over the A (x, e) elds induces the corresponding homogenous gauge transformation on the eld strength tensors G (x, e). Indeed, G (x, e) = A A ig [A , A ] = = ( U )A U 1 + U ( A )U 1 + U A ( U 1 ) ( U )A U 1 U ( A )U 1 U A ( U 1 ) i ( U )U 1 + ( U )( U 1 ) ( U )U 1 ( U )( U 1 ) g i i ig U A U 1 ( U )U 1 , U A U 1 ( U )U 1 = g g = U ( A A )U 1 ig (U A A U 1 U A A U 1 ) + + i ( U ) U 1 ( U ) U 1 + ( U )U 1 U 1 ( U )U 1 U 1 = g (1.3.10)

= U ( A A ig [A , A ])U 1 = U G U 1 For innitesimal transformations: G = (1 + ig )G (1 ig ) = G + ig G ig G G = ig [G , ]

(1.3.11)

a c c [Lb , Lc ] = gf bca b G La La G = ig b G c a G = gf acb b G

(1.3.12)

Similarly, A = ig [A , ] (1.3.13)

26

Expanding (1.3.13) one can compute term by term the gauge transformations of the higher rank tensor elds and reproduce the ones dened in (1.2.5). Ineed, 1 a a a A = Aa + ( A )e + ( A )e e + . . . L 2 1 a a = a + ( )e + ( )e e + . . . La 2 (1.3.14)

(1.3.15)

[A , ] = gf abc +

c b c b c Ab + (A + A )e +

1 b c c b c b c a (A + Ab + A + A )e e + . . . L 2 (1.3.16)

For each order we have the equation for the gauge transformation of the tensor eld of the corresponding rank.
a abc b c Aa A , = + gf a abc c b c Aa (Ab = + gf + A ), a abc c b c b c b c Aa (Ab = + gf + A + A + A ).

(1.3.17)

In a similar way we can obtain the homogenous gauge transformation induced on the eld strengths (1.2.6), (1.2.7). We can now form invariant Lagrangians:
a a L (x, e) = G G

(1.3.18)

Indeed,
a c a c L = gf acb b (G G + G G )=0

27

Expanding L(x, e) to orders of e we can nd invariant Lagrangians for every rank. We are interested in Lagrangians describing 2nd rank tensors. So we see:
a Ga L (x, e) = G

s=0

1 (L )1 ...s (x)e1 . . . es = s!

s=0

1 s!

s k

a Ga ,1 ...k G,k+1 ...s e1 . . . es

k=0

1 (2) (0) (1) L + L,1 e1 + L,1 2 e1 e2 + . . . = 2

a a a a a = Ga G + (G G,1 + G,1 G )e1 +

1 a a a a a a a Ga G,1 2 + G,1 G,2 + G,2 G,1 + G,1 2 G e1 e2 2

(1.3.19)

Comparing the terms, we see that:

a a a a a a a L,1 2 = Ga G,1 2 + G,1 G,2 + G,2 G,1 + G,1 2 G (2)

(1.3.20)

Since we need scalar Lagrangians, we have to contract the indices. There are 15 ways of contracting them. Nevertheless, there are only two independent scalar Lagrangians which we call: 1 a a 1 a a LI 2 = G, G, G G, 4 4 and 1 a 1 a 1 a a a a LII 2 = G, G, + G, G, + G G, 4 4 2 (1.3.22) (1.3.21)

Hence, the Lagrangian which describes the dynamics of the free rank-2 tensor gauge eld must be a linear combination of the above Lagrangians:
II L2 = g2 LI 2 + g2 L2

(1.3.23)

28

1.4

rank-2 tensor (part II)

We are now ready to examine the properties of the rank-2 tensor Lagrangian (1.3.23). It will be seen that the primary constraints of the gauge system -Bianchi identities(1.3.9) will determine the ratio of the coecients
g2 g2

[36]. Further, this particular

choice of the ratio, as dictated by the zeroth order expansion over g of the Bianchi identity (1.3.8), enhances the gauge symmetry at the free level and makes possible the cancellations of all the negative norm states. In the previous section it was seen that the Lagrangian which describes the dynamics of the rank-2 tensor gauge boson is: 1 a a g2 1 a 1 a 1 a a 1 a a G, Ga L2 = Ga , G, G G, + , + G, G, + G G, 4 4 g2 4 4 2 (1.4.1) Let us nd the Euler-Lagrange equations for the rank-2 tensor gauge eld Aa . that stem from this Lagrangian. We see that Gb =0 ( Aa ) , Gb , =0 ( Aa ) L2 ( Aa ) L2 =0 Aa (1.4.2)

b Gb F, , = = ( ) ab a ) ( Aa ) ( A

(1.4.3)

Gb Gb Gb L2 1 b 1 g2 , , , b b = G + G + G , , , a ) a ) a ( Aa ) 2 ( A 2 g ( A ( A 2 ) = Ga , 1 g2 a a a (G + Ga , + G, + G, ) 2 g2 ,

= (1.4.4)

29

Just like in Yang-Mills case, the equations of motion that describe the rank-2 tensor gauge boson are not linear. We isolate all the g-terms which contribute to the sourceself current on the right hand side of the equation.

a F,

1 g2 a a a a a ( F, + F, + F, + F, ) = J (g ). 2 g2

(1.4.5)

Now, let us ignore the self-interactions, taking g = 0. There are two free indices in
a a a a + + F, + F, and ( F, equation (1.4.5). It consists of two parts: F, a II F, ), which arise from LI 2 and L2 respectively. The derivatives, over the rst

free index , of both terms in the equation are equal to zero separately. Indeed, due
a to the antisymmetric properties of the eld strength tensor F, under the exchange

of and , we have
a F, = 0,

as well as
a a a a { F, + F, + F, + F, } = 0.

What about the second index ? Here the cancellation is not that trivial. Let us take the derivative over of the left-hand side of the equation (1.4.5), We see that
a F, = 0,

as well as
a a a a a a a { F, + F, + F, + F, } = { F, + F, + F, } = 0.

Thus, it is not obvious to verify the cancellation alone from the antisymmetric properties of the eld strength tensor. However, let us take advantage of the Bianchi

30

identities (1.3.9) derived in the previous section. Taking the derivative of the Bianchi identity over and setting = we get 2 F, + F, + F, 0 Hence, with the aid of (1.4.6) we get
a 0 = F,

(1.4.6)

1 g2 a a a ( F, + 2 F, + F, )= 2 g2 (1.4.7)

g2 a F, g2

a For arbitrary tensors F, the above equation implies: g2 = g2 . II Hence, the Bianchi identity forces LI 2 and L2 to appear with the same weight in

the linear combination of L2 .

1 1 a a 1 a 1 a 1 a a a a a L2 = Ga , G, G G, + G, G, + G, G, + G G, . 4 4 4 4 2 (1.4.8)

Chapter 2 Unitarity of the theory at the non-interactive level

Now that we have the nal form of the Lagrangian which describes the dynamics of the rank-2 tensor gauge boson, we can study its properties. Our rst task will be to check the unitarity of the theory at the free level (g = 0). We will see that at the non-interactive level, the theory is endowed with an enhanced gauge symmetry [31]. It is because of this enhancement that the negative norm states do not appear in the experimentally testable quantities [36].

2.1

A method for counting the propagating modes of a gauge theory

Before we begin the study of the properties of the free rank-2 tensor gauge theory, it will be instructive to present a general method for counting the propagating modes of a gauge theory. In the bibliography this is usually done in a straightforward gaugexing approach. Nevertheless, when the number of degrees of freedom becomes large such a procedure becomes rather cumbersome. A general, gauge xing independent method was considered an essential missing piece of the bibliography and we present 31

32

it here.

2.1.1

The method

The vector space of independent solutions of a system of equations crucially depends on the rank of the equation matrix. If the matrix operator H , the equation matrix of a free gauge theory in momentum space, has dimension d d and its rank is rankH = r, then the vector space has the dimension N = d r. Because the matrix operator H (k ) explicitly depends on the momentum k , its rankH = r also depends on momenta and therefore the number of independent solutions N depends on momenta N (k ) = d r(k ) . (2.1.1)

Analyzing the rankH of the matrix operator H one can observe that it depends on
2 2 = 0 - o mass-shell momenta - the . When k the value of momentum square k 2 = 0 - on mass-shell momenta vector space consists of pure gauge elds. When k

the vector space consists of pure gauge elds and propagating modes. Therefore the number of propagating modes can be calculated from the following relation of propagating modes = N (k )|k2 =0 N (k )|k2 =0 = rankH |k2 =0 rankH |k2 =0 . (2.1.2) Let us consider for illustration some important examples.

33

2.1.2

Vector Gauge Field

The kinetic term of Lagrangian which describes the propagation of free vector gauge eld is 1 K = F F 4 and the corresponding equation of motion in momentum space is
H e = (k 2 + k k )e = 0,

(2.1.3)

(2.1.4)

where A = e exp (ikx). We can always choose the momentum vector in the third direction k = (, 0, 0, k ) and the matrix operator H takes the form k 2 0 0 k 0 2 k2 0 0 H = . 2 2 0 0 k 0 2 k 0 0 If 2 k 2 = 0, the rank of the 4-dimensional matrix H is rankH |2 k2 =0 = 3 and the number of independent solutions is 4-3=1. As one can see from the relation H (k )k = 0 this solution is proportional to the momentum e = k = (, 0, 0, k ) and is a pure-gauge eld. This is a consequence of the gauge invariance of the theory e e + ak . If 2 k 2 = 0, then the rank of the matrix drops, rankH |2 k2 =0 = 1, and the number of independent solutions increases: 4-1=3. These three solutions of equations (2.1.4) are 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 (2) = = , e = , e(1) , 0 1 2 0 1 0 0

gauge) e(

34

from which the rst one is a pure gauge eld ( k ), while the remaining two are the physical modes, perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation. The general solution at 2 k 2 = 0 will be a linear combination of these three eigenvectors:
(2) e = ak + c1 e(1) + c2 e ,

where a, c1 , c2 are arbitrary constants. We see that the number of propagating modes is rankH |2 k2 =0 rankH |2 k2 =0 = 3 1 = 2, as it should be.

2.1.3

Symmetric Tensor Gauge Field

The free gravitational eld is described in terms of a symmetric second-rank tensor eld h and is governed by the Einstein and Pauli-Fierz equation: 2 h h h + h + ( h 2 h ) = 0, which is invariant with respect to the gauge transformations h = + , (2.1.6) (2.1.5)

that respects the symmetry properties of A . The corresponding matrix operator is: 1 2 H (k ) = { ( + )}k k k k k + 2 1 + ( (2.1.7) k k + k k + k k + k k ) 2 and is a 10 10 matrix in four-dimensional space-time with the property H = H = H = H .

35

(k ) is equal to If 2 k 2 = 0, the rank of the 10-dimensional matrix H

rankH |2 k2 =0 = 6 and the number of independent solutions is 10 6 = 4. These four symmetric solutions are pure-gauge tensor elds. Indeed, if again we choose the coordinate system such that k = (, 0, 0, k ), then one can nd the following four linearly independent 2 0 0 0 0 0 e = 0 0 0 0 0 0 solutions: 0 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 2 k 0 k

0 0 k 0 , 0 0 0 0 0

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 k

2 0 0 k 0 0 k

0 , k 0

0 0 0 , 0 0 0 0 0 0 (2.1.8)

pure-gauge eld solutions of the form (2.1.6) e = k + k as one can see from the relation
H (k )(k + k ) = 0.

(2.1.9)

When 2 k 2 = 0, then the rank of the matrix H (k ) drops and is equal to rankH |2 k2 =0 = 4. This leaves us with 10 4 = 6 solutions. These are the four pure-gauge solutions (2.1.6) and two additional symmetric solutions representing propagating modes: the helicity states of the graviton 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 (1) (2) e , e = = 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0

(2.1.10)

1 0 . 0 0 0 0

Thus the general solution of the equation on mass-shell is: e = k + k + c1 e + c2 e ,

(1) (2)

36

where c1 , c2 are arbitrary constants. We see that the number of propagating modes is rankH |2 k2 =0 rankH |2 k2 =0 = 6 4 = 2, as it should be.

2.1.4

Antisymmetric Tensor Gauge Field

The antisymmetric second-rank tensor eld B is governed by the equation [39, 40, 41, 42]: 2 B B + B = 0 which is invariant with respect to the gauge transformations B = , (2.1.12) (2.1.11)

that respects the symmetry properties of B . The corresponding matrix operator is: H (k ) = 1 2 ( )k 2 1 ( k k k k + k k k k ) 2

(2.1.13)

and is 6 6 matrix in four-dimensional space-time with the property H = H = H = H .

If 2 k 2 = 0, the rank of the 6-dimensional matrix H (k ) is equal to

rankH |2 k2 =0 = 3 and the number of independent solutions is 6 3 = 3. These three antisymmetric solutions are pure-gauge elds. Indeed, in the coordinate system k = (, 0, 0, k ), one can nd the following three 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e , = 0 0 k 0 0 0 0 0 k 0 0 k 0 solutions: 0 0 k 0 , 0 0 0 1

0 0 1

0 0 0 , (2.1.14) 0 0 0 0 0 0

37

pure-gauge elds of the form (2.1.12) e = k k as one can see from the relation
H (k )(k k ) = 0.

(2.1.15)

When 2 k 2 = 0, then the rank of the matrix H (k ) drops and is equal to rankH |2 k2 =0 = 2. This leaves us with 6 2 = 4 solutions. These are the three puregauge solutions (2.1.12) and the antisymmetric solution representing the propagating mode: the helicity zero state e
(A)

0 0

(2.1.16)

0 0 1 0 = . 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Thus on mass-shell the general solution of the equation is: e = k k + c3 e , where c3 is arbitrary constant. We see that the number of propagating modes is rankH |2 k2 =0 rankH |2 k2 =0 = 3 2 = 1. After this parenthetic discussion we shall turn to the tensor gauge theory.
(A)

2.1.5

Rank-2 tensor gauge theory

We begin with the pure kinetic term of the 2-rank bosonic Lagrangian. The coupling constant is set to zero (g = 0) and all all elds of rank other than 2 are ignored. We have: 1 a 1 a 1 a a a a K = F, F, + F, F, + F, F, . 4 4 4 (2.1.17)

38

We notice here that apart from the the usual gauge symmetry
a Aa =

the theory is also invariant under the complementary gauge transformation Aa = a .

a Indeed, the eld strength tensor F, transforms with respect to these transforma-

tions as follows:
a F, = 0, a a F a , = ( ).

(2.1.18)

Therefore the kinetic term K is obviously invariant with respect to the rst group of gauge transformations ( K = 0), but it is less trivial to see that it is also invariant . The transformation of with respect to the complementary gauge transformation K is K = 1 F a ( a a ) + 1 F a ( a a ) + 1 F a ( a a ) = 2 , 2 , 2 , 1 a 1 a a a a F, + F, ( ) (2.1.19) = 2 2 where we combined the rst, the second and the forth terms and used the fact that the third term is identically equal to zero. Just from the symmetry properties of the eld strength tensor it is not obvious to see why the rest of the terms are equal to zero. Nevertheless, we can use the g-zeroth order Bianchi identities (1.3.9) for the
a eld strength tensor F, . We use the identity in the form

a a a F, + F, + F, = 0.

(2.1.20)

39

Ignoring total divergence terms, equation (2.1.19) is equivalent to

K = 1 ( F a ) a + ( F a )( a a ) , , 2 Which with the aid of (2.1.20) can be shown to nullify.

(2.1.21)

transThis demonstrates the invariance of the action with respect to the and formations dened by (1.3.17) and (2.1.18) when g2 = g2 . Hence the free Lagrangian (2.1.17) is invariant under the general gauge transformation:
a a a a Aa A = A + + .

(2.1.22)

Now the question is the following. Is this enhanced gauge symmetry enough to guarantee the the self consistence of the theory? Is it enough to guarantee that the propagating modes it predicts are physical? To answer that we have to solve the equations of motion and study the solutions. As we have seen in the previous section, the equations of motion for the free rank-2 bosonic Lagrangian (g = 0) are:

1 a a a a a F, ( F, + F, + F, + F, ) = 0. 2 Or in terms of the As: 1 a 1 a 1 a a 2 Aa Aa A A A A 2 2 2 1 a 1 a 2 a Aa A + ( A A ) = 0 2 2

(2.1.23)

+ (2.1.24)

Transforming the above equation to momentum space we get:

H (k ) Aa = 0,

(2.1.25)

40

(k ) is a matrix operator quadratic in momentum k . It has the following where H

form: 1 1 2 H (k ) = ( + + )k + k k + k k 2 2 1 ( k k + k k + k k + k k ), 2 with the property that H = H . The matrix operator (2.1.26), in four-dimensional space-time is a 1616 matrix. In the reference frame, where k = (, 0, 0, k ), it has the form presented on Appendix A.
If 2 k 2 = 0, the rank of the 16-dimensional matrix H (k ) is equal to

(2.1.26)

rankH |2 k2 =0 = 9 and the number of linearly independent solutions is 16 9 = 7 [36]. These seven solutions are pure-gauge tensor potentials of the form e = k + k , e = 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (2.1.27) 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 , , 0 0 0 0 0 2 k 0 0 0 k k 0 0 0 0 0 0 k 0 , , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 , , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 k 0 0 k 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (2.1.28) 0 0 k 0 0 0 0

as one can get convinced from the relation

H (k )(k + k ) = 0,

(2.1.29)

which follows from the gauge invariance of the action and can also be checked explicitly.

41

When 2 k 2 = 0, then the rank of the matrix H (k ) drops and is equal to rankH |2 k2 =0 = 6. This leaves us with 16 6 = 10 solutions. These include the seven pure-gauge potentials (2.1.28), (2.1.27) plus three new solutions representing the physical propagating modes: 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 (1) (2) e = , e = 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 , eA = 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (2.1.30)

Thus the general solution of the equation on mass-shell is: e = k + k + c1 e + c2 e + c3 e ,

(1) (2) (A)

(2.1.31)

where c1 , c2 , c3 are arbitrary constants. We see that the number of propagating modes is three rankH |2 k2 =0 rankH |2 k2 =0 = 9 6 = 3. These are propagating modes of helicity-two ( = 2) and helicity-zero = 0 charged gauge bosons [31]. Indeed, if we make a rotation around the z-axis 1 0 0 0 0 cos sin 0 = , 0 sin cos 0 0 0 0 1 we shall get e(1) 0 0 0 0 e(2) 0 0 0 0

0 cos 2 sin 2 0 = e(1) T = , 0 sin 2 cos 2 0 0 0 0 0

0 sin 2 cos 2 0 = e(2) T = . 0 cos 2 sin 2 0 0 0 0 0

42

Therefore the rst two solutions describe helicity = 2 states. On the other hand, the third, antisymmetric solution remains invariant under a Lorentz transformation, therefore it describes a helicity-zero state. This result can also be derived from the consideration of the equations of motion for the symmetric and antisymmetric parts of the tensor gauge eld Aa , as it was done in [31]. Indeed, one can observe that for the symmetric part of the tensor gauge elds Aa the equation reduces to the free equation of gravity [39], which describes the propagation of massless tensor gauge bosons with two physical polarizations: the = 2 helicity states. For the antisymmetric part of the tensor gauge elds Aa the equation reduces to the equation which describes the propagation of massless boson with one physical polarization: the = 0 helicity state [40].

2.2

Propagator

In the previous section we saw that the equation matrix for the pure kinetic part of the rank-2 tensor bosonic Lagrangian is:

1 1 1 2 H, = ( + + )k + g2 2 2 + k + k k k 1 ( + k + k k k k k + k k ) 2 (2.2.1)

This can be decomposed into its symmetric, under the interchange ( ), and antisymmetric parts.

43

1 1 S 2 H, + )k + 2 (k ) = ( g2 4 1 + ( k + k + k k ) k k + k k 4 1 ( + k k k k ) 2 1 A H (k ) = g2 , 1 2 3 ( )k + 4 1 + ( k + k k ) k k k k k 4

(2.2.2)

(2.2.3)

Since, the matrix H is singular, gauge xing is essential in the computation of the propagator. A convenient gauge is the following: 1 a A a A = 0, 2 In this gauge one gets: 1 1 S,f ix 2 H, + )k (k ) = ( g2 4 1 A,f ix 1 2 H, ) k (k ) = 3 ( g2 4 (2.2.5) 1 a Aa A = 0 2 (2.2.4)

(2.2.6)

It is remarkable that the antisymmetric component of H comes with a factor of 3 [46]. In the next section the energy-momentum tensor of the rank-2 tensor theory will be given [36]. There we will see this factor appears as the weight of the helicity zero quantum in the total energy of the rank-2 eld. The equation that denes the propagator is:

f ix H (k )DF, , (k ) = i ,

(2.2.7)

44

from which we nd:

a,

k We see that

,;ab DF (k ) =

i 3g2 k2

(4 + 2 3 ) ab

(2.2.8)

This can be decomposed into a symmetric and an antisymmetric part:

,;ab b, = DF (k ) =

1 i ( ) ( + ) + 2 g2 k 3 (2.2.9)

i S,f ix S H ( k ) D ( k ) = ( + ) F, , , 2 i A,f ix A H ( k ) D ( k ) = ( ) F, , , 2

(2.2.10)

(2.2.11)

2.3

The Energy-Momentum Tensor

We would like to consider the contribution of the general solution (2.1.31) into the energy-momentum of the tensor gauge eld theory. This will test from another point of view the unitarity of the theory [36]. One can expect that only transverse propagating modes e c1 e + c2 e + c3 e ,
(1) (2) (A)

(2.3.1)

45

will contribute to the energy-momentum of the gauge elds and that the longitudinal, pure gauge elds, e k + k , will have no contribution. The free Lagrangian has the form (2.1.17): 1 a 1 a 1 a a a a + F, + F, F, F, F, L = F, 4 4 4 and the equation of motion for the A eld are (2.1.23): 1 a a a a a F, ( F, + F, + F, + F, )=0 2 By denition, the energy momentum tensor for the A eld is: T = A In order to calculate the term the eld strength tensor: F, = ( ) , ( A ) hence it is easy to see that 1 1 L = F, + (F, F, ) + (F, F, ) ( A ) 2 2 and nally get: 1 T = A F, + F, F, + 4 1 1 A (F, F, ) F, F, + + 2 4 1 1 ( A F, A F, ) F, F, + 2 4 (2.3.6) L L ( A ) (2.3.5) (2.3.4) (2.3.3) (2.3.2)

L ( A )

we need the expression for the derivative of

46

With the aid of (2.3.4) one can compute the derivative of the energy-momentum tensor T over its second index and demonstrate that it is zero: T = 0. (2.3.7)

The energy-momentum tensor is not uniquely dened because one can add any term of the form T T + where = without changing its basic property (2.3.7) and the total fourmomentum of the system P = T0 dV. (2.3.8)

We can use this freedom to express T solely in terms of the eld strength tensor F, . Choosing 1 = A F, (A F, + A F, + A F, + A F, ), 2 which fullls the property = , and using (2.3.4) we can get that 1 = F, A (F, A + F, A + F, A + F, A ). 2 (2.3.10) The sum of (2.3.6) and (2.3.10) gives the nal form of the energy momentum tensor expressed in terms of eld strength tensors 1 T = F, F, + F, F, + 4 1 1 (F, F, + F, F, ) F, F, + + 2 4 1 1 + (F, F, + F, F, ) F, F, . 2 4 (2.3.9)

(2.3.11)

47

It is easy to see that the energy-momentum tensor is traceless T = T = 0 (2.3.12)

as it should be in a massless and scale invariant theory. As it is also obvious from the nal expression it is not symmetric T = T . This only means that it can not be used for the calculation of angular momentum of the elds (see paragraph 32 and paragraph 96 of [43]. Now we can calculate the contribution of the general solution (2.1.31) into the energy and momentum of the free gauge eld. First of all we can nd that F, = i(k e + k e ) where e is a general solution (2.1.31)
(2) (A) e = k + k + c1 e(1) + c2 e + c3 e .

Using the following orthogonality relations: k k = 0,

(i) (j ) (i) (j )

k e = k e = 0

e e = e e = ij , f or i, j = 1, 2 e e = 1, e e = 1 e e = e e = 0, i = 1, 2, it is straightforward to see that 1 2 2 T = k k (c2 1 + c2 + 3 c3 ) 2 (2.3.13)

(A) (i) (A) (i) (A) (A) (A) (A)

Thus, we see that only the transverse propagating modes contribute to the energymomentum of the eld. As expected no pure gauge elds appear in the expression

48

(2.3.13). An interesting remark is the factor of three which accompanies the energy contribution of the antisymmetric eld. As we stated before, this coecient owes its existence in the form of the T-propagator derived in the previous section (2.2.9).

2.4

Geometrical representation - Fermions

The fermion spinor-tensor elds 1 ...s belong to the same representation of the compact Lie group G and are considered to appear in the expansion of the extended fermion eld i (x, e) over the unit tangent vector e [33].

i (x, e) =
s=0

1 (x)1 ...s e1 . . . es s!

(2.4.1)

Under the extended gauge group with elements U ( ) = eig(x,e) the elds are transformed as: (x, e) (x, e) = U ( )(x, e), (2.4.2)

Innitesimally, the transformation which fermions undergo, is coupled to the transformation of the gauge elds. = ig , A = ig [A , ] (2.4.3)

Expanding the gauge equation (2.4.3), term by term, one can read out the transformations induced on every fermion eld of every rank. The transformations are: = igLa a ,
a = igLa ( a + ), a a a = igLa ( a + + + ).

(2.4.4)

49

The Dirac Lagrangian, LF (x, e) = i D remains invariant under such transformations. Indeed, (D ) = ( ig A ) = = ( ) ig ( A ) ig A = ig ( ig A ) = = ig D Hence, (LF (x, e)) = ()i D + i (D ) = 0 (2.4.7) (2.4.6) (2.4.5)

On expanding the extended Lagrangian density over e on can get the gauge

50

invariant Lagrangian density of every rank.

LF (x, e) =
s=0

1 ... e . . . es s! 1 s 1 1 ... e . . . eq q! 1 q 1

i ig
r=0

1 a A1 ...r La e1 . . . es r!

q =0

+ e + 1 e e + . . . 2 1 2 1 2 1 i ig A + A e + A1 2 e1 e2 + . . . 2 1 + e + 1 2 e1 e2 + . . . = 2

= O(0) + O(1) + 1 ( igA ) ig (A + A ) ig A + + i 2 2 2 1 + i ( igA ) + i ( igA ) 2 ig i A + 1 i ( igA ) e e i A + 2 2 +O(3) + . . . L, =

F,(2)

1 (i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + 2 (i + gA ) + g A + g A + + A + g A + g A +g (2.4.8)

To get scalar Lagrangians the indices must be contracted in pairs. There are two ways of doing this: 1 1 F,(2) LI 3/2 = L = (i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + 2 2 1 A A + g A + g +g (2.4.9) 2

51

LII 3/2 = L, =

F,(2)

1 2

(i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + + (i + gA ) + + A + g A + g A + g A + + g A + g (2.4.10)

Hence, the total fermionic Lagrangian for spin- 3/2 fermions is a linear combination of the above two Lagrangians:
II L3/2 = f1 LI 3/2 + f2 L3/2

(2.4.11)

Since in the case of the fermionic elds there are no Bianchi identities that would determine the ratio
f1 , f2

for reasons of simplicity, in what follows we shall assume

f2 = 0, so that f1 = f .

Chapter 3 Unitarity of the theory at the interactive level-Processes

Up to now, we have checked the self-consistency of the lower rank tensor gauge theory in the absence of interactions. As shown in the previous chapter, the theory which describes the dynamics of the rank-2 tensor gauge bosons respects unitarity at the free level (g = 0) and predicts 3 physical propagating modes. As a next step we confront the gauge invariance of the theory at the interacting level (g = 0). A straightforward way to examine gauge invariance and hence unitarity, is to consider the full theory up to rank-2 tensor bosons and spin 3/2 fermion elds and study scattering processes. On this thesis two processes will be thoroughly studied. That of the production of two tensor gauge bosons of helicity 2 via the annihilation of 2 spin 1/2 fermions [44, 45], and that of the production of the same particles via the annihilation of two Yang-Mills vector gauge bosons[46]. To check the consistency of the theory, the scattering amplitudes of both processes will be calculated with one external particle in longitudinal polarization. It is expected that the gauge invariance of the theory will force both the amplitudes to vanish. After this purely theoretical test, the scattering cross sections for both processes will be calculated and compared with those of the

52

53

corresponding, more familiar QCD and Standard model results [47].

3.1

Feynman rules

The total Lagrangian which describes Yang-Mills vector bosons, rank-2 tensor gauge bosons, spin 1/2, 3/2 fermions and their interactions is the following: L = LY M + g2 L2 + f L3/2 , where + g A 1 Ga Ga LY M = L1/2 + L1 = i 4 1 a a 1 a 1 a 1 a a 1 a a a L2 = Ga , G, G G, + G, G, + G, G, + G G, 4 4 4 4 2 1 1 (i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + (i + gA ) + L3/2 = 2 2 A + g A + 1 g A (3.1.2) +g 2 From the above Lagrangian we can derive the following Feynman rules. spin 1/2 fermion propagator: (3.1.1)

spin 3/2 fermion propagator:

a,

k k

(k ) = i . = D F k

(3.1.3)

;ab (k ) = 1 i ab . b, = D F f k

(3.1.4)

54

vector propagator:

2nd rank tensor propagator:

a,

a, k k =

;ab b, = DF (k ) =

i ab k2

(3.1.5)

,;ab b, = DF (k ) =

1 i ab ( + ) + ( ) g2 k 2 3 (3.1.6)

Vertex: FFV

a,

= ig ta

(3.1.7)

55

Vertex: F F2 T

Vertex: VVV

Vertex: VVVV a,

c,

a, c, q k p a, b,
YM F (k, p, q )

= if g ta

(3.1.8)

abc YM = V (k, p, q ) = gf abc F (k, p, q )

(3.1.9)

= (k p) + (p q ) + (q k )

(3.1.10)

b,

abcd = V = ig 2

f abe f cde ( ) +

d,

+f ace f bde ( ) + +f ade f bce ( ) (3.1.11)

Vertex: TTVc, q

a,

k p c, a,

56

abc TTV = V,, (k, p, q ) = gg2 f abc F,, (k, p, q )

b,

(3.1.12)

1 T T V (2) T T V (1) TTV F,, (k, p, q ) = F,, (k, p, q ) F,, (k, p, q ) 2

YM F,, (k, p, q ) = F (k, p, q ) T T V (1)

(3.1.13)

(3.1.14)

F,, (k, p, q ) =

T T V (2)

( + )(k p) + (k p) + (k p) + +( + )(p q ) + (p q ) + (p q ) + +( + )(q k ) + (q k ) + (q k ) (3.1.15)

Vertex: VVTT

d,
abcd = V,, , =

ig 2 g2 V V T T,abcd F,, , 2

(3.1.16)

b,

57

V V T T,abcd F,, , =

(f ace f bde + f ade f bce )(2 ) + + (f abe f cde f ade f bce )(2 ) (f abe f cde + f ace f bde )(2 ) + + (f ade f bce f abe f cde )( + ) (f ace f bde + f ade f bce )( + ) + + (f abe f cde + f ace f bde )( + ) (3.1.17)

58

3.2

TT

On this section the leading-order dierential cross section of spin-two tensor gauge T T will be calculated boson production in the fermion pair annihilation process f f [44] and the angular dependence of the polarized cross sections for each set of helicity orientations of initial and nal particles will be analyzed [45]. The process receives contribution from three Feynman diagrams which are similar to the QED and QCD diagrams for the annihilation processes with two photons or two gluons in the nal state (see D.1). The dierence between these processes is in the actual expressions of the corresponding interaction vertices, the explicit form of which have been presented in the previous subsection. Below we shall present the Feynman diagrams for the given process and calculate the transition amplitude. We will nd that the transition amplitude is gauge invariant. That is, if we the one of the outgoing tensor gauge bosons is taken to be in a physical transverse polarization - and the other one in an unphysical - longitudinal polarization - the transition amplitude vanishes [44]. This means that the unphysical - longitudinal polarization states are not produced in the scattering process. Having made this consistency check, we shall calculate the polarized cross sections for each set of helicity orientations of the initial and nal particles (3.2.35), (3.2.36) and compare them with the corresponding cross sections for photons and gluons in QED and QCD (D.1), as well as with the W-pair production in Electroweak theory (D.3).

3.2.1

The Feynman diagrams

Working in the center-of-mass frame, we make the following assignments:

59

x
 q1

p
E

'

p+

q2

Figure 3.1: Incoming and outgoing momenta in the center-of-mass frame

p = E (1, 0, 0, 1), p+ = E (1, 0, 0, 1), q1 = E (1, sin , 0, cos ), q2 = E (1, sin , 0, cos ),

(3.2.1)

and q1,2 the momenta of the tensor where p are the momenta of the fermions f, f
2 2 2 gauge bosons T T . All particles are massless p2 = p+ = q1 = q2 = 0. In the

center-of-mass frame the momenta satisfy the relations p+ = p , q2 = q1 and E = E+ = 1 = 2 = E . The invariant variables of the process are: s = (p+ + p )2 = (q1 + q2 )2 = 2(p+ p ) = 2(q1 q2 ) = 4E 2 s t = (p q1 )2 = (p+ q2 )2 = (1 cos ) 2 s 2 2 u = (p q2 ) = (p+ q1 ) = (1 + cos ), 2 where s = (2E )2 and is the scattering angle.

(3.2.2)

60

It is convenient to write the dierential cross section in the center-of-mass frame with d = 1 |M |2 d, 4(p+ p ) (3.2.3)

where the nal-state density for two massless tensor gauge bosons is d = so that d = 1 1 |M |2 d. 2s 32 2 (3.2.4) d3 k1 d3 k2 1 (2 )4 (p+ + p k1 k2 ) = d, 3 3 (2 ) 21 (2 ) 22 32 2

We shall calculate the polarized cross sections for this reaction, to lowest order in = g 2 /4 . The lowest-order Feynman diagrams contributing to fermion-antifermion annihilation into a pair of tensor gauge bosons are given below. In order g 2 , there are three diagrams. Dirac fermions are conventionally drawn as thin solid lines, and Rarita-Schwinger spin-vector fermions by double solid lines. These diagrams are similar to the QCD diagrams for fermion-antifermion annihilation into a pair of vector gauge bosons (see D.1). The dierence between these processes is in the actual expressions for the corresponding interaction vertices (3.1.12).

a,

q1
;ab iM, A

p +

b, if b t u(p )e (q1 )e (q2 ) p q2

q2 = (ig )2 v (p+ ) ta p

(3.2.5)

a, , q1

;ab iM, = B

p +

a,

iM,ab = G

= (ig )2 v (p+ )g2 f bac tc

p q1 q2 q3 p + p

61

q2 , b, if a t u(p )e (q1 )e (q2 ) p q1

(ig )2 v (p+ ) tb

(3.2.6)

b,

1 ,, F (q2 , q1 , q3 )u(p )e (q1 )e (q2 ) 2 TTV q3 (3.2.7)

The probability amplitude of the process can be written in the form

M, e (q1 )e (q2 ) =

(ig )2 v (p+ ) ta

f b f a t + tb t + p q 2 p q1 1 ,, + ig2 f bac tc 2 FT (q2 , q1 , q3 ) u(p )e (q1 )e (q2 ), q3 T V (3.2.8)

where u(p ) is the wave function of spin 1/2 fermion, v (p+ ) of antifermion, the nal
tensor gauge bosons wave functions are e (q1 ) and e (q2 ) and q3 = p + p+ . The

Dirac and symmetry group indices are not shown.

62

3.2.2

Gauge Invariance

At this point, we can check unitarity at the interacting level imitating the standard procedure followed in the Yang-Mills case (Appendix D.1). The total scattering amplitude should cancel when one of the outgoing gauge bosons is taken longitudinal (eL ) and the other in transversal polarization (eT ). This is a consequence of the generalized Ward identity and expresses the fact that the unphysical - longitudinal polarization - states are not produced in the scattering process. Indeed, let us consider the last term in (3.2.8). We take the rank-2 tensor e (q2 ) in longitudinal polarization. In the center of-mass-frame the following relations should
hold. e (q2 ) = q2 + q2 , and the tensor e (q1 ) in transversal polarization:

q1 e (q1 ) = q1 e (q1 ) = 0, q2 e (q2 ) = q1 e (q1 ) = 0.

(3.2.9)

Taking into account that the tensors representing rank-2 tensor gauge bosons must be traceless ( e (q ) = 0), we get:
2 F,, (q2 , q1 , q3 )(q 2 + q 2 )e (q1 ) = q3 e (q1 ) T T V (1)

3 2 T T V (2) e (q1 ) F,, (q2 , q1 , q3 )(q 2 + q 2 )e (q1 ) = q3 2 2 q3 1 3 TTV 2 2 2 = e F,, (q2 , q1 , q3 )(q + q )e (q1 ) = q3 e 1 (q1 ). 2 2 4 Then the last term becomes: ig2 f abc v (p+ )tc u(p ) 1 e ( q1 ) . 4 (3.2.10)

Now let us consider the rst two terms in (3.2.8). Taking again the polarization
tensors e (q2 ) to be longitudinal, using relations (3.2.9) for the wave function e (q1 )

63

and the Dirac equation for the wave-functions u(p ) and v (p+ ) we shall get:
fv (p+ ){ta tb + tb ta }u(p )e (q1 ) = = if f abc v (p+ )tc u(p )e (q1 ) .

(3.2.11)

This term precisely cancels the contribution coming from the last term of the amplitude (3.2.10) if we demand: f= g2 4 (3.2.12)

Thus the cross term matrix element between transverse and longitudinal polarizations vanishes: MeT eL = 0. Our intention now is to calculate the physical matrix elements MeT eT for each set of helicity orientations of initial and nal particles.

3.2.3

Squared Matrix Element

Using the explicit form of the vertex operator F ,, (3.1.12) and the orthogonality properties of the tensor gauge boson wave functions:
q1 e (q1 ) = q1 e (q1 ) = q2 e (q1 ) = q2 e (q1 ) = 0, q2 e (q2 ) = q2 e (q2 ) = q1 e (q2 ) = q1 e (q2 ) = 0,

(3.2.13)

where the last relations follow from the fact that q1 we shall get
2 M;ab e (p+ ) ta (q1 )e (q2 ) = (ig ) g2 v 1 4

q2 in the process of Fig.D.2.2,

p q 2

tb + tb

1 4

p q1

ta +

+if

abc c

(q2 q1 ) 1 ( ) u(p )e t (q1 )e (q2 ). 2 q3 2 (3.2.14)

64

The complex conjugate of the scattering amplitude (3.2.8) is M = (ig )2 g2 u ( p ) tb + p q2 p q1 1 ,, +if abc tc 2 FT (q2 , q1 , q3 ) v (p+ ) q3 T V tb
1 g 4

ta + ta

1 g 4

and we can calculate now the squared matrix elements in the form M M

= (ig )2 v (p+ ) ta if abc tc

1 4

p q2

tb + tb

1 4

p k1

ta

1 ,, F (q2 , q1 , q3 ) u(p ) 2 TTV q3 1 1 2 b 4g a a 4g (ig ) u (p ) t t + t tb + p q2 p q1 1 ,, +if abc tc 2 FT (q2 , q1 , q3 ) v (p+ ) q3 T V

For unpolarized fermions-antifermion scattering the average over the fermion and antifermion spins is dened as follows: |M|2 = Using the completeness relations us (p ) us (p ) = p ,
s s

11 22

|M |2 .
spin 1/2

v s (p+ ) v s (p+ ) = p+ .

and averaging over spins of the fermions we shall get: M M

1 1 g4 T r p+ ta 4 tb + tb 4 ta 4 p q2 p q1 1 ,, if abc tc 2 FT (q2 , q1 , q3 ) q3 T V

p t + if a b c

t + t tb + p q2 p q 1 1 , , tc 2 FT (q2 , q1 , q3 ) . q3 T V

1 4

1 g 4

65

Contracting the last expression with the transversal on-shell polarization tensors of
the nal tensor gauge bosons e (k1 ) and e (k2 ) we get the probability amplitude in

the form:

M;ab M =

;a b

e (q1 )e (q2 )e (q1 )e (q2 ) =

1 1 g4 T r p+ ta 4 tb + tb 4 ta + 4 p q 2 p q1 1 1 + if abc tc 2 (q2 q1 ) ( g ) q3 2

p t

1 4

p q2

+ t

1 4

p q 1

tb

if a b c tc

1 1 (q q1 ) ( ) 2 2 q3 2

e (q1 )e (q2 )e (q1 )e (q2 ).

As a next step we shall calculate the sum over transversal tensor gauge bosons polarizations. The sum over transversal polarizations of the helicity-two tensor gauge boson is [48, 31, 44]
r r e (q1 )e (q1 ) = r

q1 q 1 + q 1 q1 1 q1 q 1 + q 1 q1 ( + )( + )+ 2 q1 q 1 q1 q 1 +( + q1 q 1 + q 1 q1 q1 q 1 + q 1 q1 )( + ) q1 q 1 q1 q 1 1 q1 q1 q 1 + q q1 q 1 + q 1 q1 ( + )( + ) , q1 q 1 q1 q 1

where q1 = (1 , q1 ) and q 1 = (1 , q1 ). The explicit form of the transversal polar-

ization tensors, when the momentum is aligned along the third axis, is given by the

66

matrices [48, 31, 36]: e1 0, 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0, 0 .

1 0, 1, 0, 0 = 2 0, 0, 1, 0

0, 0, 1, 0 1 2 , e = 2 0, 1, 0, 0 0, 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 0, 0

From the kinematics of the process in Fig.D.2.2 it follows that 2 = 1 and k2 = k1 therefore q 1 = q2 , q 2 = q1

and the average over polarizations can be rewritten as 1 e (q1 )e (q1 ) = (E E + E E E E ), 2 where E = + q1 q2 + q2 q1 . q1 q2 (3.2.15)

Thus the average over tensor gauge boson polarizations gives M;ab M =
;a b e (q1 )e (q2 )

e (q1 )e (q2 ) =

(3.2.16)

1 1 g4 T r p+ ta 4 tb + tb 4 ta + 4 p q 2 p q1 1 1 + if abc tc 2 ( q2 q1 )( ) q3 2

p t

t + t tb p q2 p q 1 1 1 if a b c tc 2 ( q2 q1 )( ) q3 2

1 4

1 g 4

1 aa bb 1 (E E + E E E E ) (E E + E E E E ). d(r) d(r) 2 2 In the next section we shall evaluate these traces and sum over the polarizations.

67

3.2.4

Evaluation of Traces

In order to evaluate the squared matrix element in the last expression (3.2.16) we have to calculate the traces and then perform the summation over polarizations. We shall use convenient notations for the dierent terms in the amplitude. The whole amplitude will be expressed as a symbolic sum of three terms: M = A + B + G, exactly corresponding to the three Feynman diagrams in (3.2.5),(3.2.6), (3.2.7) so that the squared amplitude (3.2.16) shall have nine terms MM = (A + B + G)(A + B + G) . The rst contribution can be evaluated in the following way: (GG )
;

g4 1 1 T r{ p+ if abc tc 2 ( )( q2 q1 ) 2 4d (r) q3 2 1 1 p (i)f a b c tc 2 ( )( q2 q1 )} aa bb = q3 2 4 T r{ p+ ( q2 q1 ) p ( q2 q1 )} g tr(f abc f abc tc tc ) = 2 4d (r) (2q1 q2 )(2q1 q2 ) 1 1 ( )( ). 2 2 =

We can calculate the traces over the symmetry group indices using formulas from Appendix B: tr(f abc f abc tc tc ) = d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G) = d(G)C (r)C2 (G) = N (N 2 1) 2

68

and then the traces of gamma matrices using relations from App.C and the corresponding scalar products (3.2.2):
p (q2 q1 )+p+ p q1 q2 g4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G)8 p+ (q2 q1 ) (2 4d2 (r) q1 q2 )(2q1 q2 ) 1 1 ( 2 )( 2 )=

g4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G)2 sin2 4d2 (r)

1 ( 1 )( 2 ). 2

Now it is easy to calculate summation over tensor gauge boson polarizations using expression (3.2.15). GG = g4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G) sin2 . 4d2 (r) (3.2.17)

The next contribution in (3.2.16) can be evaluated as follows:

1 g4 a 4 = 2 T r { p+ [ t (BG ) tb ] 4d (r) p q2 1 1 p [if a b c tc 2 (g )( q2 q1 )]} aa bb = q3 2 4 T r{ p+ ( p q2 ) p ( q2 q1 )} 1 g 1 ( = i 2 tr(f abc ta tb tc ) ), 4d (r) (2p q2 )(2q1 q2 ) 4 2 ;

and then using traces from Appendices B and C, we shall get:

g 4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G) 4{ [p+ 4d2 (r) 2

p q1 q2 + p+ (q2 q1 ) p q2 + p+ q2 p (q2 q1 )] +

+q1 q2 (p + p p p+ ) + 2p (q2 q1 )p+ p + 2p+ (q2 q1 )p p } 1 1 ( (2p q2 )(2q1 q2 ) 4

g ). 1 2

Using again expression (3.2.15) and scalar products (3.2.2) we can sum over the polarizations of tensor gauge bosons: BG = 1 g4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G)( sin2 ). 2 4d (r) 4 (3.2.18)

69

The third contribution is

1 g4 b 4 T r { p [ t ta ] + 4d2 (r) p q1 1 1 p [if a b c tc 2 ( g )( q2 q1 )]} aa bb = q3 2 4 g T r{ p+ ( p q1 ) p ( q2 q1 )} 1 1 = i 2 tr(f abc tb ta tc ) ( ) 4d (r) (2p q1 )(2q1 q2 ) 4 2

(AG )

and can be evaluated in the similar way: g4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G) 4 2 4d (r) 2 [p+ p q1 q2 + p+ (q2 q1 ) p q1 + p+ q1 p (q2 q1 )] + +
q1 q2 (p p+ p+ p ) + 2p (q2 q1 )p+ p + 2p+ (q2 q1 )p p

1 1 1 ( ), (2p q1 )(2q1 q2 ) 4 2

so that after summation over polarization we shall get: g4 1 (AG ) = 2 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G)( sin2 ). 4d (r) 4

(3.2.19)

As one can get convinced, the next two terms GB and GA give similar contributions: GB = 1 g4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G)( sin2 ), 2 4d (r) 4 g4 1 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G)( sin2 ). 2 4d (r) 4 (3.2.20)

GA = The sixth contribution is (BB ) =

;

(3.2.21)

1 1 g4 a 4 b b 4 T r p [ t t ] p [ t ta ] aa bb = + 4d2 (r) p q2 p q 2

g4 a b b a T r { p+ ( p q2 ) p ( p q2 ) } 1 1 tr ( t t t t ) 4d2 (r) (2p q2 )(2p q2 ) 4 4

70

and involves trace of eight gamma matrices. It can be performed using the expression presented in C: g4 ]+ d(r)C2 (r)C2 (r) 16p p [p p+ + p+ p p+ p 2 4d (r)
( p+ q2 p + +8p p q2 p+ ) (p+ q2 p + p q2 p+ ) (p+ q2 p p q2 p+ ) +8p (p+ q2 p + p q2 p+ ) (p+ q2 p + p q2 p+ ) (p+ q2 p p q2 p+ )

+8p+ q2 p q2 [ + ] After summation over the polarizations we shall get BB =

1 1 1 . (2p q2 )(2p q2 ) 4 4

g4 1 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (r) sin2 . 2 4d (r) 4

(3.2.22)

The seventh contribution is identical with the sixth one and gives AA = The eighth contribution is (BA )
;

g4 1 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (r) sin2 . 2 4d (r) 4

(3.2.23)

1 g4 T r{ p+ [ tap4 tb ] 4d2 (r) q2

p [ ta

1 4 tb p q1

]} aa bb =

q2 ) p (p q1 ) } 1 1 g4 tr(ta tb ta tb ) T r{p+ (p 4 4d2 (r) (2p q2 )(2p q1 ) 4

71

and gives
g4 d(r)C2 (r)(C2 (r) 4d2 (r)

1 C (G)) 4q1 q2 p+ p + 4p+ q2 p q1 + 2 2

+4p+ q1 p q2 4q1 q2 p+ p + +4p+ q2 p q1 + 4p+ q1 p q2 + +4q1 q2 p+ p 4p+ q2 p q1

p+ p + 4q1 q2 p 4p+ q1 p q2 4q1 q2 p + p + 4 q1 q2 + p p + p p+ p + 4q1 q2 p 4q1 q2 p + p + 8 p q2 + p 8p q2 p p 4q1 q2 p 4q1 q2 p + p + + p + 8p q2 p+ p 8p+ q2 p+ p + +8p q1 p p+ p 8p q1 p + p 4q1 q2 + p + 4 q1 q2 p p +8p q1 p p p + 8p+ q1 p p + 8 p + q 2 + p + 8 p+ q1 p+ p + 4q1 q2 p 16p+ p p + p p + 16p+ p p p + 4q1 q2 p p + 16p 4q1 q2 p + p p p + p + 8p+ q2 p p 8p+ q1 1 1 1 4 (2p q2 )(2p q1 ) 4

After summation over polarizations we shall get BA = g4 1 1 d(r)C2 (r)(C2 (r) C2 (G)) ( sin2 ) 2 4d (r) 2 4 (3.2.24)

and for the ninth contribution we shall get identically AB = 1 1 g4 d(r)C2 (r)(C2 (r) C2 (G)) ( sin2 ). 2 4d (r) 2 4 (3.2.25)

We are now in a position to calculate the total contribution to the squared matrix element (3.2.16). Putting together all pieces of the squared matrix element (3.2.17), (3.2.18), (3.2.19), (3.2.20), (3.2.21), (3.2.22), (3.2.23), (3.2.24), (3.2.25), we nally

72

obtain MM = 1 g4 d(r)C2 (r) C2 (G) sin2 . 2 4d (r) 4 (3.2.26)

3.2.5

Cross Section

We can calculate now the leading-order dierential cross section for the tensor gauge bosons production in the annihilation process. This process, as we discussed in the introduction, receives contribution from three Feynman diagrams shown in Fig.?? and for the unpolarized fermion pairs the squared matrix element was presented above (3.2.26). Plugging everything into our general cross-section formula (3.3.1) yields the dierential cross section in the center-of-mass frame: d = 1 1 1 g4 d(r)C2 (r) C2 (G) sin2 d = 2 4d (r) 4 2s 32 2 g 2 1 C2 (r)C2 (G) sin2 d = = ( )2 4 s 64d(r) 2 C2 (r)C2 (G) = sin2 d, s 64d(r) g2 . 4

(3.2.27)

where = Thus the unpolarized cross section is d = 2 C2 (r)C2 (G) sin2 d, s 64d(r)
C2 (r)C2 (G) 64d(r)

(3.2.28)

where for the SU (N ) group we have

(N 2 1) . 128N

3.2.6

Helicity Structure

As the next step we shall calculate the above matrix element in the helicity basis for initial fermions and nal tensor gauge bosons. This calculation of polarized cross

73

sections is very similar to the one in QED [?]. The right- and left-handed spinors wave functions are: 0 0 2E uR (p ) = 1 0 1 0 vR (p+ ) = 2E 0 0 , 0 1 uL (p ) = 2E , 0 0 0 0 vL (p+ ) = 2E (3.2.29) 0 1

and the tensor gauge boson wave functions for circular polarizations along the q1 direction are: 0 0 0 0

0 2 cos i cos cos sin 1 ( q ) = , 1 R 2 0 i cos 1 i sin 2 0 cos sin i sin sin 0 0 0 0 0 2 cos i cos cos sin 1 ( q ) = . 1 L 2 0 i cos 1 i sin 2 0 cos sin i sin sin It is easy to check that the wave functions (3.2.30) are orthonormal
R (q1 ) L (q1 )

(3.2.30)

= 0,

R (q1 ) R (q1 )

=1

L (q1 ) L (q1 )

=1

and full the equations (3.2.13). The helicity states for the second gauge boson are:
R ( q2 )

L (q1 )

L ( q2 )

R (q1 ),

where q1 = (E, E sin , 0, E cos ) and q2 = (E, E sin , 0, E cos ).

74

Now we can calculate all sixteen matrix elements between states of denite helic ities. Let us start with fR f L TR TR . The scattering amplitude (3.2.14) for these particular helicities M, RL
R R (q1 ) (q2 )

contains three terms. By plugging the explicit expressions for the helicity wave functions (3.2.29), (3.2.30) into the matrix element (3.2.14) we can nd the rst term (ig )2 g2 v L (p+ ) { ta then the second one (ig )2 g2 v L (p+ ) { tb
1 4 R R ta } uR (p ) e (q1 )e (q2 ) = 1 4 R R tb } uR (p ) e (q1 )e (q2 ) =

p q2

g2 g 2 a b t t sin , 4

p q 1

g2 g 2 b a t t sin 4

and nally the third one (ig )2 g2 v L (p+ ){if abc tc ig2 g 2 abc c ( q2 q1 ) 1 R R R ( ) } u ( p ) e ( q ) e ( q ) = f t sin , 1 2 2 q3 2 2

so that all together they will give M, RL

R R (q1 ) (q2 )

(ig )2 g2 4

[ta , tb ] 2if abc tc

sin =

ig2 g 2 abc c f t 4

sin (3.2.31) .

To compute the cross section, we must square the matrix element (3.2.31) and then average over the symmetries of the initial fermions and sum over the symmetries of the nal tensor gauge bosons. This gives |M|2 RR = RL g4 g 4 C2 (r)C2 (G) 2 abc abd c d 2 tr ( f f t t ) sin = sin , (3.2.32) 16d2 (r) 16 d(r)

where the invariant operator C2 is dened by the equation ta tb = C2 . Similarly, using the helicity wave functions (3.2.29) and (3.3.8), we can calculate the amplitude fR f L TL TL . This gives |M|2 LL = RL g4 g 4 C2 (r)C2 (G) abc abd c d 2 tr ( f f t t ) sin = sin2 . (3.2.33) 16d2 (r) 16 d(r)

75

The amplitude fR f L TR TL vanishes because the common factor to all three pieces of this amplitude - of sixteen are nonzero: fR fL TR TR , fR fL TL TL , fL fR TR TR , fL fR TL TL . (3.2.34)
R L (q1 ) (q2 )

- is equal to zero. Thus only four amplitudes out

From this analysis it follows that the total spin angular momentum of the nal state is one unit less than that of the initial state, therefore a unit of spin angular momentum is converted to the orbital angular momentum and the nal state is a P-wave. We can calculate now the leading-order polarized cross sections for the tensor gauge boson production in the annihilation process. Plugging the matrix elements (3.2.32) into our general cross-section formula in the center-of-mass frame (3.2.27) yields: dfR fL = TR TR g 4 C2 (r) C2 (G) 2 1 1 sin d = 16 d(r) 2s 32 2 2 C2 (r)C2 (G) = sin2 d, s 64d(r)

(3.2.35)

where =

g2 . 4

For the rest of the helicities we shall get (3.2.36)

dfR fL TR TR = dfR fL TL TL = dfL fR TR TR = dfL fR TL TL , where for the SU (N ) group we have

C2 (r)C2 (G) 64d(r)

(N 2 1) . 128N

Adding up all sixteen

amplitudes and dividing by four, to average over the initial particle spins, we recover the unpolarized cross section 3.2.28. This cross section should be compared with the analogous annihilation cross sections in QED and QCD. Indeed, let us compare this result with the electron-positron annihilation into two transversal photons. The e+ e annihilation cross section

76

[50] in the high-energy limit is d = 2 1 + cos2 d s sin2 (3.2.37)

except very small angles of order me /E . The cross section has a minimum at = /2 and then increases for small angles [51]. The quark pair annihilation cross section into two transversal gluons q q gg in the leading order of the strong coupling s is dgg =
2 s C2 (r)C2 (r) 1 + cos2 C2 (G) [ (1 + cos2 )]d 2 s d(r) 4 C ( r ) sin 2

(3.2.38)

and also has a minimum at = /2 and increases for small scattering angles [52]. The production cross section of spin-two gauge bosons (3.2.35), (3.2.36) shows dramatically dierent behaviour - sin2 - with its maximum at = /2 and decrease for small angles. It is also instructive to compare this result with the angular dependence of the W-pair production in Electroweak theory. The high energy production of longitudinal gauge bosons is [53]
+ = de+ e W0 W0

1 + sin4 w 2 [ ] sin2 d, s 256 sin4 w cos4 w

(3.2.39)

where cos w =

mw mz

and it is similar to the spin-two transversal gauge boson production

(3.2.35). One can only speculate that at high enough energies, may be at LHS energies and above the threshold, we may observe the standard spin-one gauge bosons together with new spin-two gauge bosons [31, 36]. To predict the threshold energy one should rst construct a massive theory and even in that case the corresponding Yukawa couplings most probably will be unknown.

77

3.3

VV-TT

Our intention in this subsection is to calculate the leading-order dierential cross section of spin-two tensor gauge boson production by a pair of vector gauge bosons in the process V + V T + T and to analyze the angular dependence of the polarized cross sections for each set of helicity orientations of initial and nal particles [46]. The process is illustrated in Fig.3.3.1 and receives contribution from four Feynman diagrams. Below we shall present the Feynman diagrams for the given process and the expressions for the corresponding transition amplitudes. Next, we will check the on mass-shell gauge invariance of the scattering amplitude taking one of the outgoing tensor bosons in longitudinal polarization. Then we shall calculate the polarized cross sections for each set of helicity orientations of the initial and nal particles (see formulas (3.3.26), (3.3.27), (3.3.28) and (3.3.30)) and compare them with the corresponding cross section of the vector gauge bosons V + V V + V in Yang-Mills theory (see formulas (D.2.12), (D.2.13), (D.2.14) and (3.3.31)).

3.3.1

Feynman diagrams

The scattering process is illustrated in Fig.3.3.1. Working in the center-of-mass frame, we make the following assignments:

k1 = E (1, 0, 0, 1) ,

k2 = E (1, 0, 0, 1),

and
q1 = E (1, sin , 0, cos ) , q2 = E (1, sin, 0, cos ),

where k1,2 are momenta of the vector bosons V + V and q1,2 momenta of the tensor

78

x
 q1

k1
E

'

k2

q2

Figure 3.2: Incoming and outgoing momenta in the center-of-mass frame

2 2 2 2 = 0. In the = q2 = q1 = k2 gauge bosons T + T . All particles are massless k1

center-of-mass frame the momenta satisfy the relations k1 = k2 , q2 = q1 . The invariant variables of the process are: s = 2(k1 k2 ), s t = (1 cos ), 2 s u = (1 + cos ), 2

where s = (2E )2 and is the scattering angle. It is convenient to write the dierential cross section in the center-of-mass frame with the tensor bosons produced into the solid angle d as d = where the nal-state density is d = 1 1 |M|2 d, 2s 32 2
1 d. 32 2

(3.3.1)

We shall calculate the polarized cross sections for the reaction V + V T + T , to the lowest order in = g 2 /4 . The lowest-order Feynman diagrams contributing to the process of the annihilation of a pair of vector bosons to a pair of tensor gauge

79

bosons are shown below. In order g2 g 2 , there are four diagrams. Vector gauge bosons V are conventionally drawn as thin wave lines and tensor gauge bosons T as double wave lines.

The probability amplitude of the process can be written as a sum of four terms corresponding to each diagram.

For the rst diagram we shall get: c, d, q1 e, k1 a, p q2 l, = k2 b,

iMab,cd = I

eca = V

For the second diagram the amplitude is: c, , q1 q2 , d,

= iMab,cd II

e, k1 a,

eda = V

(p, q1 , k1 )

dlb DF,el (p) V

(q2 , p, k2 )

e e q2 . k1 ek2 eq1

(3.3.2)

l, = k2 b,
(q1 , p , k2 ) e e q2 . k1 ek2 eq1

(p

clb , q2 , k1 ) (p ) V el

(3.3.3)

For the third diagram we get: c, q2 l, q1 iMab,cd = III p

a,

eab dcl = V (p , k1 , k2 ) DF eq . el (p ) V (q2 , q1 , p ) ek1 ek2 eq1 2

Finally for the forth diagram we have: c, d, q1 q2

iMab,cd IV

a,

where e k1 is the wave function of the rst vector boson and ek2 of the second. The nal tensor gauge bosons wave functions are e and e q1 q2 .

k1 e, k2 k1 k2

80

, d,

b,

(3.3.4)

abdc V e (k1 , k2 , q2 , q1 ) ek1 ek2 eq1 q2 ,

b, (3.3.5)

The total amplitude is a sum of four terms: iM = iMI + iMII + iMIII + iMIV . (3.3.6)

Our intention is to calculate the physical matrix elements in the helicity basis for initial vector and nal tensor gauge bosons. This calculation of polarized cross

81

sections is very similar to the gluon-gluon scattering in QCD (D.2). The right- and left-handed vector wave functions are: eR (k1 ) =
1 (0, 1, i, 0) 2

, ,

eL (k1 ) =

1 (0, 1, i, 0) 2

eR (k2 ) = eL (k1 )

eL (k2 ) = eR (k1 ) ,

(3.3.7)

and the tensor gauge boson wave functions for circular polarizations along the q1 direction are:
1 e R (q1 ) = 2 (0, cos , i, sin ) 1 e L (q1 ) = 2 (0, cos , i, sin )

(0, cos , i, sin ), (0, cos , i, sin ). (3.3.8)

The helicity states for the second tensor gauge boson are:
e R (q2 ) = eL (q1 ) , eL (q2 ) = eR (q1 ),

It is easy to check that the wave functions (3.3.8) are orthonormal:

e R (q )eL (q ) = 0, eR (q )eR (q ) = 1, eL (q )eL (q ) = 1

and full the equations

q1 e (q1 ) = q1 e (q1 ) = 0, q2 e (q2 ) = q2 e (q2 ) = 0,

(3.3.9)

Before we proceed to the calculation of the physical matrix elements of the amplitude, we must rst guarantee the on mass shell gauge invariance of it.

3.3.2

Gauge Invariance

To check on mass-shell gauge invariance of the amplitude (3.3.6) let one of the tensor gauge boson wave function be longitudinal:
e q2 = q2 + q2 .

82

On mass-shell gauge transformations should fulll the following conditions:

2 q2 = 0,

q2 eq2 = 0,

tr eq2 = 0.

These equations are satised if q2 = 0 and therefore 0 = 1 sin + 3 cos . To see explicitly how the cancellation between diagrams takes place let us take the incoming vector bosons left polarized and one of the tensor bosons right polarized. In that case we shall get the following amplitudes (see ??): iMI (LL RI ) = 1 ig2 g 2 f ace f bde E cos3 (0 3 ) cos (1 + i2 ) sin 2 2 2 2 =

= f ace f bde M1

iMII (LL RI ) =

1 ig2 g 2 f ade f bce E sin3 (0 + 3 ) sin (1 i2 ) cos 2 2 2 2

= f ade f bce M2

(3.3.10)

MIII (LL RI ) =

1 ig2 g 2 (f ace f bde f ade f bce )E sin 1 cos i2 3 sin 4

= (f ace f bde f ade f bce )M3

(3.3.11)

ig 2 g2 ace bde (f f + f ade f bce )E sin cos i2 1 cos + 3 sin iMIV (LL RI ) = 4 = (f ace f bde + f ade f bce )M4 ,

83

where M1 = M2 M3 M4 ig 2 g2 E 2 ig 2 g2 = E 2 ig 2 g2 = E 4 ig 2 g2 = E 4 (0 3 ) cos (1 + i2 ) sin , 2 2 2 sin3 (0 + 3 ) sin (1 i2 ) cos , 2 2 2 cos3 sin 1 cos i2 3 sin , sin cos i2 1 cos + 3 sin . (3.3.12)

For the total amplitude we shall get iM(LL RI ) = f ace f bde M1 + M3 + M4 + f ade f bce M2 M3 + M4 , and it nullies if M1 + M3 + M4 = 0, M2 M3 + M4 = 0. (3.3.13)

Using the explicit expressions (3.3.12), one can straightforwardly see that the above equations are not satised. This indicates that the truncation we have implemented to the total Lagrangian, so as to include only tensors of the 2nd rank is not legitimate. Terms of higher rank, but of the same order in perturbation theory should be included, in order to arrive at a meaningful result. Nevertheless, one can see that the following equations hold. 2M1 M3 + M4 = 0, 2M2 + M3 + M4 = 0. (3.3.14)

This means that the terms that have been neglected would result in doubling the rank-2 tensor propagator and reversing the sign of the TTV vetex 1 . In what follows,
One may also assume that the neglected terms would result in Tprop 2Tprop and (V V T T ) (V V T T ).
1

84

we shall assume the presence of those terms and use instead of (2.2.9), the eective propagator:
,;ab DF (k ) =

2 i 2( + ) ( ) 2 g2 k 9 (3.3.15)

3.3.3

Helicity Amplitudes

Now we can calculate all sixteen matrix elements between states of denite helicities. The scattering amplitude (3.3.6) for any particular choice of helicities contains four terms. By plugging the explicit expressions for propagators (1.1.24), (3.3.15), vertices (1.1.22),(3.1.12),(3.1.16) and helicity wave functions (3.3.7), (3.3.8) into the matrix elements (3.3.2),(3.3.3), (3.3.4) and (3.3.5) we can nd their explicit form. For the t-channel amplitude (3.3.2), we shall get the following sequence of sixteen polarization amplitudes:
i ace bde iMI (LL LL) = iMI (RR RR) = g 2 g2 3 f f (1 + cos )(2 cos ) 4

iMI (LL LR) = iMI (RR LR) = 0 iMI (LL RL) = iMI (RR RL) = 0
i ace bde iMI (LL RR) = iMI (RR LL) = g 2 g2 8 f f (7 2 cos + cos 2) i ace bde iMI (LR LL) = iMI (LR RR) = g 2 g2 4 f f (1 + cos )(3 2 cos )

iMI (LR LR) = 0,

iMI (LR RL) = 0

i ace bde iMI (RL LL) = iMI (RL RR) = g 2 g2 4 f f (1 + cos )(3 2 cos )

iMI (RL LR) = 0,

iMI (RL RL) = 0.

(3.3.16)

85

For the u-channel diagram (3.3.3) the amplitudes are:

i ace bde iMII (LL LL) = iMII (RR RR) = g 2 g2 3 f f (1 cos )(2 + cos ) 4

iMII (LL LR) = iMII (RR LR) = 0 iMII (LL RL) = iMII (RR RL) = 0
i ade bce f f (7 + 2 cos cos 2) iMII (LL RR) = iMII (RR LL) = g 2 g2 8 i ade bce iMII (LR LL) = iMII (LR RR) = g 2 g2 4 f f (1 cos )(3 + 2 cos )

iMII (LR LR) = 0,

iMII (LR RL) = 0

i ade bce iMII (RL LL) = iMII (RL RR) = g 2 g2 4 f f (1 cos )(3 + 2 cos )

iMII (RL LR) = 0, For the s-channel diagram (3.3.4) we get:

iMII (RL RL) = 0.

(3.3.17)

i (f ace f bde f ade f bce ) cos iMIII (LL LL) = iMIII (RR RR) = g 2 g2 2

iMIII (LL LR) = iMIII (RR LR) = 0 iMIII (LL RL) = iMIII (RR RL) = 0
i iMIII (LL RR) = iMIII (RR LL) = g 2 g2 2 (f ace f bde f ade f bce ) cos

iMIII (LR LL) = iMIII (LR RR) = 0 iMIII (LR LR) = 0, iMIII (LR RL) = 0

iMIII (RL LL) = iMIII (RL RR) = 0 iMIII (RL LR) = 0, iMIII (RL RL) = 0. (3.3.18)

86

And nally for the contact diagram (3.3.5) we get the following polarization amplitudes:
i iMIV (LL LL) = iMIV (RR RR) = g 2 g2 4 (f ace f bde + f ade f bce ) sin2

iMIV (LL LR) = iMIV (RR LR) = 0 iMIV (LL RL) = iMIV (RR RL) = 0
i (f ace f bde + f ade f bce ) sin2 iMIV (LL RR) = iMIV (RR LL) = g 2 g2 4 i iMIV (LR LL) = iMIV (LR RR) = g 2 g2 4 (f ace f bde + f ade f bce ) sin2

iMIV (LR LR) = 0,

iMIV (LR RL) = 0

i iMIV (RL LL) = iMIV (RL RR) = g 2 g2 4 (f ace f bde + f ade f bce ) sin2

iMIV (RL LR) = 0,

iMIV (RL RL) = 0.

(3.3.19) VR VR

Thus only eight amplitudes out of sixteen are nonzero: VL VL TL TL ,

TR TR , VL VL TR TR , VR VR TL TL , VL VR TL TL , VL VR TR TR , VR VL TL TL , VR VL TR TR . We can get the total helicity amplitudes (3.3.6) summing the corresponding terms from each diagram: ig2 g 2 ace bde f f (4 + 5 cos + cos 2) + 4 + f ade f bce (4 5 cos + cos 2) , ig2 g 2 ace bde f f (3 + cos ) + f ade f bce (3 cos ) , 4 ig2 g 2 (1 + cos )(2 cos )f ace f bde + 4 + (1 cos )(2 + cos )f ade f bce . (3.3.22) (3.3.20)

iMLLLL =

iMLLRR =

(3.3.21)

iMLRLL =

87

To compute the cross section, we must square matrix elements (3.3.20), (3.3.21), (3.3.22) and then average over the symmetries of the initial bosons and sum over the symmetries of the nal tensor gauge bosons. This gives:
1 d(G)2 col 2 |MLLLL |2 = g2
2 (G) g 4 C2 (124 32 d(G)

23 cos 2 + 3 cos 4), + cos 2),

(3.3.23) (3.3.24) (3.3.25)

1 d(G)2

col

2 |MLLRR |2 = g2

2 (G) g 4 C2 (55 32 d(G)

1 d(G)2

2 2 col |MLRLL | = g2

2 (G) g 4 C2 (61 128 d(G)

32 cos 2 + 3 cos 4),

where the invariant operator C2 is dened by the equation ta ta = C2 1. We can calculate now the leading-order polarized cross sections for the tensor gauge boson production V + V T + T . Helicity cross-sections. Plugging matrix elements (3.3.23), (3.3.24), (3.3.25), into our general cross-section formula in the center-of-mass frame (3.3.1) yields:
2 dLLLL = g2 2 (G) 2 C2 (124 23 cos 2 + 3 cos 4) d, s 128d(G) 2 2 C2 (G) (55 + cos 2) d, s 128d(G)

(3.3.26)

2 dLLRR = g2

(3.3.27)

dLRLL = where =
g2 . 4

2 g2

2 (G) 2 C2 (61 32 cos 2 + 3 cos 4) d, s 512d(G)

(3.3.28)

Unpolarized cross section. Adding up all sixteen helicity amplitudes and dividing the result by four in order to average over the initial boson spins we can get unpolarized cross section. Thus summing over helicities
1 4d(G)2 col,hel

|M|2 =

1 4d(G)2
4

col

2|MLLLL |2 + 2|MLLRR |2 + 4|MLRRR |2 = 419 76 cos 2 + 9 cos 4 (3.3.29)

2 g = g2 128

2 (G) C2 d(G)

88

for unpolarized cross section we shall get

2 d = g2 2 (G) 419 76 cos 2 + 9 cos 4 2 C2 d, s d(G) 512
2 (G) C2 d(G)

(3.3.30)

where for the SU (N ) group we have

N2 . (N 2 1)

The production cross section of

tensor gauge bosons (3.3.30) has characteristic behavior with its maximum at = /2 and decrease for small angles. This cross section should be compared with the analogous cross section in QCD. Indeed, let us compare this result with the gluon-gluon scattering cross section formula (D.2.15). The V + V V + V cross section is d =
2 (G) (4 sin2 )3 2 C2 d. s d(G) 32 sin4

(3.3.31)

This cross section increases at small angles 0, and therefore the scattering is mostly going into forward and backward directions and has its minimum in transverse direction at = /2. The production cross section of spin-two gauge bosons (3.3.30) shows dramatically dierent behavior with its maximum in the transverse direction at = /2 and decrease in forward and backward directions. One can only speculate that at high enough energies, may be at LHC energies, we may observe the standard spin-one gauge boson together with its new partner, spin-two gauge boson.

Conclusions
We conclude this thesis by summarizing the basic results in which the author contributed. We specied on the elds of rank 2 in the theory of non Abelian tensor gauge bosons and examined carefully the problem of unitarity. We saw, that the Lagrangian which describes rank-2 tensor gauge boson elds consists of two parts. The ratio of the coecients of those terms determined by the Bianchi identities of the free theory (g = 0). Solving the equations of motion of the free rank-2 tensor gauge theory, it was found that there are three physical propagating modes. The rst two, are correspond to the helicities of a symmetric 0 0 0 1 e(1) = 0 0 0 0 tensor boson eld of rank 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 , e(2) = 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
g2 g2

is uniquely

0 , 0 0

while the third to the degree of freedom of an antisymmetric eld which behaves like a scalar. eA 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 = 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 89

90

The antisymmetric propagating mode contributes with a factor of three in the energy momentum tensor of the free rank-2 tensor gauge eld, as follows:
2 2 T k k (c2 1 + c2 + 3c3 ),

a result which is also visible in the propagator equation (2.2.9). Turning, to the interacting case two processes were thoroughly examined. That of the pair production of 2 symmetric rank-2 tensor gauge boson particles through the annihilation of a pair of S.M. fermions and that of the same pair production through the annihilation of two vector gauge bosons. The calculations were performed with Mathematica and the results were compared with more familiar S.M. processes. The known S.M. processes were carefully studied and the well known results -Ward identities, cross sections- were calculated by means of the Mathematica formalism. In the f f T T case, it was found that the scattering amplitude is gauge invariant, if we chose f =
g2 . 4

For this value the cross section was found to be: 2 C2 (r)C2 (G) sin2 d, , d = s 64d(r)

showing a simple sin2 dependence. In the V V T T case, it was found that the scattering amplitude becomes gauge invariant only if we add the terms including higher rank elds we have initially truncated. With this on mind, we got:
2 d = g2 2 2 C2 (G) 419 76 cos 2 + 9 cos 4 d s d(G) 512

which appears a totally dierent behavior with the QCD process V V V V . As

d d we know, ( d ) maximizes at small angles, while as we saw ( d ) shows V V V V V V T T

preference in transverse directions.

Appendices

91

92

93

Appendix A Free rank-2 Tensor Gauge Boson Equation Matrix

The matrix operator for non-Abelian tensor gauge theory (2.1.26) is of dimension 16 16 and has the following explicit form:
0 0 0 0 0 k2 2 2 k 2 0 0 0 0 2 k 2 0 0 0 0 0

k 2

k 2

0 k2 2

k 2

k 2

0 k2 2

k 2

k 2

0 2 k 2

k2

k 2

0 2 2

k 2

1 (k2 2 ) 2

k 2

k 2 + 2

1 (k2 2 ) 2

0 2 2

k 2

0 k2 2

k2

k 2

0 2 k 2

1 (k 2 2 ) 2

k 2 + 2

0 2 2

k 2

1 (k2 2 ) 2

k 2

0 2 2

k 2

k 2

0 2 2

k 2

k 2

0 2 2

0 2 2

k 2

0 2 2

0 (A.0.1)

94

and allows to calculate its rank as a function of momenta.

Appendix B Elements of Group Theory

The gauge group matrices ta form a representation r of the Lie group G. The matrices ta obey the algebra [ta , tb ] = if abc tc , where the structure constants f abc are totally antisymmetric. The invariant operators C (r) and C2 (r) are dened by the equations ta tb = C2 (r)1, and satisfy the relation C (r) = d(r) C2 (r), d(G) tr(ta tb ) = C (r) ab

where d(r) is the dimension of the representation r. By convention the i and a are indices of the symmetry group G. A number of fermions i is equal to the dimension d(r) of the representation r: i = 1, ..., d(r). The number of gauge bosons Aa is equal to the number d(G) of generators of the group G: a = 1, ..., d(G). For the fundamental N and adjoint G representations of the SU (N ) groups we have C (N ) = 1/2, C2 (N ) = N2 1 , 2N C (G) = 1/2 = C2 (G) = N.

95

96

The traces over symmetry group indices now can be evaluated: 1 N (N 2 1) 1 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G) = d(G)C (r)C2 (G) = , 2 2 4 N (N 2 1) , tr(f abc f abc tc tc ) = d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G) = d(G)C (r)C2 (G) = 2 (N 2 1)2 tr(ta tb tb ta ) = d(r)C2 (r)C2 (r) = d(G)C (r)C2 (r) = , 4N 1 (N 2 1) . tr(ta tb ta tb ) = d(G)C (r)C2 (r)(C2 (r) C2 (G)) = 2 4N itr(f abc ta tb tc ) =

Appendix C Evaluation of Traces

In this appendix we shall perform calculation of traces which appear in the squared matrix element (3.2.16). The traces under consideration have terms proportional to
the momentum of the tensor gauge bosons k1 and k2 . These terms can be ignored,

because after contraction with the corresponding transverse wave functions of the tensor gauge bosons e (k1 ) and e (k2 ) they give zero contribution. Therefore we shall calculate the traces up to the longitudinal terms which are proportional to the
vectors k1 . They are and k2

GG T r{ p+ ( k2 k1 ) p ( k2 k1 )} = 8[p+ (k2 k1 ) p (k2 k1 ) + p+ p k1 k2 ],

(LG )

T r{ p+ ( p k2 ) p ( k2 k1 )} = = 4{g [p+ p k1 k2 + p+ (k2 k1 ) p k2 + p+ k2 p (k2 k1 )] +

+ k1 k2 (p + p p p+ ) + 2p (k2 k1 )p+ p + 2p+ (k2 k1 )p p },

(RG )

T r{ p+ ( p k1 ) p ( k2 k1 )} = = 4{g [p+ p k1 k2 + p+ (k2 k1 ) p k1 + p+ k1 p (k2 k1 )] +

+ k1 k2 (p p+ p+ p ) + 2p (k2 k1 )p+ p + 2p+ (k2 k1 )p p },

97

98

(GL )

T r{ p+ ( k2 k1 ) p ( p k2 ) } = = 4{g [p+ p k1 k2 + p+ (k2 k1 ) p k2 + p+ k2 p (k2 k1 )] +

+ k1 k2 (p + p p p+ ) + 2p (k2 k1 )p+ p + 2p+ (k2 k1 )p p },

(GR )

T r{ p+ ( k2 k1 ) p ( p k1 ) } = = 4{g [p+ p k1 k2 + p+ (k2 k1 ) p k1 + p+ k1 p (k2 k1 )] +

+ k1 k2 (p + p p p+ ) + 2p (k2 k1 )p+ p + 2p+ (k2 k1 )p p },

(LL )

T r{ p+ ( p k2 ) p ( p k2 ) } =
= {16p ]+ p [p p+ + p+ p p + p g (p+ k2 p + + 8 p p k2 p+ )g [(p+ k2 p + p k2 p+ )g + ( p + k2 p ]+ p k2 p+ )g + + 8 p (p+ k2 p p k2 p+ )g [(p+ k2 p + p k2 p+ )g + ( p + k2 p ]+ p k2 p+ )g

+ 8p+ k2 p k2 [g g g g + g g ]},

(RR )

T r{ p+ ( p k1 ) p ( p k1 ) } =
]+ = {16p p [p+ p + p p+ p+ p g + (p+ k1 p + 8 p [(p+ k1 p + p k1 p+ )g p k1 p+ )g + (p+ k1 p ]+ p k1 p+ )g + 8 p [(p+ k1 p + p k1 p+ )g (p+ k1 p + p k1 p+ )g

+ (p+ k1 p ]+ p k1 p+ )g

+ 8p+ k1 p k1 [g g g g + g g ]},

99

(LR ) T r{ p+ ( p k2 ) p ( p k1 ) } = = 4k1 k2 p+ p g g + 4p+ k2 p k1 g g + 4p+ k1 p k2 g g 4k1 k2 p+ p g g + 4p+ k2 p k1 g g + 4p+ k1 p k2 g g + 4k1 k2 p+ p g g 4p+ k2 p k1 g g

4p+ k1 p k2 g g 4k1 k2 g p + p + 4k1 k2 g p p + p + p + 4k1 k2 g p+ p + 4k1 k2 g p + p + 8p k2 g 4k1 k2 g p p+ p + p 8p k2 g 4k1 k2 g p + p + 8p k2 g p+ p p+ p + 8p+ k2 g p p 4k1 k2 g 8p k1 g p p+ p + p + 4k1 k2 g 8p k1 g p p+ p + + p 4k1 k2 g 8p k1 g p p p + + p + 8p+ k1 g 8p+ k1 g p p p p + 8p+ k2 g 16p+ p g p p + 16p+ p p p + 4k1 k2 g p + p + 4k1 k2 g p+ p 4k1 k2 g p + p + 8p+ k2 g p p 8p+ k1 g p p + 16p+ p p p ,

100

(RL ) T r{ p+ ( p k1 ) p ( p k2 ) } = = 4k1 k2 p+ p g g + 4p+ k2 p k1 g g + 4p+ k1 p k2 g g 4k1 k2 p+ p g g + 4p+ k2 p k1 g g + 4p+ k1 p k2 g g + 4k1 k2 p+ p g g 4p+ k2 p k1 g g

4p+ k1 p k2 g g 4k1 k2 g p + p + p 8p k2 g p + p 4k1 k2 g + p + 8p k2 g p p + p + 4k1 k2 g + p 8p k2 g p p + p + + p 4k1 k2 g 4k1 k2 g p p+ p + p + 4k1 k2 g p 8p+ k2 g p + p + p + 4k1 k2 g 4k1 k2 g p p + p 4k1 k2 g + p + 8p+ k2 g p p p + 4k1 k2 g + p 8p k1 g p p+ p + p 4k1 k2 g + 8p k1 g p p + p 4k1 k2 g + p + 8p k1 g p p p + + p + 8 p + k1 g p 8p+ k2 g p p + p 16p+ p g 8p+ k1 g p p + 16p+ p p p 8p+ k1 g p p + 16p+ p p p .

(C.0.1) All these traces have been calculated with the use of the Mathematica program [49].

Appendix D Processes
D.1 ff V V

For reasons of completeness we present analytically the full calculation of the cross section for the process f f V V , where a fermion and an anti-fermion are annihilated to two vector gauge bosons [47].

D.1.1

Feynman diagrams-the scattering amplitude

The procedure is governed by the Yang-Mills Lagrangian (1.1.11). The expressions for the three diagrams that contribute to the process can be easily written down, using the Feynman rules (1.1.22), (1.1.23), (1.1.24), (1.1.27). One gets:

a,

= iM,ab A

k1 p +

for the t-channel diagram,

b,

k2 p

= (ig )2 v (p+ ) ta

i tb u(p ) (D.1.1) p k2

101

a, ,k1

iM,ab = B

for the u-channel diagram and a,

iM,ab G

= ig v (p+ ) tc u(p )(

p + k1 k2 k3 p + p

102

k2 ,b, i ta u(p ) (D.1.2) k2 p+

= (ig )2 v (p+ ) tb

b,

i )gf abc (k2 k1 ) + (k1 + k3 ) (k2 + k3 ) 2 k3 (D.1.3)

for the s-channel diagram. To get the scattering amplitude one sums the three channels and get: iM,ab = iM,ab + iM,ab + iM,ab = A B G = (ig )2 v (p+ ) ta tc ( i i tb + tb ta p k2 k2 p+

1 abc )f [ (k2 k1 ) + (k1 + k3 ) (k2 + k3 ) ] u(p ) 2 k3 (D.1.4)

D.1.2

Gauge invariance

To check the self-consistency of Yang-Mills theory, one of the outgoing vector bosons is put in longitudinal polarization, while all others are kept in physical-transverse

103

modes. It is expected that the amplitude vanishes. Let us take: e (k1 ) : transversal then
2 iM,ab e (p+ ) ta (k1 )k2 = (ig ) v

e (k2 ) = k2

i i k2 tb + k2 tb ta tc f abc u(p )e (k1 ) p k2 k2 p+ (D.1.5)

The simplication of the third term stems from the fact that
e (k1 )k1 = e (k1 )k2 = 0

Using the Dirac equation for both p and p+ , the rst two terms simplify and the above relation becomes:
2 iM,ab e (p+ ) i [ta , tb ] tc f abc u(p )e (k1 )k2 = (ig ) v (k1 )

(D.1.6)

which obviously cancels, using the generators Lie algebra.

D.1.3

Cross section

Now take both the outgoing vector bosons transversal. The third diagram simplies to
2 iM,ab e (p+ )( k1 k2 )tc u(p )( (k1 )e (k2 ) = (ig ) v G

1 abc )f e (k1 )e (k2 ) (D.1.7) 2 k3

Hence, iM,ab = (ig )2 v (p+ ) ta i i tb + tb ta + p k2 k2 p+ 1 + ( k1 k2 )tc ( 2 )f abc u(p )e (k1 )e (k2 )(D.1.8) k3

104

or, using the Dirac equation M,ab = M,ab + M,ab + M,ab = A B G = (ig )2 v (p+ ) ta
(2p (2p + k2 ) a k2 ) b t + tb t 2p k2 2p+ k2 1 i( k1 k2 )tc ( 2 )f abc u(p )e (k1 )e (k2 )(D.1.9) k3

To arrive to the nal expression for the cross section one needs to square the scattering amplitude. The complex conjugate is:
,ab ,ab ,ab M,ab = M + M + M = A B G k2 ) a a (2p+ k2 ) b t +t t + = (ig ) u (p ) t 2p k2 2p+ k2 1 + i( k1 k2 )tc ( 2 )f abc v (p+ )e (k1 )e (k(D.1.10) 2) k3 2 b (2p

Summing over the outgoing colors and transverse polarizations and averaging over the incoming spins and colors, one gets: 1 1 2 |M| = 4d(r)2 4d(r)2

M,ab M,ab
spins,colors

pols

E (k1 k2 )

= A A + A B + B A + B B + A G + B G + G A + G B + G G, (D.1.11)
where E (k1 k2 ) = e (k1 )e (k2 )e (k1 )e (k2 ).

From the completeness relations for the polarization vectors: e (k )e (k ) = +

pols

+ k k k k , kk

(D.1.12)

= (k 0 , k ) and from the kinematics of the process: where k 1 = k2 k , 2 = k1 , k

105

one has: E (k1 , k2 ) = k2 k1 + k1 k2 k1 k2 + k2 k1 + = k1 k2 k1 k2 = (k2 k1 + k1 k2 ) (k1 k2 + k2 k1 ) + k1 k2 k1 k2 1 + (k1 k2 + k2 k1 )(k2 k1 + k1 k2 ), (D.1.13) (k1 k2 )2 +

from where we see that the tensor E (k1 , k2 ) is symmetric under the interchange ( ) (). Let us see how the calculation goes for A A. A A = 1 4d2 (r) g 4 tr(tb ta ta tb ) 1 tr p (2p k2 ) p+ (2p k2 ) E (k1 , k2 ), 2 4(p k2 ) (D.1.14) where we have used the completeness relations: us (p) us (p) =
s s

v s (p) v s (p) = p.

(D.1.15)

Using the Dirac algebra of the gamma matrices one nds:

tr p (2p k2 ) p+ (2p k2 ) = + = 16p p p p+ + p+ p (p+ p ) [(p+ k2 )p + + 8 p (p k2 )p+ ] [(p+ k2 )p + (p k2 )p+ ] + [(p+ k2 )p (p k2 )p+ ] + 8 p [(p+ k2 )p + [(p+ k2 )p + (p k2 )p+ ] (p k2 )p+ ] + [(p+ k2 )p (p k2 )p+ ]

+ 8(p+ k2 )(p k2 )[ + ]

(D.1.16)

106

Also, from the group properties of the algebra generators (see Appendix A):
2 tr(tb ta ta tb ) = C2 (r)d(r).

Putting all these together, one nds: A A = 1 cos g4 d ( r ) C ( r ) C ( r )8 (1 + cos + cos 2) 2 2 4d2 (r) 1 + cos (D.1.17)

The remaining contributions can be evaluated in a similar manner. A B = B A = g4 d(r)C2 (r)[C2 (r) C2 (G)]8 cos2 4d2 (r) (D.1.18)

BB =

1 + cos g4 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (r)8 (1 cos + cos 2) 2 4d (r) 1 cos g4 1 d(r)C2 (r)C2 (G)(4) sin2 4d2 (r) 2

(D.1.19)

A G = R G = G A = G B =

(D.1.20)

G G =

g4 C2 (G)C2 (r)4 sin2 2 4d (r)

(D.1.21)

The dierential scattering cross section for the process, averaged over the initial states of the fermions (spins and colors) and summed over the nal states of the gauge bosons (polarizations and colors), in the center of mass frame and for an SU (N ) gauge symmetry group is the following: ( d 1 1 ( 2 )c.m. = 2 2 d 256 E 4N = where ag =
g2 . 4

|M|2 ) = N2 (1 + cos2 ) 1 , (D.1.22) 2

N 1 N3

spins,colors 2 g 1 + cos2 2

4s

sin

107

D.2

VV VV

Here we shall review the well known result for the three-level gluon scattering V + V V + V [47] in order to compare it with the tensor scattering considered above: V + V T + T [46].

D.2.1

Feynman diagrams

Four Feynman diagram contribute into this scattering. The contribution of the tchannel diagram can be expressed in the form: c, d,

iMI =

k1 a,

b, i bdf aec (k2 , q2 , p)e (k1 )e (k2 )e = V (k1 , p, q1 ) 2 ef V (q1 )e (q2 ) p ig 2 ace bde f f [ (k1 + p) + (q1 p) (q1 + k1 ) ] = p2 [ (k2 + q2 ) (q2 + p) + (p k2 ) ]
e (k1 )e (k2 )e (q1 )e (q2 ) =

q1 q2 e, p

f, k2

ig 2 ace bde f f p2 [(q1 p) e(k1 )]e (q1 ) + [(k1 + p) e (q1 )]e (k1 ) (q1 + k1 ) [e(k1 ) e (q1 )]
[(p + q2 ) e(k2 )]e (q2 ) + [(p k2 ) e (q2 )]e (k2 ) + (q2 + k2 ) [e(k2 ) e (q2 )]

(D.2.1)

that of the u-channel: c, , q1

iMII =

k1 a,

b, i bcf aed = V (k1 , p , q2 ) 2 ef V (k2 , q1 , p )e (k1 )e (k2 )e (q1 )e (q2 ) p ig 2 ade bce f f [ (k1 + p ) + (q2 p ) (q2 + k1 ) ] = p2 [ (k2 + q1 ) (q1 + p ) + (p k2 ) ]
e (k1 )e (k2 )e (q1 )e (q2 ) =

e, p

108

q2 , d,

f, = k2

ig 2 ade bce f f p2 [(q2 p ) e(k1 )]e (q2 ) + [(k1 + p ) e (q2 )]e (k1 ) (q2 + k1 ) [e(k1 ) e (q2 )]
[(p + q1 ) e(k2 )]e (q1 ) + [(p k2 ) e (q1 )]e (k2 ) + (q1 + k2 ) [e(k2 ) e (q1 )]

(D.2.2)

The s-channel contribution is: c,

iMIII =

b, i f dc bea = V (k2 , p , k1 ) 2 ef V (p , q2 , q1 )e (k1 )e (k2 )e (q1 )e (q2 ) p ig 2 abe cde f f [ (k2 + p ) (p + k1 ) + (k1 k2 ) ] = p2 [ (p + q2 ) + (q1 q2 ) (q1 + p ) ]
e (k1 )e (k2 )e (q1 )e (q2 ) =

a,

q1 f, q2 p e, k1 k2

109

d,

ig 2 ade bce f f p2 [(p + k2 ) e(k1 )]e (k2 ) [(p + k1 ) e(k2 )]e (k1 ) + (k1 k2 ) [e(k1 ) e(k2 )]
[(p + q2 ) e (q1 )]e (q2 ) [(p + q1 ) e (q2 )]e (q1 ) + (q1 q2 ) [e (q1 ) e (q2 )]

(D.2.3)

Finally, the contact diagram is: c,

iMIV

a,

= ig 2

q1 q2 e k1 k2 , ,

110

d,

b,

(f abe f cde f bce f ade )[e(k1 ) e (q1 )][e(k2 ) e (q2 )]

(f abe f cde f ace f bde )[e(k1 ) e (q2 )][e(k2 ) e (q1 )] + + (f ace f bde f ade f bce )[e(k1 ) e(k2 )][e (q1 ) e (q2 )] (D.2.4)

D.2.2

Gauge invariance

We check gauge invariance with two left-handed incoming gluons, one right-handed and one longitudinal outgoing gluons. In the center of mass frame the kinematics of the process are as follows:

k1 = k (1, 0, 0, 1) = k (1, sin , 0, cos ) q1

k2 = k (1, 0, 0, 1) q2 = k (1, sin, 0, cos )

1 1 eL (k1 ) = (0, 1, i, 0) , eL (k2 ) = (0, 1, i, 0) 2 2 1 eR (q1 ) = (0, cos , i, sin ) , eI (q2 ) = q2 , 2 where R, L and I stand for right-handed, left-handed and longitudinal polarizations. Substituting the above expressions in equations (D.2.1), (D.2.2), (D.2.3), (D.2.4) we

111

x
 q1

k1
E

'

k2

q2

Figure D.1: Incoming and outgoing momenta in the center-of-mass frame

get: iMI (LL RI ) = igk 2 f ace f bde iMII (LL RI ) = igk 2 f ade f bce (1 cos ) sin 2 2

(1 + cos ) sin 2 2 iMIII (LL RI ) = igk 2 f abe f cde 2 sin

sin (1 + cos ) sin ade bce (1 cos ) sin iMIV (LL RI ) = ig 2 f abe f cde +f ace f bde f f 2 2 2 2 2 Each of the terms in iMIV is combined with the rst three diagrams to give ig 2 iM(LL RI ) = k sin f abe f cde + f ace f dbe + f ade f bce 2 which vanishes by Jacobi identity. The cancellation is rather delicate. The forth diagram is combined with each of the rst three diagrams to give the cancellation. In a similar way one can show that the scattering amplitude vanishes for every possible combination of helicities provided that one particle is in longitudinal polarization.

112

D.2.3

Scattering amplitudes

Now let us calculate the scattering amplitudes for each possible combination of physical-transverse polarizations. Because of parity and crossing symmetry from the 16 possible amplitudes only 5 are dierent. One has the following equalities: iM(LL LL) = iM(RR RR), iM(LL RR) = iM(RR LL),

iM(LL LR) = iM(RR LR) = iM(LR LL) = iM(LR RR) = = iM(LL RL) = iM(RR RL) = iM(RL LL) = iM(RL RR), iM(LR LR) = iM(RL RL), For the t-channel diagram: iMI (LL LL) =
ig 2 ace bde f f (39 8

iM(LR RL) = iM(RL LR).

24 cos + cos 2) cot2 sin2 sin4 cos4

2 2

iMI (LL LR) = iMI (LL RR) = iMI (LR LR) = iMI (LR RL) = for the u-channel diagram: iMII (LL LL) =

ig 2 ace bde f f 4

ig 2 ace bde f f 2 ig 2 ace bde f f 2 ig 2 ace bde f f 2

3+cos sin2 2 3+cos sin2 2 3+cos sin2 2

, sin4 2

(D.2.5)

ig 2 ade bce f f (39 8

+ 24 cos + cos 2) tan2 sin2 cos4 cos4

2 2

iMII (LL LR) = iMII (LL RR) = iMII (LR LR) = iMII (LR RL) =

ig 2 ade bce f f 4

ig 2 ade bce f f 2 ig 2 ade bce f f 2 ig 2 ade bce f f 2

3cos cos2 2 3cos cos2 2 3cos cos2 2

sin4 2 ,

(D.2.6)

113

for the s-channel diagram: iMIII (LL LL) = ig 2 f abe f cde cos iMIII (LL LR) = 0 iMIII (LL RR) = ig 2 f abe f cde cos iMIII (LR LR) = 0 iMIII (LR RL) = 0 and for the contact diagram:
) + f ade f bce (1 cos4 2 ) iMIV (LL LL) = ig 2 f abe f cde cos + f ace f bde (1 sin4 2

(D.2.7)

(f ace f bde + f ade f bce ) sin2 iMIV (LL LR) = ig 4

iMIV (LL RR) = ig 2 f abe f cde cos + f ace f bde (1 cos4 2 ) + f ade f bce (1 sin4 2 )

iMIV (LR LR) = ig 2 (f ace f bde + f ade f bce ) cos2 iMIV (LR RL) = ig 2 (f ace f bde + f ade f bce ) sin2 . So for the total amplitudes one has: iMLLLL = 4ig 2 1 f ace f bde + 1 cos 1 f ade f bce 1 + cos (D.2.9) (D.2.8)

iMLRLR = 2ig 2 cos2

cot f ace f bde + tan f ade f bce cot 2 2 2 2 1 f ace f bde + 1 cos

(D.2.10)

iMLRRL = ig 2 (1 cos )2

1 f ade f bce (D.2.11) 1 + cos

together with iMLLLR = 0, iMLLRR = 0. Thus only 3 2 = 6 of 16 helicity amplitudes are nonzero.

114

D.2.4

Cross Section

Squaring the matrix elements one can get |MLLLL |2 = 3 + cos2 16g 4 2 C2 (G) , d(G) sin4 (D.2.12)

g4 2 3 + cos2 |MLRLR | = C2 (G) (1 + cos )4 , 4 d(G) sin

2

(D.2.13)

|MLRRL |2 =

g4 2 3 + cos2 (1 cos )4 . C2 (G) d(G) sin4

(D.2.14)

Using these formulas and (3.3.1) one can easily get the cross section:
2 2 C2 (G) (4 sin2 )3 d = d. s d(G) 32 sin4

(D.2.15)

It is also instructive to compare the above helicity amplitudes (D.2.5)-(D.2.8) with the corresponding helicity amplitudes for the tensor gauge bosons (3.3.16)-(3.3.19). The characteristic feature of the squared amplitudes (D.2.12) - (D.2.14) is that they increase at small angles 0, and therefore the scattering is mostly going into forward and backward directions. In contrast to that behavior tensor gauge boson amplitudes (3.3.23)-(3.3.25) are decreasing at 0, and increasing in the transverse direction /2.

D.3

e+e W +W

Since the dierential cross section for the production of two transversal gauge bosons T T is similar to the standard electroweak result in the of spin 2 in the process f f process e+ e W + W , it is instructive to expose here the complete calculation for the scattering amplitude and the cross section for this process.

115

D.3.1

Lagrangian

The total Lagrangian that unies electromagnetism with the weak interactions is symmetric under local gauge transformations generated by the group U (1)Y SU (2)L . Since the weak vector bosons should be massive, the SU (2) gauge symmetry must be spontaneously broken. The Lagrangian is: R i R + +g (W + J + + W J + Z 0 J ) + eA J L i L + L = e e e e W W Z em 1 a a 1 Y Y F F F + LHiggs , F 4 4 where L e =
L L e

(D.3.1)

1 L L + JW = ( e ) 2 1 L L JW = ( e ) 2 1 L ( 1 ) L + L ( 1 + sin2 w ) L + R (sin2 w ) R JZ = e e e e cos w 2 2 e e J =

em Y F = B B a a F = A a A + g abc c Ab A

(D.3.2)

D.3.2

Feynman diagrams

In the process contribute 3 diagrams:

, W

iMI =

, W

iMII =

, W

iMII =

Since v L (odd # of s)uR = v R (odd # of s)uL = 0, the polarizations of the

+ + incoming electrons can be combined in just two ways: e R eL and eL eR . We will treat

k k+ p p + k k+ Z0 p p + p p+

116

W +,

(D.3.3)

e+

W +,

(D.3.4)

e+

W +,

k+ (D.3.5)

e+

the two cases separately. The high energy limit considered here, enables us to neglect
w mz the mass of the fermion and terms of the order O( m , E ). E

117

D.3.3

+ + e R eL W W

iMI = v R uR (ie)

i ie q2

(k k+ ) (q + k ) + (q + k+ ) e (k+ )e (k )

(D.3.6) iMII = v R uR (ie) i ie m2 Z

(k k+ ) (q + k ) + (q + k+ ) e (k+ )e (k )

q2

(D.3.7) iMIII = 0, (D.3.8)

since only left-handed electrons participate in weak interactions. Adding these together we get: iM = iMI + iMII + iMIII = = ie2 v R uR m2 z q 2 (q 2 m2 z) (k k+ ) (q + k ) + (q + k+ ) (D.3.9)

e (k+ )e (k ),

where q = k + k+ The kinematics of the process in the center-of-mass frame are briey sketched below:

p = (E, 0, 0, E ) , p+ = (E, 0, 0, E ) k = (E, k sin , 0, k cos ) , k+ = (E, k sin , 0, k cos ),

where E =

k 2 + m2 w. uR (p ) = 0 0 0 0 2E , vR (p+ ) = 2E 1 0 0 1

118

x
 k

p
E

'

p+

k+

Figure D.2: Incoming and outgoing momenta in the center-of-mass frame

0 cos

0 1 e ( k ) = R 2 0

0 sin 1 1 cos = = eL (k+ ) 2 0 1 0 i i 0 sin 0 cos 0 sin 0 1 cos eL (k ) = = eR (k+ ) 2 i sin 1 0 0 0 k k 0 cos 0 sin 0 E sin 1 1 e = I (k ) = mw 0 m w 0 1 0 0 0 0 sin 0 cos E E cos

119

1 e I (k+ ) = mw Using the fact that

E sin 0 E cos

k e L,R,I (k ) = k+ eL,R,I (k+ ) = 0, k eL,R (k+ ) = k+ eL,R (k ) = 0

that
e R,L (k ) eI (k ) = 0

that + ) qu(p ) = 0, v (p and with the aid of the program presented on the next subsection we get:

+ + 2 iM(e R eL WL WL ) = 2ie

m2 z ( vR k uR )(e L+ eL ) = q 2 (q 2 m2 ) z ie2 m2 z = k sin 0 (D.3.10) E (4E 2 m2 z)

+ + + + iM(e R eL WL WR ) = iM(eR eL WR WL ) = 0

(D.3.11)

+ + iM(e R eL WR WR ) =

ie2 m2 z k sin 0 E (4E 2 m2 z)

(D.3.12)

+ iM(e R eL

WI+ WI )

= 2ie

m2 z 2 2 q (q m2 z)

( vR k uR )(e vR ( e I + eI ) + [ I + eI )uR ](k+ eI )

ie2

m2 z sin 2m2 w

(D.3.13)

120

m2 z + + 2 iM(e e W W ) = 2 ie ( vR e R uR )(k eI + ) R L I R 2 2 2 q (q mz ) 2 mz mz ie2 (1 + cos ) (D.3.14) 4 E mw

m2 z + + 2 ( vR e iM(e e W W ) = 2 ie L uR )(k eI + ) R L I L q 2 (q 2 m2 ) z 2 mz mz (1 cos ) (D.3.15) ie2 4 E mw

+ iM(e R eL

+ WR WI )

m2 z = 2ie ( vR e R+ uR )(k+ eI ) 2 2 2 q (q mz ) 2 mz mz (1 cos ) (D.3.16) ie2 4 E mw

2

m2 z + + 2 iM(e e W ( vR e W ) = 2 ie L+ uR )(k+ eI ) R L L I q 2 (q 2 m2 ) z 2 mz mz (1 + cos ) (D.3.17) ie2 4 E mw

121

D.3.4

+ e+ R eL W W

Now we have contributions from the three diagrams.

iMI = v L uL (ie)

i ie q2

(k k+ ) (q + k ) + (q + k+ ) e + e

(D.3.18)

iMII = v L uL

ie2 1 1 ( + sin2 w ) 2 2 q m2 sin w 2 z

(k k+ ) (q + k ) + (q + k+ ) e + e

(D.3.19)

iMIII =

1 ig 2 [ vL e + ( p k ) e uL ] 2 (p k )2

(D.3.20)

Adding the rst two contributions we get: i(MI + MII ) = ie2 ( vL uL ) 1 2 q m2 z m2 1 z 2 q 2 sin2 w

(k k+ ) (q + k ) + (q + k+ ) e + e

(D.3.21)
w,z 2 Neglecting terms of O( mE ) we get (see program in the next subsection):

122

+ + iM(e L eR WL WL ) = 0

+ + iM(e L eR WL WR ) =

ig 2 cos 1 2 cos 1 ig 2 cos + 1 2 cos 1

sin

+ + iM(e L eR WR WL ) =

sin

+ + iM(e L eR WR WR ) = 0

+ iM(e L eR

WI+ WI )

ig 2 mz = 4 mw

sin

+ iM(e L eR

WI+ WL )

ig 2 mw = 2 2 E

1 mz (1 + cos ) + 2 mw

(1 + cos )

ig 2 mw + + iM(e e W W ) = L R I R 2 2 E

(1 + cos )

1 mz 2 mw

(1 cos )

ig 2 mw + + W ) = iM(e e W I L R L 2 2 E

(1 + cos )

1 mz 2 mw

(1 cos )

ig 2 mw + + e W W ) = iM(e R I L R 2 2 E

(1 + cos ) +

1 mz 2 mw

(1 + cos )

123

In the high energy limit the total, squared scattering amplitude averaged over the initial electron spins will be: mz 1 g4 12 |M|2 = 4 spins 16 mw d d 1 1 (4 )2 16E 2
2

5 mz 4 mw

2(1 + cos2 ) sin2 2 (1 cos )

=
CM

mw E

1 4

|M|2

d d

CM

a2 1 mz g = 12 2 16 (4E ) mw

5 mz + 4 mw

2(1 + cos2 ) sin2 (1 cos )2

The cross section for production of two longitudinal Ws is: d d where g =

+ (e e+ W0 W0 )= CM

1 + sin4 w 2 sin2 d, 256 s sin4 w cos4 w

e sin w

and cos w =

mw . mz

What is remarkable is that the angular depen-

T T process. dance (sin2 ) is exactly as the f f

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