Bottled Water:

The Risks to Our Health, Our Environment, and Our Wallets

Marguerite Kaye Huber School of Public and Environmental Affairs Honors Thesis V499 Fall 2010

Table of Contents
Abstract.2 Water is Essential to Life, Though Not out of a Bottle ...............................................................................................3 The Numbers Dont Lie, But the Advertisers Do ........................................................................................................4 Why Do We Drink Bottled Water? .............................................................................................................................5 EPA and FDA Regulations ...........................................................................................................................................7 Health ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12 PET ....................................................................................................................................................................... 14 BPA ...................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Environment ............................................................................................................................................................ 20 Where Do All Our Bottles Go? ............................................................................................................................. 20 Energy Consumption and Waste ......................................................................................................................... 24 Groundwater Depletion ...................................................................................................................................... 27 Economics ................................................................................................................................................................ 28 Price of Tap versus Bottled Water....................................................................................................................... 29 Is it Worth It? ....................................................................................................................................................... 30 The Big Businesses: Nestl, Pepsi, Coke .............................................................................................................. 30 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 31 The Municipal Water Systems are Flawed Too ................................................................................................... 32 Updating Infrastructure ....................................................................................................................................... 33 Ethics ................................................................................................................................................................... 34 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................. 36 Figures and Tables ................................................................................................................................................... 38

Bottled Water: The Risks to Our Health, Our Environment, and Our Wallets

Marguerite Kaye Huber Environmental Management Junior Abstract submitted for SPEA Undergraduate Honors Thesis Presentations

Melissa Clark Lecturer School of Public and Environmental Affairs Faculty Mentor

The simplicity and ease of disposable bottled water has become the norm for most Americans. This generation has become increasingly dependent on the plastic pollutant. Each bottle purchased does not just relieve our thirst, but affects a slew of other aspects of life. Each purchase and consumption of bottled water could be dangerous to ones health, damaging to the environment, and adds up to water that is 1,900 times more expensive than tap water. Since water is vital to life on this planet, it should be expected that drinking a bottle of it would be beneficial to your body. Unfortunately, this water could be laced with PET and BPA that has leached from the plastic containers that hold it. Both PET and BPA can cause serious health issues. Even those who just live near bottling plants are experiencing heightened health concerns. These billions of plastic bottles do not just disappear. They are tossed into landfills and are littering our ecosystems and oceans. The bottles production also produces harmful plastic byproducts. Furthermore, the extraction of the water to fill these bottles taps into already depleting groundwater sources. In addition, bottlers are even diminishing community water sources for their own profit-making use. The price of bottled water is extraordinarily higher than the price of tap water, but in most cases, the water quality is very similar. There is even a chance that an expensive bottle of water is just purified municipal tap water. The notion that tap water is bad has allowed bottled water purchases to skyrocket, and has given big bottlers such as Nestl, Coca-Cola, and Pepsi the chance to rake in billions of dollars. The increasing dependency on bottled water may not have happened had our governments not neglected to preserve watersheds, and monitor and update aging pipes and infrastructure. There happen to be skeptics of both bottle and tap, but either way, good quality drinking water is going to become harder and harder to find. Overall, I want to prove that bottled water is not all it is made out to be, while noting that municipal systems also need to increase their standards to provide clean drinking water to all.

Water is Essential to Life, Though Not out of a Bottle

Water is an essential element to life on planet Earth. Everyone needs water to survive, especially when up to 60% of the human body is composed of it (USGS, 2009). Approximately 75% of the earths surface is covered by water, but only 1% of that is drinkable (Soechtig, 2009). Therefore clean drinking water is not as abundant as it may seem. With water as a limited available resource, and not as plentiful in some regions as it is in others, it has recently become common for water to be bottled and sold. Representative Dennis Kuchinich (D) of Ohio claims that, Water is a basic human right, its necessary for survival of life. When you start commodifying the necessities of life in such a way as to make it more difficult for people to gain access, you have the basis for serious political instability, (Soechtig, 2009). Serious political instability is now the reality. Water has become profitable and marketed to those who can afford buying bottled waters when they already have access to clean water out of their tap. The World Bank places the value of the world water market at $800 billion. They see water as blue gold; they do not see it as a fundamental right, only a way to make a profit, according to Ruth Caplan, the National Coordinator for Defending Water for Like Alliance for Democracy (Gleick, 2010, p. 9). The heart of the controversy over selling water is that water is fundamentally no different than oil or any other private commodity (Gleick, 2010, p. 9). We no longer see water as a basic human right, but as a product with an enlarged price sticker that we pick up in the store, rather than get from our kitchen sink, or water fountain. We no longer drink from public water fountains and having easy accessibility to bottled water has decreased their demand. The more we buy bottled water, the more we are convinced that bottled water is not a luxury, but rather a necessity (Gleick, 2010, p. 107). We have been persuaded by big businesses such as Nestl, Coca-Cola and Pepsi to drink more bottled water. Our nation has been brainwashed to believe that paying a thousand times more for individual plastic bottles and not taking advantage of our readily available tap water is a rational idea (Gleick, 2010, p. XII).

Perfectly summed up in his book, Bottled and Sold: the Story Behind our Obsession with Bottled Water, Peter Gleick writes, Certainly, the environmental problems with bottled water, the economic costs to pocketbooks, and the growing support for improving tap water quality and reliability are all contributing to new thinking about the simple act of buying a plastic bottle of water, (Gleick, 2010, p. 161). Each simple purchase does not just relieve our thirst, but affects a slew of other aspects of life. Each purchase and consumption of bottled water could be dangerous to ones health, damaging to the environment, and adds up to water that is 1,900 times more expensive than tap water. It doesnt look like common sense to continue purchasing bottled water due to the enormous ramifications it causes, but millions upon millions of people keep buying, keep drinking, and keep polluting every single day.

The Numbers Dont Lie, But the Advertisers Do

Decades ago, portable, plastic water bottles did not exist in the United States. Perrier was one of the first brands of bottled water to become popular. According to Elizabeth Royte, author of 2008s Bottlemania, people did not start walking down the street with their water bottles until 1989 when water could be put in clear, lightweight bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). After that, bottled water sales in the 90s tripled in size, from 4.5 gallons per year for the average American in 1986, to 12.7 gallons per year per person in 1997 (NRDC, 1999). More recently, in 2007, Americans bought more than 29 billion bottles of water (Soechtig, 2009). Unfortunately, Americans now drink more bottled water than milk or beer (Table 1), with the average American consuming roughly 30 gallons of bottled water each year, largely from single-serving plastic containers (Gleick, 2010, p. 6). Even more unfortunate, it has even been estimated that one fourth of bottled water we are buying is actually bottled tap water (NRDC, 1999). A scary thought is that, every second of every day in the United States, a thousand people buy and open up a plastic bottle of commercially produced water, and every second of every day in the United States, a thousand plastic bottles are thrown away, 85 million bottles a day. More than 30 billion bottles a year at a cost

to consumers of tens of billions of dollars, (Gleick, 2010, p. IX). To put that into perspective, if it took a reader 20 seconds to read just this paragraph, 20,000 bottles have already arrived in the landfill. Just think how many will be in there after that reader finished this paper. Basically, Americans are bottled water gluttons. Bottled water is around every corner and extremely accessible. Why is this? The big water bottle businesses have paid millions of dollars to tell us to drink more water, but not just any water, only bottled water. Craig Stevens, V.P. Communications of the American Beverage Association asserts that, The bottled water industry does not see itself in competition with tap water, (Soechtig, 2009). Despite Stevens claim, there have been several people who have come right out and stated that it is a cut-throat competition. For example, Susan Wellington, President of Quakers U.S. beverage division, was caught saying, When were done, tap water will be relegated to showers and washing dishes, (Soechtig, 2009). Furthermore, Robert S. Morrison, chief of Gatorades parent, Quaker Oats Co., blatantly pronounced that, The biggest enemy is tap water. It is impractical, however, for many bottled water companies to bash tap water, because ironically many rely on it as their main water source (Soechtig, 2009).

Why Do We Drink Bottled Water?

If Americans are buying so much bottled water, there has to be a good reason why they are spending substantial amounts of money on it. There are four main reasons why people buy bottled water: fear of their tap water, taste, style, and convenience (Gleick, 2010, p. XI).

Fear of Tap
We all try to avoid the things that we fear. Some people fear that the water that comes out of their tap will harm them. Fear of sickness and of invisible contamination is an effective tool (Gleick, 2010, p. 6). A lot of Americans are afraid of waterborne diseases, microbes, and dirty pathogens they do not really know anything about. The fear of tap water could come from considerable media coverage about illness due to drinking municipal tap water rather than drinking bottled, or because bottled water advertisers inadvertently suggest 5

that tap water is inferior to bottled. The percentage of people who drink bottled water based on the fact that they think it is safer than tap water is 35% according to the American Water Works Association Research Foundations Consumer Attitude Survey on Water Quality Issues (Figure 1).

Taste
On the other hand, only 7% drink bottled water based on taste (Figure 1). Usually a concoction of minerals are added to bottled water to make it taste good. Some minerals are required for a decent taste. By necessity, therefore, Coca-Cola then adds a carefully prepared mix of minerals- pixie dust some in the industry call it- back into the water to create a finished product with a standardized taste, no matter where the water originated or was processed, (Gleick, 2010, p. 80). So a bottle of Dasani is going to taste exactly the same no matter where the source water came from. This is unlike tap water, where each source and region has a distinct taste. When taken out of its plastic bottle, numerous surveys have shown most people cannot distinguish between bottled waters or between tap and bottled water when served at the same temperature (Gleick, 2010, p. 81).

Style
Barbara Lippert, an ad critic for Adweek Media claims that bottled water is the greatest advertising trick of all time (Soechtig, 2009). Royte admits that Pepsi and Coke have spent hundreds of millions of dollars to get us to drink more water. The companies claim drinking their water will make you healthier and more beautiful. They associate their waters with celebrities, athletes, and models to entice you to buy more bottled water. If Alisters drink expensive bottled water, you should too. Royte also observed that bottled water advertisements make the implication that tap water is unhealthy, by using words like pure to describe their waters. This trick then implies that tap water is impure, thus attributing to the fear of tap.

Convenience
Not only is this generation one of bottled water guzzlers, it is a rather lazy and selfish generation too. Lippert accurately claims,We need to know that there is something, just for us, that we can throw away. We want everything individualized and personalized, just for us. And not to have to wash it or take care of it, we want to just throw it away. And we want it immediately available and convenient otherwise well have a fit, (Soechtig, 2009). There is no responsibility required with bottled water. We buy it, we drink it, and then we throw it away, never to be thought of again. There is no thought of what reprocussions this purchase has. The single-serve bottle is not just convenient because it can be thrown away, but also because there usually is no other option. It has become a challenge to find a public water fountain these days, even in areas like schools and sports arenas. Even so the bottled water industry has spent their money making their product as convenient as possible (Gleick, 2010, p. 86). The public is ultimately being forced to purchase bottled water because some buildings no longer accommodate for the free public water that used to be so popular and convenient.

EPA and FDA Regulations

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the regulatory agency behind the public water supplies of surface water through the Safe Drinking Water Act. Bottled drinking water on the other hand mainly comes from groundwater, but since many municipalities already use surface water as their source, and some bottlers use municipality sources, bottled water can come from surface water as well. Additionally, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates bottled water as a packaged food under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The EPA then creates the standards for tap water that is supplied by public suppliers, while the FDA creates standards for bottled water based off the EPA standards (EPA, 2005). The reason the two waters are regulated under different entities is because bottled water did not truly exist when the laws were being drafted. The federal agencies given oversight over our drinking water have no 7

authority over bottled water- a product never anticipated by the drafters of the original federal drinking water laws. Instead the FDA regulates bottled water because it is considered a food product sold in individual containers, (Gleick, 2010, p. 34).

EPA Safe Drinking Water Act

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) requires the EPA to establish primary and secondary national standards for public water systems to control the level of contaminants in drinking water (US GAO, 2009). National primary regulations are legally enforceable standards of contaminant levels, while national secondary regulations are non-enforceable standards that affect the aesthetic or cosmetic qualities of the water, such as taste, odor, and color (US GAO, 2009). The EPA has national primary drinking water regulations for 88 contaminants (US GAO, 2009). The SDWA also requires public water systems to release annual water quality reports to their customers that summarize local water quality about the waters source, quality, and contaminants (US GAO, 2009). These public water quality reports can be accessed online at anytime. The SDWA even provides provisions to protect groundwater sources, funds for water system upgrades, and assessment of drinking water sources to contamination (EPA, 2009). Accordingly, tap water is rigorously tested under such EPA supervision. Tap water that comes from a public supplier requires disinfection, hundreds of tests per month for bacteria, pathogen filtration, no confirmed E. coli and Fecal Coliform, testing for Cryptosporidium and Giardia, and one per quarter testing for synthetic organic chemicals (NRDC, 1999). Bottled water does not have such regulation (Table 2). There are even certain regulated contaminants that must be monitored in city tap water and not in bottled water. Some of these contaminants include asbestos, bromate, Di (2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate, and Haloacetic acids (NRDC, 1999). There is also a long list of unregulated contaminants for tap water that do not have a maximum contaminant limit, but still must be measured. Some of the unregulated contaminants that are monitored in tap water and not in bottled water include Dibromomethane, Chlorotoluene, and Dichloropropene (NRDC, 1999).

The annual reports that are required by the law inform the community of the types and size of contamination that may occur in their drinking water. The 2010 Water Quality Report for Bloomington, Indiana, provides the public with sources of their contamination, the highest levels allowed, the highest levels detected, and the EPAs ideal goals (Table 3). If there is anything in the water quality report the community is unsure of, they are encouraged to call the EPAs Safe Drinking Water Hotline.

FDA Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

On the other hand, bottled water is not as strictly regulated under the FDA. Bottled water regulation is also filled with loopholes that allow some waters to be unreliable. For example, water that is packaged and sold in the same state is exempt from FDA regulations, and that includes 60-70% of the bottled water sold in the United States (NRDC, 1999). FDAs review chemist in food safety, Lauren Robin, explains, If it is produced in Maine, and sold within Maine, it is not under FDA jurisdiction. We regulate products that are in interstate commerce. That means products that move from state to state, (Soechtig, 2009). Bottled water is tested significantly less for contaminants and purity than tap water. The FDA allows for E. coli and Fecal Coliform contamination, unlike tap water (NRDC, 1999). Bottled water does not have to be tested for Cryptosporidium and Giardia either. The reason the FDA has no standard for Cryptosporidium is because bottled water comes from either a municipal source or spring water, which is also groundwater, and thus should be protected from such contamination. Bottlers do not have to test for it because they just assume that the contaminants arent there (Gleick, 2010, p. 76). In addition, no disinfection or pathogen filtration is required, bacteria testing only takes place once a week, and testing for synthetic organic chemicals is only once a year (NRDC, 1999). Bottlers are not invincible, and one should not assume so. The EPA has even found 27 percent of groundwater wells studied to sometimes have viral contamination. The Agencys report states, EPA determined that there is the potential for ground water to be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria or viruses, or both, 9

and that the presence of fecal indicators can demonstrate a pathway for pathogenic enteric bacteria or viruses to enter ground water sources, (Gleick, 2010, p. 77). Since bottlers assume the contaminants are not there, they are not testing for them, or doing anything proactive about it. If contaminants exist the EPA requires municipal water to be treated while, bottled water is not required to do so (Gleick, 2010, p. 77). Furthermore, the FDA does not require bottled water manufacturers to submit a regular testing report to the agency (Soechtig, 2009). These reports are also not made available to the public. Jane Houlihan, Vice President of Research at Environmental Working Group, quipped, Those tests can stay hidden in company filing cabinets, they can stay in back up hard drives, (Soechtig, 2009). Ultimately, the public is not going to see them. Overall, rules and regulations do not seem to apply for bottled water. A July 2007 report on general food safety from the House Energy and Commerce Committee states, FDA has no rules governing testing protocols, record retention. . . manufacturing, quality assurance and control, or the right to examine any records that a food processing firm chooses to keep voluntarily, (Royte, 2008, p. 145). According to William K. Hubbard, a former FDA assistant commissioner, most domestic plants are inspected only once every 5 to 10 years (Royte, 2008, p. 145). That is not nearly enough to provide safe drinking water to consumers. The rules are not even rules; they are suggestions as in Title 21, part 129, section 35 of the FDA regulations, which specifies details for testing bottled water, states: Analysis of the sample may be performed for the plant by competent commercial laboratories (e.g., EPA and State-certified laboratories). [emphasis added+ (Gleick, 2010, p. 41). Should we be drinking bottled water that does not have to be tested?

The International Bottled Water Association and NSF International

Specifically, the EPA and the FDA do not certify bottled water, so there are two organizations that do: The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) and NSF International (EPA, 2005). The IBWA is a trade organization for water bottlers and requires its members to meet its model code and annual inspections (EPA, 2005). An example of an IBWA certified company is Nestl Waters North America Inc., which includes brands 10

such as Ice Mountain, San Pellegrino, Poland Spring, Perrier, and Nestl Pure Life (IBWA, 2009). NSF International has its members undergo random unannounced plant inspections, and those who are certified must meet all FDA requirements (EPA, 2005). Some NSF International certified brands include Nestl Waters North America Inc.s Arrowhead, and then Fiji, and Evian (NSF, 2010).

Different Agencies, Different Rules

It makes sense that if our waters are not under the same regulation that there will be discrepancy between them. Both the EPA and the FDA have many other duties besides just testing and making sure our water is safe to drink. David Michaels (PH.D., M.P.H.), an Environmental and Occupational Health Professor at George Washington University revealed that the FDA is overwhelmed with the drug industry, causing the inspection and regulation of bottled water to be of a lower priority (Soechtig, 2009). While utilities test tap water hundreds of thousands of times a year and report their results to state and federal agencies, bottling plants self-test, and they host an FDA inspector infrequently. The plants have low priority, says the agency, because the industry has a good safety record. When inspectors do show up, they test only for selected contaminants, depending on the reason for the sampling, (Royte, 2008, p. 145). These differences are a result of our nations inconsistency with drinking water regulation. Different regulatory agencies cause there to be different rules, and different rules call for a difference in the quality of water. In 1998 the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) tested a thousand samples of 103 brands of bottled water (Royte, 2008, p. 142). One third of the samples revealed contaminants such as arsenic, bromine, and Coliform bacteria. Arsenic is one of contaminants addressed in the EPAs national primary drinking water regulations and has a legally enforceable maximum contaminant level, unlike bottled water. Then in 2004, the American Society of Microbiology tested 68 types of mineral water to find 40 percent with bacteria or fungi and 21 had the ability to support bacterial growth in lab cultures (Royte, 2008, p. 143). Even though these bacteria are technically safe to drink under EPA standards, it is not recommended for those who are young, old, or sick. 11

Often, we are mislead by the pristine pictures on the labels of our bottled water. It probably was not bottled on the top of an untouched glacier (Table 4). Instead, some bottles have been found to contain benzene, mold, sodium hydroxide, kerosene, styrene, algae, yeast, tetrahydrofuran, sand, Fecal Coliforms and other forms of bacteria, elevated chlorine, filth, glass particles, sanitizer, and even crickets (Gleick, 2010, p. 47). Benzene and styrene are both monitored under the SDWA; benzene leaching from gas storage tanks and styrene from discharge from rubber and plastic factories (EPA, 2009). A great example of bottler water companies caught in a lie is the 2006 Fiji Water advertisement. The magazine ad read, The label says Fiji because its not bottled in Cleveland.After seeing the ad, Ciaccia, the company responsible for managing Clevelands water system, had Fijis water tested. They found that both Fiji and Clevelands water met all federal standards, but the lab results found that Fiji Water contained volatile plastic compounds, 40 times more bacteria than are found in well-run municipal water systems, and over six micrograms per liter of arsenic (Gleick, 2010, p. 16). Since the bottled water companies are not required to notify the public with annual water quality reports, it is not common to hear about illness resulting from bottled water consumption. Rather, the media has a field day when a lot of people become ill from municipal supplies. Ultimately, there have not been any confirmed cases of illness from drinking bottled water in the United States. This could be because it just has not happened, it was not reported to the public, or it happened but the source of illness was not successfully traced (Royte, 2008, p. 146). A report from the Worldwatch Institute found that products can be recalled up to 15 months after the contaminated water has been produced, distributed, and sold (Royte, 2008, p. 146). What good is a water recall when chances are the water has already been consumed?

Health
Due to the fear of tap water, many drink bottled water assuming it is the healthier option. Some people have gone to drinking bottled water literally because they are concerned about their water, and the problem is 12

they are unaware of the fact that buying bottled water is not necessarily safe, that you end up being exposed to other chemical compounds, cautioned Stephan King, (PH.D., M.P.H.) a toxicologist and epidemiologist with Toxicology Inc. (Soechtig, 2009). The information label lists all the nutritional aspects that water lacks, but there are still lots of things in our water (Gleick, 2010, p. 59). On contrary, bottled water can actually lead to health concerns for those with a weak immune system, such as the elderly, infants, and cancer, transplant, and HIV/AIDS patients (NRDC, 1999). In 2009, the documentary, Tapped, produced an independent study of what is really in bottled water with the help of Dr. King. In one study, they used bottles bought off the shelves at a grocery store. What they found horrified Dr. King. Test America found that their store-bought samples contained toluene, a constituent in gasoline and has been used in paint thinners. This neurotoxic agent can be linked to adverse reproductive effects. In the second study, they sampled bottled water that had been left in the trunk of a car for one week. The test identified styrene, a cancer causing agent that can also cause adverse reproductive effects, in the water. Both toluene and styrene are monitored under the SDWA. Additionally, three different types of phthalates were found: diethyl phthalate, dimethyl phthalate, and di-n-octyl phthalate. Phthalates are known to cause dysfunction in the fetus and adverse reproduction outcomes for males and females (Soechtig, 2009). Adrianna Quintero, senior attorney for the Natural Resources Defense Council, revealed that, It really concerns me when I see mothers blindly trusting bottled water and handing their children bottles of water. Putting their complete trust in a product without so much as questioning, what am I giving my child? (Soechtig, 2009). Even more frightening than what is in our water, is that we do not know how these contaminants will affect human health in the long run. Melissa Jarrell, (PH.D.) assistant professor of criminology at Texas A&M University, believes, We dont know what the long term consequences are to this type of exposure. So people think when theyre drinking bottled water, that theyre getting a health product. Theyre not conditioned to think, well, maybe there is something in the plastic. And then we trust government, we trust industry, when

13

they say everything is okay, we say okay sounds good to us, (Soechtig, 2009). Even worse is that the scientists who work for product defense companies are never going to produce a study, let alone publish one, that finds an unflattering result. Their entire job depends on it, alleged David Michaels. These bottled water companies are working hard to keep the public from knowing what can be in their drinking water.

PET
Most plastic water bottles are made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a polymer derived from oil that adds flexibility, color, and strength to plastic (Royte, 2008, p. 148). It is resistant to heat, mineral oils, solvents, and acids. It is impermeable to carbonation. It is strong, light, impact resistant, naturally transparent, and completely recyclable. And it doesnt impart a taste to its contents. As a result, PET is the most common plastic used for food packaging, (Gleick, 2010, p. 91). Roughly 80% of the PET manufactured in the United States ends up in Nestl, Coke, or Pepsi containers (Soechtig, 2009).

Is it Harmful?
Overall, there has been controversy over whether the use of PET in our containers could be harmful to our health. Phthalates such as PET, are known to disrupt the endocrine system, which is vital in growth and development (Royte, 2008, p. 148). Some research suggests that PET can leach into water. Three separate studies have found instances where PET can cause possible damaging effects.

Study 1
For instance in 2006, William Shotyk, a geochemist at the University of Heidelberg, found antimony used as a catalyst in the manufacture of PET, leaching into bottled water. When ingested in small doses, antimony can cause dizziness and depression; while in large doses, nausea, vomiting, and death. The amounts Shotyk detected were well below government standards, but they kept rising the longer water was kept in the PET containers. Samples opened immediately after bottling had 160 parts per trillion (the U.S. allows 6 parts per

14

billion, equivalent to 6,000 parts per trillion, in tap water). After three months, the antimony level doubled, and after another three months it nearly doubled again. This is all still well below federal limits (Royte, 2008, p. 149).

Study 2 and Study 3

Additionally, two European studies researched the possibility of chemicals ending up in the beverages we drink. The studies found evidence of estrogenic activity in mineral water. Both studies had a focus on the estrogenic potential of mineral water that was bottled in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic (Barrett, 2009). In the first study, which was published in the March 2009 issue of International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, a recombinant yeast-based in vitro assay assessed the estrogen activity in 30 PET-bottled mineral water samples (Barrett, 2009). Ninety percent of the samples came back negative for estrogenic activity. Barbara Pinto and Daniela Reali, investigators in the University of Pisa Department of Experimental Pathology, suggest that the estrogen-positive samples may have appeared due to being contaminated at its source, during processing, or after bottling (Barrett, 2009). Several studies found the suboptimal storage conditions, such as prolonged exposure to sunlight and high temperatures, can cause leaching of chemicals from PET bottles into its contents (Barrett, 2009). In the second study, graduate student, Martin Wagner, and chairman, Jrg Oehlmann, of the Department of Aquatic Ecotoxicology at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, tested 20 brands of mineral water packaged in PET, glass, or coated paperboard. Of the 20 brands, 12 were found to have elevated estrogenic activity, which included 78% of those bottled in PET (Barrett, 2009).

Or Is It Safe?
Despite the research that has been conducted, Gleick presents that, PET is widely considered to be one of the safest forms of plastic for food packaging, and few credible studies have ever claimed to find a risk of

15

leaching, (Gleick, 2010, p. 91). Also, neither of the previous European studies could produce results that claimed there is a potential human health risk to drinking from PET-bottled beverages (Barrett, 2009). Furthermore, the FDA insists that PET is safe, but only under normal conditions. Interestingly enough, the agency stops short of saying chemicals dont leach into food and water. Instead, it says levels of chemical migration from PET bottles are well within the margin of safety based on information available to the agency, (Royte, 2008, p. 149). As with the inconsistent regulation of water, the inconsistent results of the effects of PET on human health could definitely cause major confusion for the public. One group says it is bad, while one says it is good, all while our health is on the line. Regrettably, the real effects of PET will probably not be known for a number of years.

Flint Hills
Flint Hills, located in Corpus Christi, Texas is the largest, privately owned oil refinery and producer of para-xylene, a clear liquid derived from mining crude oil, and a primary ingredient in the production of PET (Soechtig, 2009). Suzie Canales, director of Citizens for Environmental Justice, verified, What a lot of people dont know is that it *para-xylene] is in the benzene family, and benzene causes cancer. So as theyre raking in the bucks, the people here are sick and dying, (Soechtig, 2009). As a member of the Corpus Christi community, Canales sister had died of breast cancer. Canales recalls that at her funeral, many people came up to her about how so many people in the area were getting sick from cancer. The oil refinery was the missing link. Not only do they need to think of that purchase of one plastic bottle and what it can do to their health, but by continuing to purchase these, it is just going to keep them in business. So if they stop buying that and not only protect their health, but the people they have never met, people that are suffering and dying like here in Corpus Christi, Conales confessed. Corpus Christi residents, Jim and Bobi Miller also know the impacts of living near Flint Hills. Something causes a lot of these neighbors to be sick. Not just me, but my other two neighbors, theyre sick. Anything that is 16

not pure air has got an effect on your health. And the air conditioners bring it right on in the house, tells Jim Miller. Jims breathing now has to be supported by an oxygen tank. The Millers had not planned on living so close to the refinery, but now since they are so close, it will be difficult for them to even try to sell their house (Soechtig, 2009). These are people that are stuck in the wrong place and there is almost nothing they can do about it. Miller explained, You know theres battles you can fight and win, and battles you can start and you lose. This is a battle, that if I started, Id lose; a man like me cant go against Flint Hills. Unfortunately that is true. The air pollution control agency in Texas was not allowed to inform the community of the possible toxic substances in the air, that they had the right to complain, or that they had a right to clean air (Soechtig, 2009). Any employees who divulged information could be fired. The only way the agency could act was if someone had called to complain. Only then could the agency go into Flint Hills, investigate, write up violations, and make the company reduce their pollution. The employees could do nothing to help the community until someone complained. The state agency was protecting the corporation, not the community. This is another case of public suffering due to inconsistency. Robert Bullard, Director of the Environmental Justice Resource Center declared, When you think about the finished product of a plastic bottle, you dont think about the process and the headache and the pain and suffering and the health effects that come from living next door. Its out of sight, out of mind. But these are real problems that are being experienced by real people, (Soechtig, 2009). Melissa Jarrell PH.D. and Assistant Professor of Criminology at Texas A&M University hinted that there are real reasons why the people living in this area, breathing this air, and drinking this water have higher rates of cancer, birth defects, and other illnesses. Overall birth defects in Corpus Christi are 84% higher than the entire Texas state average (Soechtig, 2009). It is easy to see that this community has become truly sick from Flint Hills operations. 17

BPA
Another risky ingredient in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastic is Bisphenol A (BPA), a nonsteroidal estrogenic compound (Rubin, Murray, Damassa, King, & Soto, 2001). BPA can be found in many products such as sports bottles, baby bottles, and water coolers (Soechtig, 2009). It can also be found in the fivegallon jugs used for home or office delivery, the lining of food cans, dental sealants, some wine vats, water mains, and tanks lined with epoxy resins, (Royte, 2008, p. 151). The hard, polycarbonate, reusable bottles, with the resin code 7 on the bottom seemed to be perfect until it is became known that polycarbonate can leach tiny amounts of BPA, a chemical that mimics estrogen (Royte, 2008, p. 151). There is a large chance that we all own or have used a bottle that contains BPA, despite that some bottles now claim they are BPA free. Even with such bottles, the hormonally active chemical is widespread in the environment, with detectable serum levels present in 90% of humans in the United States, (Josephson, 2006). The industrial world has been using BPA for about 50 years, and some investigators believe that its widespread use might explain the recent increase in prostate cancer rates (Josephson, 2006). Several studies have noted a plethora of different complications in lab animals caused by BPA. According to more than a 100 government-funded studies, tiny amounts of BPA cause genetic changes that lead to prostate cancer, as well as decreased testosterone, low sperm counts, and signs of early female puberty in lab animals. The genetic mechanisms affected by these chemicals work similarly in all animals- including humans, (Royte, 2008, p. 151).

Study 1
Frederick Vom Saal (PH.D., M.P.H.), curators professor with the Division of Biological Sciences at the University of Missouri-Columbia believes, Bisphenol A may be one of the most potent, toxic chemicals known to man. The problem is Bisphenol A acts at very low doses as an estrogen, (Soechtig, 2009). Dr. Vom Saal claims that most of the regulatory agencies around the world function with the idea that stronger the dose, the more potent the poison, but that is not true for any hormone. Dr. Vom Saal conducted a test with a BPA dose 25,000

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times lower than ever tested. He found that it greatly damaged every single part of the developing male mouse reproductive system (Soechtig, 2009). Dr. Vom Saal even admitted, There is virtually no major human health trend over the past 30 years that hasnt increased, such as childhood diabetes, that is not related to exposure to this chemical. It has been found to relate to obesity, breast cancer, prostate cancer, diabetes, brain disorders, such as ADHD, liver disease, ovarian disease, disease of the uterus, and low sperm count in men. Prostate cancer appears to be the constantly linked to early BPA exposure. According to the American Cancer Society, prostate cancer rates have been on the rise since 1975 (Josephson, 2006). Could BPA be the cause?

Study 2
Gail Prins of the University of Illinois at Chicago Department of Urology and Shuk-Mei Ho of the University of Cincinnati Department of Environmental Health have conducted a rat study that provides the direct link between low-dose BPA exposure during development and later prostate cancer (Josephson, 2006). Their study, which gave newborn rats high or low doses of estradiol (the environmental equal of BPA), found possible long-term effects, shown by changes in methyl groups on DNA that are responsible for turning genes on and off. These alterations can leave a permanent mark, causing sensitivity to diseases later in life (Josephson, 2006). Prins claims, Our evidence shows that in an animal model, some genes are altered by the addition or removal of methyl groups on the DNA, which changes the ability of those genes to be transcribed and translated into proteins. It is possible that these effects may pass through generations as has been shown recently for sperm cells, (Josephson, 2006).

So is it Safe?
No conclusion can be made yet, because future studies must be completed first. Rebecca Sokol, a Professor of Medicine at the University of Southern California warns that we shouldnt extrapolate human 19

effects from rat studies. It would take over 50 years for results of early BPA exposure to show up as prostate cancer (Josephson, 2006). Although science knows it can have alarming results in lab animals, the same may not be so for humans. No direct connection between BPA and human illness has been proved yet. Patricia Hunt, a molecular biologist at Case Western Reserve University whos been studying BPA for almost a decade, says, If we wait for comparable human data and it comes out like animal data, we arent going to be breeding as a species, (Royte, 2008, p. 152). The National Institutes of Healths review concluded that BPA does pose some human health risks to fetuses and children, but only minimal (Royte, 2008, p. 152). Those who make and use BPA protest the chemical poses no risk to humans, but their studies only looked at high doses, not low. Ultimately, the IBWA is not concerned with BPA so they do not test for it (Royte, 2008, p. 152). BPA, like PET, is downplayed by the bottled water companies. Dr. Vom Saal declared, They will spend any amount of that 7 billion dollars necessary in advertising to the American public, trying to convince them this chemical is completely safe.

Environment
Not only do plastic bottles cause consequences to our physical health, but to our planets health as well. There is the cost of extracting oil, a finite resource, to produce the plastic bottles. Even producing the bottles requires a large amount of water, plus the water that is extracted to drink. Then there is the cost of what to do with all of those bottles, especially when not nearly enough of them get recycled.

Where Do All Our Bottles Go?

Once a single-serve plastic water bottle is consumed it does not just disappear when it is tossed into a garbage can. Of the 80 million single serve bottles of water consumed daily, 30 million end up in landfills (Soechtig, 2009). That is 80 million separate bottles every single day. If it does not make its final resting place in a landfill, it could either be incinerated, or become a disturbance in natural ecosystems. Most single-serve bottles are either buried in landfills or burned in incinerators, or they make their way to the far corners of the earth: blown underneath train platforms, into the back of caves and alleys, along roadways, onto beaches, and 20

out to the middle of the ocean, where the containers break into tiny pieces that sea creatures mistake for food, (Royte, 2008, p. 154). More often than not, bottles will end up in landfills, which are quickly being filled up. In a landfill, heavy equipment crushes water bottles, but they still take up space. For how long? No one knows: after all, PET is only about 25 years old. But estimates range up to a 1,000 years, (Royte, 2008, p. 156). We are wasting valuable space in landfills by filling it with bottles that are perfectly recyclable. Recycling is the best option, because it reduces demand for landfill space, but unfortunately it does not help reduce the demand for oil because bottlers are not using recycling content anyway (Royte, 2008, p. 155). Ironically, it is cheaper for bottlers to use virgin PET than recycled PET. Recently, the bottled water industry has been pushing that their bottles are fully recyclable. The bottles our member companies produce are 100% recyclable, blared a full-page ad taken out by the International Bottled Water Association in the New York Times and the San Francisco Chronicle in August 2007, (Gleick, 2010, p. 96). In an effort to combat criticism of high environmental and energy costs, some companies have turned to a new approach. The new approach, called lightweighting, reduces the cost of production, the energy required for shipping, and the mass of plastic in landfills (Gleick, 2010, p. 102). These are the new ecofriendly water bottles with the flimsier plastic and smaller shape. Regrettably, lightweighting does not increase recycling rates or reduce the amount of bottles in landfills (Gleick, 2010, p. 103). It definitely does not decrease the amount of bottles American purchase; it only helps them feel less guilty about it. The problem is that most Americans do not recycle, or do not have the access to it. Even though most bottles are recyclable, most of them never are. In 2007 the National Association for PET Container Resources (or NAPCOR) reported that over 5.6 billion pounds of PET bottles and jars were available for recycling, but only 1.4 billion pounds of PET were actually recycled- an overall recycling rate of under 25 percent, (Gleick, 2010, p.

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97). Plastic water bottles and plastic overall is the least recycled of all the waste in the United States, (Gleick, 2010, p. 97).

Lack of Recycling
Recycling rates throughout the world are not extraordinary and the United States rates look even more dismal. The average international recycling rate for beverage containers for the world is 50%, but the United States is 20% and this number has been declining (Soechtig, 2009). Betty McLaughlin, the former Executive Director for the Container Recycling Institute, declared, Its just because there isnt enough recycling capacity. Theres not enough collection, (Soechtig, 2009). Low recycling rates can be attributes to two different situations. First, the recycling centers were not created for recycling PET bottles. Recycling all the PET bottles in America is not currently feasible. Traditional recycling programs were not designed with plastics in mind, but rather aluminum and glass (Gleick, 2010, p. 100). Not only that, but they arent easily accessible. Recycling centers are not abundant, making it less attractive to haul all your recyclables to a center that is far away. Most U.S. communities can recycle the empties, but because most bottled water is consumed in places that often lack recycling bins- on the street, in the movie theaters, at parks, and on the road- the product has a pitiful recovery rate: barely 15 percent, (Royte, 2008, p. 154). Second, there is no real incentive to recycle unless the state has a bottle bill. A recycling bin is just not as easy to find in a public place as a garbage can is. Betty McLaughlin insisted, If 1/3 of their products are not being consumed at home, that means thats 1/3 that has no chance of making it to the recycling bin. Thats 56 billion containers. Thats an awful lot to just give up, (Soechtig, 2009). To create incentive to recycle some states have enacted bottle bills. States with bottle bills recycle 60 to 90 percent of their beverage containers, while the national average for states without bills is just 23 percent (Royte, 2008, p. 156).

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Bottle Bills
Bottle bills consist of consumers paying a small deposit on their purchase of the bottle and then receive that deposit back when the bottle is returned for recycling (Soechtig, 2009). In 1971, Oregon passed the very first bottle bill based on the idea that you pay a nickel deposit on a glass or aluminum container when bought and you get your nickel back when returned (Gleick, 2010, p. 100). Only 11 states currently have bottle bills. These include California, Hawaii, Connecticut, Delaware, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Oregon, and Vermont (Soechtig, 2009). Sadly, most bottle bills do not include deposits for bottled water because they did not exist in 1971 when the first bills were passed (Gleick, 2010, p. 101). Of these 11, only 6 states (California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Maine, New York, and Oregon) have expanded their bills to include plastic water bottles (Soechtig, 2009). New York became the 6th state in 2009. States with a 5 cent deposit get about a 70% return rate, while Michigan has a 10 cent deposit and has a 97% return rate (Soechtig, 2009). It can be concluded that Michigans bottle bill is an extremely successful recycling plan. It really is a proven system. It has been in place in most of these states for 25 or more years and we know it works well, states McLaughlin. Even though it works well, most states do not have bottled water included in their bottle bills because it was not relevant when the bills were passed decades ago (Soechtig, 2009). In addition, bottlers do not make it easy to get these laws changed.

Bottles in the Ocean

Captain Charles Moore, founder of Algalita Marine Research Foundation perfectly sums up, Its a bother to people. They are not taking the time; they dont have the space to keep it around until they can get it to a recycling center or to the landfill. When it rains, all that plastic is mobilized, goes down the streams, into the rivers, and down to the sea. Thats why we are seeing so much of it in the environment, (Soechtig, 2009). Captain Moore explains that when we throw something away it becomes out of sight out of mind, but it has to go somewhere, and that place is Kamilo Beach in Hawaii. The beach is bombarded with our plastic leftovers,

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making it more like a garbage pit than a beach paradise. Moore continues, Of 80 million bottles of water we drink in the United States every day, many of them make their way to the sea, where they are carried by ocean currents and end up deposited on some distant shore. This is the constituents of sand now. Instead of being coral and shells and rock, its plastic. This is a beach of the future. This is what we are going to recreate in if we continue to pollute the environment with plastic. The captain and his crew explore what is known as the Eastern Garbage Patch in the central Pacific Ocean. The patch, or gyre, is twice the size of the state of Texas, and basically consists of a whirlwind of trash. These gyres are repeated in the North and South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Indian Ocean (Soechtig, 2009). Moore is especially concerned that plastic parts are starting to outnumber plankton in those parts of the ocean. Moore accounts what happens when they go out on his boat to collect samples, Well, what we do is we go out to this gyre and trawl a net, it just so happens that when we pull in that net, more than finding the plankton in the ocean, were finding plastic. And so what we see here in this jar is a one mile trawl out in the middle ocean, as far from land as you can get anywhere on earth. And instead of it being clear ocean water with ocean animals, its a plastic soup, with more plastic than plankton. That jar is filled with bits and pieces of plastic swirling through the water. There is no plankton. In 1999, Moore did a survey and found 6 times has much plastic as plankton. When the survey was repeated in 2008, they found 40 times as much plastic as plankton (Soechtig, 2009). It is obvious that our waste has been increasingly encroaching on natural habitats such as plankton.

Energy Consumption and Waste

The making of a bottle of water has its own costs as well. Multiply that by the billions produced each year and those costs increase significantly. Materials, production, and transportation are the three main areas of energy consumption and waste.

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Materials
Oil is a main ingredient in the creation of plastic bottles. Since we have already passed our peak of oil consumption, there is no longer enough to keep up with our consumption, especially with the worlds population dramatically increasing. Using all this oil to make single-serve plastic water bottles just so we can enjoy it on the go seems kind of silly. For many, there has been a backlash over the use of oil, not water. As addressed in Bottlemania, 17 million barrels (714 million gallons) of oil a year are used to make plastic water bottles for the U.S. market. That oil could fuel 1.3 million cars for one year (Royte, 2008, p. 138).The production of a kilogram of PET, roughly 30 one-liter plastic bottles, takes around 3 liters of petroleum (Gleick, 2010, p. 94). In addition to all the PET that is being produced, some of it never even gets to be used. In 2006, almost 4 billion pounds of PET went to waste, which is equivalent to 72 billion bottles (Royte, 2008, p. 158). Besides oil, water is an obvious material in bottled water. The manufacture and filling of a bottle consumes twice as much water than will ultimately be in the bottle. This is because bottle-making machines are cooled by water (Royte, 2008, p. 140). On average, only 60 to 70 percent of the water used by bottling plants ends up in the final product, the rest of the water is wasted (Royte, 2008, p. 140). In 2006, Coke used 290 billion liters of water to produce 114 billion liters of beverages (Royte, 2008, p. 158). That is 176 billion liters of wasted water; water that could have been used elsewhere for a better purpose.

Production
To produce all the bottles, energy is constantly being used to run the machines, the plant, transport materials to the production plant, and to chill the water (Figure 2). More energy is then required to turn PET into bottles, to filter, ozonate, or otherwise purify the water, to run the machines, and to chill the bottle before use (Gleick, 2010, p. 94). Treatments such as ultraviolet radiation, micro or ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and ozonation, all require added energy (Gleick & Cooley, 2009). Additionally, machines must rinse, fill, cap and label 25

the bottles. The average machine can clean, fill, and seal around 15,000 bottles per hour (Gleick & Cooley, 2009). Not only are the tangible bottles damaging our ecosystems, but the PET used to produce them is damaging as well. Many petrochemical plants have major leaks in the ground that allow PET to contaminate groundwater (Soechtig, 2009). Furthermore, producing the plastics creates its own waste. Resources are not being allocated efficiently, creating externalities such as emissions of nickel, ethylbenzene, ethylene oxide, and benzene from the plastic-making process (Royte, 2008, p. 138).

Transportation
Not only is energy required to make plastic bottles, but energy and resources are used to transport bottles across the country and around the globe. The energy requirement depends on two factors: the distance and the mode of transportation. The farther the distance means more energy is consumed. Air cargo is the most intensive mode of transport, followed by truck, rail, or bulk ocean shipping (Gleick & Cooley, 2009). Since water is heavy, one metric ton per cubic meter, the energy required to transport bottled water is enormous. As a result, this energy consumption contributes to gas emissions into the atmosphere. For example, Poland Springs burned 928,226 gallons of diesel fuel in 2007 on transportation alone (Royte, 2008, p. 139). Accordingly, the Natural Resources Defense Council concluded that shipping one million gallons of water from Fiji to New York City can generate 190 tons of carbon dioxide, while the average American contributes over 20 tons each year (Royte, 2008, p. 153).It makes a neat story for the anti-bottle crowd. Water is sent thousands of miles to people who already have clean, cheap water (us), while locals at the source go thirsty, (Royte, 2008, p. 154). That is odd, isnt it? Peter Gleick of the Pacific Institute and author of Bottled and Sold, estimates that the total energy required for every bottles production, transport, and disposal is on average equal to filling a quarter of that

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bottle with oil (Royte, 2008, p. 139). In his book, he writes, This energy cost is a thousand times larger than the energy required to procure, process, treat, and deliver tap water, (Gleick, 2010, p. 95). Overall, these costs are not unique to bottled water. It takes 48 gallons of water to make a gallon of beer, 4 gallons of water to make one of soda, and 4 gallons of water to produce a gallon of milk (Royte, 2008, p. 140). But those other beverages arent redundant to the calorie-free (and caffeine- and coloring-free) liquid that comes out of the tap, and thats an important distinction, (Royte, 2008, p. 140).

Groundwater Depletion
Essentially extracting all this ground water to be bottled has had an effect on the amount of water available in certain locations. Water levels are dropping, or even disappearing completely due to constant pumping. Not just pumping for bottled water use, but any use of water is creating visible strain on water bodies (Figure 3). Already larger bodies of water across the United States are changing in ways that worry scientists. Lakes Superior, Huron, and Michigan, which contain nearly 20 percent of the worlds fresh surface water, have been in steep decline since the late 1990s, with water levels lower than normal because of reduced sno wmelt and increased evaporation, (Royte, 2008, p. 201). Nestl pumps 114 billion gallons of groundwater that would feed into Lake Michigan every year, and Coke and Pepsi made an agreement with Detroit to bottle and ship Great Lakes water (Royte, 2008, p. 201). What about the people who rely on the Lakes for their drinking water? I am from the Chicago area, and I drink water from Lake Michigan. Our water quantity is now sacrificed for those who purchase bottled water when they can easily drink out of their own tap. To combat concern over the local impact of water withdrawals by bottlers, the industry has conjured up misleading science to counter local opposition to proposed new bottling plants, (Gleick, 2010, p. 72). A 2004 research paper funded by the Drinking Water Research Foundation concluded that, relative to other uses of ground water, bottled water production was found to be a deminimis user of ground water. . . Ground water withdrawals for bottled water production represent only 0.019% of the total fresh ground water withdrawals in

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the U.S, (Gleick, 2010, p. 72). Ironically, their conclusion was so inappropriate that the research article failed peer review for scientific publication and has thus never appeared in a research journal (Gleick, 2010, p. 73). It is true that in some places bottling water does not have a large impact and should not be a concern, but other places have found serious adverse impacts (Gleick, 2010, p. 74). Our groundwater is not evenly dispersed across the nation. Different parts of the nation are blessed with an abundance of natural groundwater, while some, like the West, are not. Imagine a large pool of water pumped at a constant rate. It would evenly deplete. Now imagine a number of different sized pools all pumped at the same rate. In this situation, which is similar to how our groundwater actually is, the pools would be depleted at different times. It is not about the total amount of groundwater used, because it is not all in one pool. It is the amount used separately that affects the local community (Gleick, 2010, p. 73). There have been several tests done that actually show the effects a bottling plant has on groundwater. In 2004, USA Springs proposed a plant to be built in Barrington, New Hampshire to pump 300,000 gallons of water a day from the local aquifer. After a 10 day trial, sectionals of a local wetland were completely dry (Gleick, 2010, p. 75). In Maricopa County, Arizona, the Sedona Springs Bottled Water Company began pumping groundwater in the Tonto National Forest. The pumping dramatically altered the flows of Seven Springs Wash and the Spur Cross Ranch Conservation Area, leading lowered surface waters to cause the death of native fish, leopard frogs, Mexican black hawks, sycamore and ash trees, and die-back deer grass (Gleick, 2010, p. 75). How can bottlers say pumping has no affect?

Economics
The big businesses: Nestl, Coke and Pepsi, provide exactly what they claim; big business for the community. The companies employ a large number of people, so it is hard for governments to have to choose between environmental concerns or unemployment (Soechtig, 2009). Should we protect peoples jobs, or protect the natural environment? It would be equally hard to try and do away with municipal drinking water 28

systems and only drink bottled. The switch would be enormously expensive for the society as a whole. It would leave vast quantities of Americans with the Hobsons choice of paying more for drinking water or relying on a public supply that could be increasingly inferior if it were abandoned by the elected officers and government decision makers, says the NRDCs Eric Goldstein (Royte, 2008, p. 208). Even so, most laws do not require new buildings to be built with access to public water fountains. Well-maintained fountains are becoming about as scarce as working pay phones, (Royte, 2008, p. 210). Take for instance the construction of the new University of Central Floridas football stadium, which was completed and opened in 2007. On opening day, with a crowd of 45,622 and a temperature of around 100 degrees, people became thirsty. Ironically, the new $54 million stadium was built without a single water fountain (Gleick, 2010, p. 1). Security allowed no one to bring in their own water and the only water available was in a bottle for a purchase of $3. The concessions ran out of bottled water before the game ended and 18 people had to be taken to the hospital while 60 were treated for heat-related illness (Gleick, 2010, p. 2). The stadium should have been built with at least 20 water fountains under the 2004 Florida building code which requires one water fountain for every 1,000 seats. A spokesperson for the International Code Council in Washington said, Selling bottled water out of a concession stand is not what the code meant, (Gleick, 2010, p. 2).

Price of Tap versus Bottled Water

It is not hard to see that bottled water is much more expensive than local tap water. For example, tap water in the city of Bloomington, Indiana is about $2.14 for 1,000 gallons, or .00214 cents per gallon (CBU, 2010). If one were to purchase the same amount, 1,000 gallons, of Coca-Colas Dasani bottled water from the local Marsh Supermarket at the price of $2.21 per gallon, it would cost $2,210. For 1,000 gallons of drinking water, Dasani bottled water costs $2,207.86 more than tap water. That is quite a markup considering Dasani is just purified tap water. Additionally, this mark up can really start to cost consumers if it becomes a regular habit. If a customer were to buy a 24 pack of half liter bottles of Dasani at $6.99 every week, they would spend $363.48 in just one year on bottled water. If they liked more prestigious water, 52 weeks of buying 12 liters of 29

Fiji Water would set them back $1,236.56 for 165 gallons. That would be the equivalent of paying for approximately 577, 831 gallons of Bloomington tap water; just to drink. Table 5 shows price comparisons of common bottled waters at a Bloomington Marsh Supermarket as of September 2010 versus the City of Bloomington Utilities tap water price in 2010.

Is it Worth It?
In most cases, about 40% of bottled water is really just filtered tap water (Soechtig, 2009). Both Dasani and Aquafina derive their water from municipal sources. Aquafina includes on its labels that it is bottled from a public water source, but Dasani on the other hand, does not (Soechtig, 2009). Many labels portray a scenic escape where we wish our water came from, but in reality it is not from far very away (Table 4). Bottled water has its advantages of being convenient, but has the disadvantage of being expensive. Making bottled water a part of everyday life is a personal choice. The water may taste better, and it may look cooler, but that does not necessarily mean it is the better option. It is worth the price when it is the only option. When there is an option, is it worth spending that kind of money for a product that flows cheaply from your kitchen faucet?

The Big Businesses: Nestl, Pepsi, Coke

Two of the biggest producers of bottled water are PepsiCos Aquafina and Coca-Colas Dasani. Both joined the bottled water scene when they saw their soda sales falling (Soechtig, 2009). Royte believes that the biggest victory for bottled-water critics was when Pepsi decided to include Public Water Supply on its Aquafina labels (Royte, 2008, p. 160). Aquafina water originates from a public water source and is subjected to a prided seven-step treatment process called Hydro-7. The steps include removal of particles, catchment of smaller particles, elimination of organic matter, removal of solids with pressure, isolation of trace elements, clear water creation, and a final purification stage (Pepsico, 2010).

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Dasani water also originates from a local water utility and at some plants, a groundwater source. The water goes through initial water treatment, and then passed through a granual activated carbon filtration system, purified with reverse osmosis and UV light disinfection, mineralized, and then final ozone disinfection (Coca-Cola, 2010). As big businesses, these companies take advantage of their power. Eugene Brown, a city council member in Durham, North Carolina recalls that during a severe drought Pepsi was still pumping and bottling water, while their lakes and streams dried up. It would make common sense to put a temporary halt on the plant, states Brown, but they would not stop, (Soechtig, 2009). After being confronted about communities low water levels, Nestl testified that the lower water levels had nothing to do with the water they were taking (Soechtig, 2009). They are tough entities to defeat and they will do anything to prove to the public that their product is the best option.

Conclusion
Overall, bottled water is not horrible, and tap water is not horrible, but both have their own faults that cause consumers to choose to drink one or other. Both bottled and tap will require extreme amounts of reform to produce high quality water that is also environmentally conscious. Bottled water does have its place-its useful in emergencies and essential for people whose health cant tolerate even filtered water. But its often no better than tap water, its environmental and social price is high, and it lets our public guardians off the hook for protecting watersheds, stopping polluters, upgrading treatment and distribution infrastructure, and strengthening treatment standards, (Royte, 2008, p. 225). There is not just one problem here, there are multiple that must be addressed. Those of us who live in the richer nations of the world are buying more and more bottled water because we increasingly fear or dislike our tap water, we distrust governments to regulate, monitor, and protect public water systems adequately, we cant find public fountains anywhere anymore, we are convinced by advertisers and marketers that bottled 31

water will make us healthier, thinner, or stronger, and were told that it is just another benign consumer choice, (Gleick, 2010, p. 171). Municipal water systems need to be updated and watersheds need to be protected to help increase our trust and safety with drinking tap water. Bottled water needs stricter laws and regulations to offset its environmenta and health consequences. Both changes would require enormous amounts of time and money. But isnt our drinking water and our planet worth it? If we are not allowed access to a basic necessity of life, how could we trust our governments? They have to drink this water too. It does not just affect the consumers, it affects the producers too. They are not exempt from being exposed to BPA, PET, and Cryptosporidium because they are going to get thirsty at some point, and what they get to drink is what the public gets to drink. The American public is moving in the right direction though, it just might take a while to actually get there. Sales are slowing, and in some places even falling, for the first time since the modern bottled water industry began, (Gleick, 2010, p. 145). People are starting to understand that we did survive without bottled water a number of years ago and that we can do it again. Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri even banned the sale of bottled water on their campus. Other U.S. schools such as Brandeis University, Penn State, and Ohio Wesleyan University are following suit (Gleick, 2010, p. 159). It may look like there may be a bright future, but bottlers are going to make sure that does not happen. As anti-bottled water efforts accelerate and threaten sales and profits, the industry has begun to respond with a growing public relations push, increased spending on advertising, new lobbying efforts to stop legislation they dont like, and a general battening down of the PR hatches, (Gleick, 2010, p. 159).

The Municipal Water Systems are Flawed Too

Not only is the bottled water industry flawed, but municipal water systems are as well. For the most part, the water we receive from our tap is very safe to drink, but that is not always the case. In 2006, 89.3 percent of the nations nearly 53,000 community water systems were in compliance with more than 90 EPA 32

standards. That left 29.8 million people with water that missed the mark on either health or reporting standards, or both. (Many in this group live on Indian lands, and many drink from small systems, which have the most trouble meeting regulations), (Royte, 2008, p. 211). This could be especially unsafe to those who are in the risk category, and this would include the very young, the pregnant, the very old, or the immunocompromised. Those in this category should consult a doctor before drinking tap water (Royte, 2008, p. 221). The at-risk category is even expanded by some scientists to include children, teens, lactating women, and anyone over 55 (Royte, 2008, p. 221). Additionally in 2001 the NRDC studied the water reports of 19 cities and 5 of them were given a poor or failing grade for burying, obscuring, and omitting findings about health effects of contaminants in city water supplies, printing misleading statements, and violating a number of right-to-know requirements, such as reports must identify known sources of pollutants in city water (Royte, 2008, p. 223). The municipal water system may seem like the safer option at times, but it too is flawed.

Updating Infrastructure
In order for the countrys municipal water systems to compete with bottled water, they are going to have to update their infrastructure which will be extremely pricey. Paying more to protect source water and upgrade infrastructure isnt impossible. Municipal water in this country is spectacularly underpricednationwide, about $2.50 for a thousand gallons. That consumers are willing to pay several thousand times more for bottle water that tastes good indicates were willing to make some sacrifices for water that actually is good. Raising water rates is one answer; a tax on bottled water is another; and a clean-water trust fund, financed by industries that profit off of, or damage the quality of, clean water, is yet one more, (Royte, 2008, p. 219). There are many ways it can be done. If the public is willing to spend extra money on bottled water, they should be willing to spend extra to improve municipal systems. Having to pay more for water is probably the only way to protect and improve it (Royte, 2008, p. 209). A prominent environmental advocate even told Royte, We already

33

have the money, weve just decided to use it blowing up other countries water infrastructure instead of fixing ours, (Royte, 2008, p. 219). The money may be there, or it could be there, but is it necessary? Residents drink or cook with only 1 to 2 percent of the water that flows into their home: most goes for lawn watering, car washing, toilet flushing, showers, and laundry. Why spend millions to bring water up to high standards, if so little is actually consumed? (Royte, 2008, p. 207). But then again if we do not drink from public supplies, and let our systems decay, the worse the water will become and the more we will have to depend on bottled water for our drinking needs.

Ethics
The most important controversy in bottled water is whether or not the industry should be able to commodify a basic human right. All human beings should be allowed easy access to clean drinking water. We all have a right to clean water. And we all need to acknowledge that no water is pure, that all water is recycled. Theres no point in skirting the issues and fudging the facts: in some places, at some times, bottled water may be of higher quality than tap. But that doesnt mean we should all rely on it, (Royte, 2008). Bottled water has a time and place, but it should not be our only source of drinking water. We already have access to clean drinking water, it comes out of our kitchen sink or the dispenser on the refrigerator door, we do not need to drive to the store to access it.Suburban shoppers in America lug cases of plastic water bottles from the grocery store back to homes supplied with unlimited piped potable water in a sad and unintentional parody of the girls and women in Africa, who spend countless backbreaking hours carrying containers of filthy water from distant contaminated sources to homes with no water at all, (Gleick, 2010, p. XII). Sounds ironic, right? The United States has the technology and the money to provide safe water to its citizens, while many countries do not, yet the U.S. is still not doing anything about it. The public has access to too much of a good thing and most do not realize how thankful we should be for it.

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As a result, the anti-bottle crowd is not the only group to be up in arms, the religious sector is too. Clean drinking water, like air, some religious leaders argue, is a God-given resource that shouldnt be packaged and sold. Others have gone further and declared that drinking bottled water is immoral and even a sin (Gleick, 2010, p. 138). It is hardly one of the Ten Commandments, but a good point nonetheless. Essentially, clean water is a right that many community folk could not produce on their own. They need the full support of local, state, and federal governments to understand that it is their job to protect our water. Maude Barlow, of the Blue Planet Run Foundation and Sara Ehrhardt, National Water Campaigner of the Council of Canadians say, The solution lies in declaring water as a human right and a public trust to be guarded by all levels of government; in sharing information and best practices on our public water systems; and in overseeing and protecting our public drinking water for future generations, (Royte, 2008, p. 209). Protection has to start at the top of government with a push from the bottom. The production of bottled water is causing residents harm, such as in the case of Flint Hills, and our environment harm.. We have a right to a healthy environment too; particularly one where water is abundant and available to everyone, but that is not the case. Meanwhile, across the nation and around the globe, rising temperatures, population growth, drought, and increased pollution and development continue to strain water resources- its distribution, availability, and quality. The coming scarcity will hurt the growth of jobs, housing, and businesses. Scarcity will force us to change our minds- and it is to be hoped, our behavior- about everything from landscaping to how often we eat meat, (Royte, 2008, p. 201). The future use of water will affect more than how much we get to drink; it will define our lives and how countries are run. Overall, we are at a huge turning point. The world is expanding, which means more people will be going thirsty while America gulps down millions of gallons of water that developing countries need more than we do. We all need water, and we should all be allowed that right, but both bottled water and tap are going to have to be reworked and restructured to provide it. We are in the midst of a critical transition and the path we choose 35

in the next few years will determine whether we move toward a world of safe, expensive water for the privileged and wealthy in the form of bottled water or private water systems, or toward more comprehensive safe water for all, (Gleick, 2010, p. 172).

Bibliography
Barrett, J. R. (2009). Endocrine Disruptors. Estrogens in a Bottle? Environmental Health Perspectives , 117 (6), A241. Coca-Cola Company. (2010). Dasani website. Retrieved from http://www.dasani.com Gleick, P. H. (2010). Bottled and Sold: The Story Behind Our Obsession with Bottled Water. Washington DC: Island Press. Gleick, P., & Cooley, H. (2009). Energy Implications of Bottled Water. Oakland, CA: IOP Publishing. International Bottled Water Association. (2009). IBWA website. Retrieved from http://www.bottledwater.org/ Josephson, J. (2006). Chemical Exposures: Prostate Cancer and Early BPA Exposure. Environmental Health Perspectives , 114 (9), A520. Langwith, J. (2010). Opposing Viewpoints Series: Water. Greenhaven Press. Natural Resources Defense Council. (1999). Bottled water: pure drink or pure hype? NSF International. (2010). NSF International website. Retrieved from http://www.nsf.org/index.asp Pepsico. (2010). Aquafina website. Retrieved from http://www.aquafina.com Royte, E. (2008). Bottlemania: Big Businesses, Local Springs, and the Battle over America's Drinking Water. New York: Bloomsbury USA. Rubin, B. S., Murray, M. K., Damassa, D. A., King, J. C., & Soto, A. M. (2001). Perinatal Exposure to Low Doses of Bisphenol A Affects Body Weight, Patterns of Estrous Cyclicity, and Plasma LH Levels. In Environmental Health Perspectives (pp. 675-680). Brogan & Partners. Soechtig, S. (Director). (2009). Tapped [Motion Picture]. US Environmental Protection Agency. (2005). Safe Water. Retrieved from Water & Health Series: Bottled Water Basics: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/faq/pdfs/fs_healthseries_bottlewater.pdf.

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US Environmental Protection Agency(2009). Water on Tap: What You Need to Know. Washington D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency. US Environmental Protection Agency (2009). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations.Washington D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency. US Geological Survey. (2009, October). USGS. Retrieved March 15 , 2010, from http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/propertyyou.html. US Government Accountability Office. (2009). Bottled Water: FDA Safety and Cnsumer Protections are often Less Stringent than Comparable EPA Protections for Tap Water. Washington D.C.: Report to Congressional Requestors.

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Figures and Tables

Figure 1: Why consumers drink bottled water

Source: American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Consumer Attitude Survey on Water Quality Issues, p. 19 (1993)

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Transportation of empty bottles

Transportation

Making PET resin (from raw or recycled materials)

"Blowing" PET bottles from resin

Water Processing; bottling; testing; labeling

Chilling for sale and use

Collection and disposal*

Collection, processing, and recycling*

Transportation of PET

Transportation of finished product

Transportation

*White boxes indicate activity with energy input

Figure 2: Flow diagram showing examples of where energy is required during bottled water
manufacturing, use, and disposal. There is energy associated with each major life-cycle stage and additional energy required with each transportation action. We evaluate the energy required in the first four stages, including transportation (colored orange) between them. Energy for waste collection, disposal, and recycle was not computed here, but is likely to be a small fraction of the first several stages.
Source: P.H. Gleick and H.S. Cooley, Energy Implications of Bottled Water (2009)

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Figure 3: Water level of Lake Mead as of August 2010. The white section of the rock is where the
water level used to be.

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Table 1: Sales of major beverages in the United States, 2006

Million liters 57,169 31, 238 24,489 21,476

Beverage Carbonated soft drinks (regular and diet) Bottled water (95% still and 5% sparkling) Beer Milk

Source: California Energy Commission 2007, note: 2007 sales of bottled water exceeded 33 million liters.

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Table 2: Key differences between EPA tap water and FDA bottled water regulations

Some Key Differences Between EPA Tap Water and FDA Bottled Water Rules Water Type Dis-infection Required? Confirmed E. Coli & Fecal Coliform Banned? Testing Frequency for Bacteria Must Filter to Remove Pathogens, or Have Strictly Protected Source? Must Test for Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Viruses? No No Yes Testing Frequency for Most Synthetic Organic Chemicals 1/year None 1/quarter (limited waivers available if clean source)

Bottled Water Carbonated or Seltzer Water Big City Tap Water (using surface water)

No No Yes

No No Yes

1/week None Hundreds/ month

No No Yes

See Table 1 of NRDC's bottled water report for further comparisons and explanations.

Source: Natural Resources Defense Council, Bottled water: pure drink or pure hype? (1999)

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Table 3:

City of Bloomington 2010 Water Quality Report Detected Contaminants Table

Highest Level Highest Level Detected Ideal Goals
(EPA's MCLG's)

Substance

Allowed
(EPA's MCL*)

Sources of Contamination

Microbiological Contaminants Total Coliform Bacteria Heterotrophic Plate Count Total Organic Carbon Turbidity Cryptosporidium Barium Copper Chloramines (as
Chlorine)

5 percent 500 CFU/ml TT* TT* TT* 2 ppm 1.3 ppm 4.0 ppm 4 ppm 10 ppm 15 ppb

3.8 percent 22 CFU/ml

47% removal average

0 None None None 0 2 ppm 1.3 ppm 4 ppm 4 ppm 10 ppm 0

Naturally present in the environment Natural lake bacteria; wildlife; septic systems Naturally present in the environment Soil runoff Natural lake bacteria; wildlife; septic systems Erosion of natural deposits Corrosion of household plumbing systems; erosion of natural deposits Water additive to control microbes Water additive which promotes strong teeth Runoff from fertilizer use; leachate from septic systems; erosion of natural deposits Corrosion of household plumbing systems; erosion of natural deposits

0.24 NTU 0.1 oocysts Inorganic Contaminants 0.015 ppm 0.044 ppm 2.8 ppm 1.36 ppm 0.02 ppm 5.6 ppb Organic Compounds 65.3 ppb (average)

Fluoride Nitrate (as Nitrogen) Lead Total Trihalomethanes

By-product of drinking water chlorination By-product of drinking water Haloacetic Acids 60 ppb 51.1 ppb (average) 0 disinfectant LISTED ABOVE are the 13 contaminants detected in Bloomington's drinking water during 2009. All are within allowable levels. Not listed are the over 60 primary contaminants for which we tested that were not detected in Bloomington drinking water. Treatment Technique (TT): A required process intended to reduce levels of contaminants in water. Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL): The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water. MCLs are set as close to MCLGs as feasible using the best availabe treatment technique Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG): the level of contaminant in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety.

80 ppb

Source: City of Bloomington Utilities 2010 Water Quality Report

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Table 4: Where bottled water actually comes from

Bottled Water Label Arctic Wolf Spring Arctic Clear Arctic Falls Purified Arctic Falls Bottled Arctic Springs Arctic Spring Glacier Mountain Natural Spring New Jersey Glacier Mountain Bottled Logan, Ohio Glacier Bottled Water Company Processed municipal water from vending machines Glacier Spring Victoria, Australia Alaska Premium Glacier Pipe 111241, Juneau Municipal Water* Everest Corpus Christi, Texas Yosemite Los Angeles municipal supply *http://ezinearticles.com/?Water-Quality-of-Glaciers-Do-We-Want-It?&id=480313 The Water Comes from Where? Water Source Philadelphia area, southern New Jersey Bartlett, Tennessee Tulsa, Oklahoma Cedar Grove, New Jersey Los Angeles Lakeland, Florida

Source: Gleick, P., Bottled and Sold: The Story Behind Our Obsession with Bottled Water (2010)

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Table 5: Price comparison of bottled water from Marsh Supermarkets as of September 2010 and City
of Bloomington Utilities tap water rates for 2010.

Price of Bottled Water Versus Tap Water

Nestle PureLife 24 1/2 liter bottles or 12 1 L (16.9 fl. Oz.) (3.17 gallons) (12 L) If same amount bought every week for a year (165 gallons) (624 L) Ice Mountain Pepsi Aquafina Coca-Cola Dasani Evian Fiji City of Bloomington Utilities

$5.29

$5.99

$6.49

$6.99

$19.58

$23.78

0.0068 cents

$275.08

$311.48 $337.48

$363.48

$1,108.16 $1,236.56

0.3531 cents

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