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Soft-Switching Techniques for Efciency Gains in Full-Bridge Fuel Cell Power Conversion
Martin Ordonez, Member, IEEE, and John E. Quaicoe, Senior Member, IEEE
AbstractThis paper presents a set of novel soft-switching techniques to increase the power conversion efciency in fuel cell (FC) systems using a full-bridge topology. For this purpose, a special right-aligned modulation sequence is developed to minimize conduction losses while maintaining soft-switching characteristics in the MOSFETs. Traditional auxiliary elements in the primary, such as series inductors that are impractical for realizing due to the extreme input current, are avoided and reected to the output of the rectier to minimize circulating current and generate soft transitions in the output diodes. As a result, the proposed combined techniques successfully reduce conduction losses, minimize reverse-recovery losses in the output rectiers, minimize transformer ringing, and ensure low stress in all the switches. The high efciency is maintained in the entire range of loading conditions (0%100%) while taking into consideration remarkable challenges associated with FC power conversion: high input current, low voltage and poor regulation, and wide range of loading conditions. A detailed analysis of the techniques for efciency gains are presented and a phase-shift zero-voltage switching topology is employed as a reference topology to highlight the mechanisms for performance enhancement and the advantages in the use of the special modulation. Experimental results of a 1-kW power converter are presented to validate the efciency gains, illustrate the benets of the special modulation, and demonstrate the soft-switching transitions. Index TermsFuel cell (FC), high efciency, modulation, power losses, soft switching.

I. INTRODUCTION

UEL Cells (FC) are power sources that convert electrochemical energy into electrical energy with high efciency, low emissions, and quiet operation. A basic proton exchange membrane (PEM) single-cell arrangement is capable of producing unregulated voltage below 1 V and consists of two electrodes (anode and cathode) linked by electrolyte [1]. The output current capability of a single cell depends on the electrode effective area, and several single cells are connected in series to form a FC stack. Due to the mechanical challenges associated with stacking several single cells, FC are typically low-voltage highcurrent power sources and can continuously run while reactant is fed into the system [2].

Manuscript received February 15, 2010; revised May 2, 2010 and June 6, 2010; accepted July 7, 2010. Date of current version February 9, 2011. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Canada, and by the Industrial Research and Innovation Fund. Recommended for publication by Associate Editor S. Choi. The authors are with the Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns, NL A1B 3X5, Canada (e-mail: mordonez@ieee.org; jquaicoe@mun.ca). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPEL.2010.2059712

Several approaches to realize dcdc isolated power conversion for FC power sources have been proposed based on fullbridge, pushpull, and current-fed topologies. Some of the key contributions in the area include the study outlined in the following. A FC power converter based on a controlled voltage doubler was introduced, which uses phase-shift modulation to control the power ow through the transformer leakage inductance [3]. This interesting topology proved to be less efcient than other traditional topologies [4], but presents the advantage of low component count. A FC inverter based on a traditional pushpull dcdc converter was presented featuring low cost, low component count, and DSP control [5]. Based on the push pull topology, a modular architecture was presented to enhance scalability and reliability [6]. An innovative current-fed version of the pushpull topology has been reported as part of a gridconnected inverter system [7]. A similar current-fed pushpull topology was employed in a step-up resonant converter, presenting a high voltage-conversion ratio [8]. A full-bridge forward dcdc converter with a full-bridge rectier was presented [9]. This is a very robust topology when operated with zero-voltage switching (ZVS) technique and represents an industry standard in many applications, such as telecom power supplies (high input voltage). A three-phase version of the full-bridge forward converter was recently proposed [10], based on -Y transformer connection and a clamp circuit to reduce the leakage inductance and circulating currents. A new family of phase-shift ZVS with adaptive energy storage was also proposed to increase softswitching operating range using auxiliary circuits [11]. As well, topologies based on current-fed full-bridge topologies were proposed featuring low-input ripple current and reduced stress in the input-side switches [12], while also including active clamping circuits [13], [14], and interleaved transformer windings to minimize losses and leakage inductance [15]. In order to increase power conversion capacity and provide enhanced characteristics, current-fed was also employed in resonant [16], twoinductors boost [17], and three-phase converters [18]. Other topologies, such as input-current doubler and an output-voltage doubler were combined to provide high voltage-conversion ratio [19]. As well, novel half-bridge topologies were proposed to provide soft-switching characteristics [20]. Finally, a threeport triple-half-bridge bidirectional dcdc converter topology was proposed, which employs a high-frequency three-winding transformer [21], and the full-bridge counterpart with two series resonant tanks was investigated [22]. Successful power conditioning for FC systems requires dealing with poor voltage regulation, high input current, and a wide range of output loading conditions while maintaining high efciency and low switching stress. When exposed to these

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stringent requirements, full-bridge ZVS, pushpull, and currentfed topologies are confronted with several technical challenges. For example, maintaining ZVS (full-bridge) is difcult due to the poor voltage regulation of the FC and the wide range of loading conditions, which creates excessive conduction losses due to circulating current in the primary. The pushpull topology reduces transformer utilization (primary center tap), compromises magnetizing balance as the power rating increases (winding asymmetry and excitation imbalance), as well as limiting the possibilities for soft-switching operation. Current-fed-based topologies need bulky input inductors (high current), present oscillations produced by the interaction between parasitics (leakage inductance, intrawinding capacitance, and the input inductor), and could present excessive degrading high-frequency ripple current in the output capacitors due to the absence of lter inductor. While the trend for high-input-voltage converters (e.g., connected to the line) has been to minimize switching losses and deal with relatively small line regulation, FC power conversion presents the opposite scenario with low input voltage, poor regulation, and very high input current. Unlike applications with high input voltage, achieving ZVS with low voltage does not lead to substantial efciency gains, given the small energy stored in the MOSFETs output capacitance (Coss). The power dissipated in a MOSFET due to the output capacitance during turn on is a function of the square of the FC voltage vfc 2 . Since FC are low-voltage high-current power sources, the relative importance of switching losses can be outweighed by conduction losses in the MOSFETs that are a function of ifc 2 . By taking into consideration the aforementioned technical challenges, it becomes critical to address the following relevant points in FC power conversion: 1) need for reduction in conductions losses, and thus, unnecessary circulating current in the primary; 2) impracticality of realizing high-current inductors (costly and bulky) and using series capacitors in the primary (reduced lifetime due to ripple current); 3) minimize substantial reverse-recovery losses in the output rectiers (due to the high output voltage); 4) minimize the associated transformer oscillations (ringing); and 5) ensure that the high efciency, by combining points 1) to 5), is maintained under the FC wide input voltage range and 0%100% loading conditions. This paper addresses the challenges 1) to 5) by proposing a set of soft-switching techniques in a full-bridge forward topology. For this purpose, a special modulation sequence is developed to minimize conduction losses while maintaining soft-switching characteristics in the MOSFETs and soft transitions in the output rectiers. Auxiliary elements in the primary, such as series inductors and capacitors that are impractical to realize due the extreme input current are avoided by reecting them to the secondary of the circuit to minimize circulating current and generate soft transitions in the switches. These variations are conceptually depicted in Fig. 1 indicating three major modications suited for FC power conversion. The proposed combined techniques have the ability to maintain high efciency in the entire operating range of the FC (wide input voltage) and under any loading condition. Detailed analysis of the techniques for efciency gains is presented and a phase-shift ZVS topology is employed as a reference topology to highlight the mechanisms

Fig. 1. Conceptual schematic and gate waveforms illustrating L z v s inductor reection to the output of the rectier 1 , right-aligned gate signals for the upper switches 2 , and +50% duty cycle in the lower switches 3 .

for performance enhancement and the advantages in the use of the special modulation. Experimental results of a 1-kW power converter are presented to validate the efciency gains, illustrate the benets of the special modulation, and demonstrate the soft-switching transitions. II. FC VOLTAGE REGULATION This section briey revisits the regulation characteristic of a polymer-electrolyte FC under different operating conditions, providing the basis for successful design of power conditioning stages. Both PEMFC and direct methanol FC (DMFC) belong to this category. The factors that mainly contribute to the output voltage behavior in a DMFC are fuel (methanol concentration), fuel ow rate (supplied to the anode), air/oxygen ow rate (supplied to the cathode), and operating temperature [1]. As well, the output current is a signicant factor that affects the output voltage and, hence, its output power. To better illustrate this behavior, a set of experiments were performed with a Naon115 membrane (Aldrich) in a 5.3-cm2 active area cell fed with 1 mol aqueous MeOH and oxygen at variable ow rates. Fig. 2 shows a family of polarization curves (voltage versus current) under different operating conditions. The gure shows how the output voltage and power availability of the FC are modied by the operating conditions (e.g., operating temperature, oxygen ow rate, and output current using a xed methanol concentration). It is interesting to note how the output voltage of this DMFC is greatly affected by its operating temperature and output current (fuel and oxygen ow rates are close to optimal in this case). This results in a signicant change of the available output power, the area under the polarization curve. Therefore, in order to obtain a desired output power, it is rst necessary to modify the operating conditions to increase the area under the polarization curve (for example, by increasing the operating temperature). It should be pointed out that the transition from a given polarization curve to another through variation in

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Fig. 3. Conduction losses of a commercial MOSFET (IRFB4110) due to circulating current as a function of duty cycle for the voltage polarization curve of a commercial FC v fc . Fig. 2. Steady-state characteristic of a 5 .3 -cm2 polymer-electrolyte single FC (DMFC). Polarization curves as a function of output current (mA), temperature ( C), and oxygen ow rate (mL/min).

operating conditions is very slow. The main reasons for this behavior are the high heat capacity of the cell, and the slow masstransport processes in the ow elds and electrodes (fuel distribution in the ow channels and electrodes assembly) [2], [23]. However, a fast dynamic response exists when the output current changes for xed operating condition. As a result of this example, the poor voltage regulation, high current, and low-voltage characteristics are highlighted. The same principle follows for larger electrode areas required to produce high currents, and a number of singles cells in series to conform a FC stack (i.e., 20 V/60 A for a commercial Ballard Nexa PEMFC). III. RIGHT-ALIGNED MODULATION AND PRIMARY INDUCTOR ELIMINATION IN THE FULL-BRIDGE TOPOLOGY This section presents in a sequential and conceptual manner the steps taken to fulll the requirements toward increasing the efciency of the full-bridge forward converter in FC power conversion. A description of the power-loss mechanisms in the input stage is rst presented, followed by the analysis of the output rectier. Each design goal is addressed by the combined effects of the proposed soft-switching techniques. A. Full-Bridge Input Stage The conduction losses in the MOSFETs due to circulating current [design goal (a)] and the high-current bulky inductor in the primary are eliminated [goal (b)] by removing the traditional Lzvs inductor in the primary and by forcing a right-aligned sequence of pulses in the upper switches as illustrated in Fig. 1 (modications 1 and 2). In order to illustrate the gains of the two changes with a practical example, Fig. 3 presents the conduction losses of a commercial MOSFET (IRFB4110) with low Rds O N as a function of duty cycle for the voltage polarization curve of a commercial hydrogen FC (Ballard Nexa 1.2 kW). It can be seen in Fig. 3 that the total conduction losses un-

der phase-shift ZVS (+ curve that includes circulating current) are considerably higher than losses only associated with power transferred to the secondary ( curve). The losses have been calculated using the rms value of the current through switch M1 and the MOSFET ON-resistance Rds O N , which is a function of the device temperature Ploss C O N = Rds O N iM 1 2 . (1)

For example, the IRFB4110 has 3.7 m at 25 C and 6 m at 100 C (typical), resulting in 35-W conduction losses under 75-A rms at 100 C. When the switching losses are analyzed, the same power device experiences less than 6.5 W during the turnON transition due to its output capacitance Coss when switching at 40 kHz with vfc = 22 V as given in the following: 1 Coss Fsw vfc 2 . (2) 2 Therefore, it can be inferred that in this particular low-voltage high-current application, the efciency gain resulting from reducing circulating current in four switches outweighs those of switching losses, especially under heavy loading conditions. When the lower switches are considered, the scenario is even more favorable, as M2 and M4 not only benet from lower conduction losses, but also operate in ZVS due to the modication 3 in the modulation (+50% duty cycle). In addition, the reduction in the conduction interval also helps to reduce copper losses in the transformer windings and favors the use of planar magnetics with their inherent low leakage inductance to increase power transfer. Ploss C o s s = B. Output Rectier Stage The output rectiers contribute to power losses due to conduction and reverse recovery. Since the output voltage of the power converter is high (i.e., 220 V to supply a single-phase inverter), the conduction current is typically a few amperes per kilowatt of output power (i.e., 4.54 A), making the reverse-recovery losses the dominant factor. Reverse-recovery charge is a function of

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Fig. 4. Reverse-recovery losses: conceptual relationship between rate of change of current di/dt, initial forward current IF and reverse-recovery charge Q rr for IF 3 > IF 2 > IF 1 .

the forward conduction current (IF ) and the rate of change of current (di/dt), as well as operating temperature of the device. The reverse-recovery losses can be estimated by using the recovery charge, switching frequency (Fsw ), and reverse applied voltage (VR ), including the peak ringing value as follows Ploss = Qrr VR Fsw . (3)

Fig. 5. Switching sequence for MOSFETs M 1 , M 2 , M 3 , and M 4 (transitions intervals have been exaggerated for clarity).

As a simple review of this combined effects, Fig. 4 shows a conceptual relationship among di/dt, the IF , and Qrr in which the initial forward current is given by IF 3 > IF 2 > IF 1 . As indicated in (3) the reverse-recovery losses can be reduced by means of controlling di/dt [design goal (c)] and by reducing the reverse peak voltage VR produced by transformer oscillations [design goal (d)]. For this purpose, the Lzvs inductor is reected to the secondary and placed at the output of each upper rectier D5 and D7 (modication 3 ). This technique limits the di/dt in the upper rectiers, eliminates reverse recovery in the lower diodes D6 and D8 , and reduces signicantly the transformer oscillations by preventing a zero-voltage state at the secondary. As will be seen, the technique avoids simultaneous conduction of D5 , D6 , D7 , and D8 , thus reducing undesirable ringing that occurs when the primary current matches the inductor output current, which results in a severe voltage step in the secondary that creates ringing, and therefore, electromagnetic interference (EMI). In the following section, the operation of the full-bridge forward converter and the effect of the proposed modications for efciency improvements are presented in detail over the various switching intervals. IV. OPERATION INTERVALS AND LOSS-REDUCTION EFFECTS The combination of the proposed techniques, Lzvs inductor reection to the output of the rectier ( 1 ), right-aligned gate signals for the upper switches ( 2 ), and +50% duty cycle in the lower switches ( 3 ) are investigated in detail in this section. Fig. 5 shows the switching sequence for MOSFETs M1 , M2 , M3 , and M4 along with the main waveforms for the techniques under study. Transition intervals have been exaggerated for clarity. The structures acquired by the power converter during the

switching intervals are depicted in Fig. 6. The switching sequence results in 12 different intervals T1 T12 , which are used to explain the behavior of the converter. In order to examine various efciency-gain mechanisms, a detailed analysis of the current and voltage waveform is presented for the upper and lower MOSFETs, followed by the upper and lower output rectiers. A. Detailed Analysis of the MOSFETs Waveforms The waveforms for MOSFETs M1 and M4 and their respective body diodes D1 and D4 are shown in Fig. 7 during a full-cycle period, including the gate signals G1 and G4 , drainto-source voltages vM 1 and vM 4 , currents for the MOSFETs n-channel iM 1 and iM 4 , and the body diodes iD 1 and iD 4 . The waveforms for M2 , M3 , D2 , and D3 , which are not presented in Fig. 7, follow the same pattern for the next switching cycle. Interval T1 : The right-aligned modulation, which ensures no circulating current in the primary, starts with interval T1 . The upper MOSFET M1 turns on with zero-current switching (ZCS), and the current path is through M4 that is already in the ONstate. An interesting effect in the primary current rate of change di/dt can be identied during the T1 interval, which is inherently limited by the action of the inductors La and Llk reected to the primary, producing a Lzvs like effect. Once the primary current reaches the current level of the lter inductor reected to the primary iL , interval T1 ends. Interval T2 : MOSFETs M1 and M4 are in the ON-state and their current continue to ramp up with slope (Vi Vo )/(Llk + La + L ), as energy is transferred from the input to the output.

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Fig. 6.

Power-converter structures for intervals T 1 T 1 2 .

Here, Vo , La , and L denote, respectively, the output voltage, auxiliary inductor, and output lter inductor reected to the primary. Interval T3 : Begins when gate signal G1 drops causing M1 to turn off and D2 to start conduction. This interval is a short blanking/dead time between M1 and M2 , and nishes when the gate signal G2 rises. The behavior of M2 and D2 is the same as M4 and D4 in the next switching cycle. Interval T4 : M2 turns on with ZVS, given that D2 was forward-biased during T3 . This interval is also brief and ends when G4 gate signal drops. The objective of extending G4 slightly beyond 50% is to ensure ZVS on both lower switches. Interval T5 : The energy stored in the leakage inductance Llk is returned to the dc-bus capacitors through D3 body diode. Since the traditional Lzvs has been reected to the secondary, the inductance in the primary Llk can be dramatically minimized by using a planar transformer. The transformer primary current ip is, therefore, reset to zero during this short interval. Interval T6 : The circulating current in the primary is eliminated, translating into tangible efciency gains given the high input current that is characteristic in FC power conversion. The remaining intervals T7 T12 repeats the same behavior for M2 and M3 and their corresponding body diodes D2 and D3 .

As can be seen, unlike phase-shift ZVS or resonant converters, the proposed techniques prevent unnecessary circulating current in the transformer and through the MOSFETs, and allows power transfer during the conduction interval. This is a key requirement in low-voltage, high-current applications, where the conduction losses are substantial and outweigh switching losses at moderate switching frequencies. As well, the +50% duty-cycle modulation sequence ensures zero-voltage transitions in MOSFETs M2 and M4 . The gains described in this section are further enhanced in the output rectier as described in the following section. B. Output Rectier Waveforms In order to complete the analysis of the waveforms and efciency gains, the output rectier should be investigated. The current and voltage waveforms for D7 (upper) and D8 (lower) diodes are presented in Fig. 8, where both conduction losses and reverse-recovery instants can be identied. Interval T1 : The current in diode D7 initiates the recovery process and di/dt is limited by Lb , like in phase-shift ZVS. However, due to the interleaving action of La and Lb , only three diodes are forward-biased (rather than four), preventing a zero-state in the transformer secondary. Recall that in traditional full-bridge converters, all four diodes are in conduction in the

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Fig. 7. Upper and lower MOSFETs M 1 and M 4 waveforms, including gate signals G 1 G 4 , and body diodes D 1 and D 4 current waveforms.

absence of a pulse in the primary. This modication will lead to reduced ringing during T2 . Interval T2 : The interval T2 begins once D5 reaches the current level of the lter inductor. Diode D7 recovers with a soft transitions due to the moderate di/dt and also experiences a reduced blocking voltage in the presence of low transformer ringing, both helping to reduce reverse-recovery losses. This can be explained due to the fact that the zero voltage condition in the secondary of the transformer is eliminated with the interleaving action of La and Lb , thus preventing an abrupt voltage step in the transformer secondary that excites the parasitics that cause self-resonance (leakage inductance, intra-/interwinding capacitances, etc.). While traditional full-bridge ZVS requires a snubber to limit the ringing, the proposed technique eliminates the snubber while reducing the overall reverse-recovery losses in the upper diodes. Interval T3 : Denes the conduction interval of D7 . Intervals T4 T5 : Initiates the reverse recovery in D8 . Interval T6 : The recovery of D8 does not experience reverse voltage due to the interleaving effect of La and Lb . Therefore,

Fig. 8. Current and voltage waveforms for output rectiers D 7 (upper) and D 8 (lower).

the transition has negligible losses. This effect leads to substantial efciency gains in the lower diodes D6 and D8 . In summary, the waveforms presented in Fig. 8 for the proposed soft-switching techniques reveal the following improvements. 1) The auxiliary inductors La and Lb shape the current waveforms of D5 and D7 during reverse recovery. Therefore, the inductor values can be selected to achieve a desired Qrr in the upper diodes and, hence, control the total reverserecovery power losses. 2) Diodes D6 and D8 experience negligible reverse-recovery losses, unlike the phase-shift ZVS topology, which is ex-

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plained by near-zero forward current when the reduced reverse voltage is applied. 3) The presence of La and Lb reduce oscillations and the peak reverse voltage applied to D6 and D8 that results from transformer ringing. Transformer oscillation results in undesirable effect, such as high maximum reverse voltage rating for the diodes, EMI, over voltage between windings, and power losses in auxiliary snubber circuits. The concept of avoiding a zero-voltage condition on the transformer secondary is addressed by preventing simultaneous conduction of D5 , D6 , D7 , and D8 . As a result, the turn-ON pulse is partially reected to the secondary of the transformer as if the converter were operating in discontinuous conduction mode. Hence, the oscillations are reduced under any loading condition. These combined improvements increase the efciency of the rectier stage in addition to the efciency gains of the MOSFETs. The behavior of the converter highlights the advantages of the proposed techniques in full-bridge topology for FC power conversion (low input voltage, very high input current, combined with low current, high output-voltage rectier). C. Frequency Response and Dynamic Behavior The frequency response of the control-to-output characteristic of the full-bridge topology, which is a buck-derived topology, is dominated by the transfer function of the output lter (L and C ). When the converter is operated in phase-shift ZVS, a series inductance is required to limit the current rate of change in the primary to generate soft transitions in the switches [24]. This limitation, reduces the effective duty cycle reected to the secondary, therefore, affecting the control-to-output characteristic. As a result, an articial dumping effect is created in the frequency response by the series inductance, which softens the control-to-output characteristic peak at the resonant frequency of the lter [25]. In closed-loop operation using traditional compensation (small signal), the articial dumping does not have any noticeable effect in phase and gain margins. A similar behavior is experienced when the proposed techniques are employed using traditional compensators, therefore, showing a dynamic response similar to that of a phase-shift ZVS. In this study, in order to facilitate the efciency evaluation process, multiple measurements were performed with a closedloop controller (small-signal) in steady-state operation. The controller was realized with an inner current loop (inductor current) and an outer voltage loop. Both control loops and the modied modulation were implemented digitally using a TMS320F2808 xed-point DSP. Validation of the waveforms and comparative efciency measurements are presented in the following section. V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND VALIDATION A 1-kW power-converter prototype was employed to validate the waveforms of the proposed soft-switching techniques and to validate efciency gains. An arrangement of resistive loads was employed to perform the measurements. The converter was built using the parameters and parts in Table I, and a phase-shift ZVS topology was employed as a reference topology. For the

TABLE I CONVERTER PARAMETERS

ZVS operation, the inductor Lzvt was included and La and Lb were removed. On the other hand, the proposed modications were tested using La and Lb and removing Lzvt . The practical implementation of the converter follows current trends by using DSP control and modulation (TMS320F2808), in particular to simplify the task of generating the right-aligned modulation. As well, as part of the requirements to realize the proposed techniques, the drivers of the upper MOSFETs was arranged to produce actual pulsewidth modulation, rather than the xed 50% duty cycle employed in the phase-shift ZVS counterpart. A. Validation of the Waveforms A complete switching cycle in M1 , M4 , D7 , and D8 was measured under medium loading condition to validate the waveforms. In order to facilitate the visualization, the switching frequency was set to 40 kHz. Fig. 9 shows the waveforms of MOSFET M1 , including gate and drain-to-source voltages, and the secondary transformer current. It can be seen that the MOSFET current starts at zero (ZCS) at the beginning of T1 and slowly ramps up until it reaches the current level of the output-lter inductor at the beginning of T2 . The MOSFET turns off during T3 , limiting the conduction interval to T1 T2 . The body diode D1 conduction interval can be seen in T11 , which returns the energy of the leakage inductance to the input dc bus and avoids circulating current in the primary. The small energy in the leakage is absorbed and clamped by the input capacitors of the converter. The lower MOSFET M4 waveforms are shown in Fig. 10, where the zero-voltage transition during turn-ON can be seen at the beginning of T11 . Thereafter, at the beginning of T4 , M4 turns off. As well, D4 has a soft-switching transition during T5 . The conduction interval in M4 is similar to that of M1 , showing reduced conduction losses. In order to evaluate the converter operation under phaseshift ZVS, the inductor Lzvt was included and La and Lb were removed. Fig. 11 shows MOSFET M1 drain-to-source voltage (Ch1) and gate-to-source (Ch2) signals along with the secondary current waveform is (Ch4). It can be seen that the turn-ON transition occurs during (T1 ) interval and the conduction is extended

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Fig. 9. Upper side MOSFET M 1 waveforms in the proposed modied topology under medium loading condition: drain-to-source voltage (Ch1), gate-tosource signal (Ch2), and transformer-secondary current (Ch4).

Fig. 11. Upper side MOSFET M 1 waveforms in phase-shift ZVS operation under medium loading condition: drain-to-source voltage (Ch1), gate-to-source signal (Ch2), and transformer-secondary current (Ch4).

Fig. 10. Lower side MOSFET M 4 waveforms in the proposed modied topology under medium loading condition: drain-to-source voltage (Ch1), gate-tosource signal (Ch2), and transformer-secondary current (Ch4).

Fig. 12. Upper side diode D 7 waveforms in the proposed modied topology under medium loading condition: anode-to-cathode voltage (Ch1), diode current (Ch4), and transformer-secondary current (R1).

until the end of (T6 ). As described by the analysis of conduction losses, the conduction interval presents unnecessary circulating current. MOSFET M4 (lower side switch) presents a similar behavior with circulating current. Focusing on the rectier stage, the upper output-rectier D7 waveforms with the proposed techniques are shown in Fig. 12. The turn-OFF transition from forward-biased to blocking is illustrated in interval T1 . The effect of Lb and Llk can be seen in the current transition, resulting in moderate reverse-recovery losses at the beginning of T2 . The end of the interval T7 corresponds to the instant when the current in Lb matches the current in the output-lter inductor L. During T8 , the slope of iD 7 is mainly due to L. The conduction interval is dened from T7 to T1 of the next switching cycle. As can be seen, the transformer oscillation are small and experience a fast damping beginning at T2 (no snubber have been included in the prototype). Only an

initial peak is experienced due to the effect of the stray inductance in the current path (hall effect sensor measurement path) and Lb . This provides a clear indication that the proposed arrangement only requires a small local snubber connected from D7 cathode to L input terminal, as opposed to the well-known bulky snubber circuit in ZVS circuits. The improvement that results from the proposed modications is better appreciated in the experimental waveforms for D8 depicted in Fig. 13. Due to the interleaving effect of La and Lb during T3 T5 interval, diode D8 experiences a fast transition from high conduction current to near-zero current. At the beginning of T7 , the converter input voltage is partially reected to the secondary and blocks D8 immediately with a transition that produces negligible reverse-recovery losses in D8 . As well, the blocking transition presents moderate ringing at the beginning of T7 while the upper diode current iD 7 ramps up.

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Fig. 13. Lower side diode D 8 waveforms in the proposed modied topology under medium loading condition: anode-to-cathode voltage (Ch1), diode current (Ch4), and transformer-secondary current (R1).

Fig. 15. Input waveforms in the proposed modied topology: transformer input voltage (Ch1) and converter input current (Ch3).

B. Comparative Efciency Measurements The combined switching and conduction losses for the proposed soft-switching techniques are presented in this section. A phase-shift ZVS is employed as a reference topology for comparative evaluation. The same power devices, power transformer, drivers, dead-time insertion, heatsink and fan, and output lter were employed in both cases to ensure a fair comparison (see Table I). Note that the objective of the experimental efciency measurements is to illustrate the efciency gains with the proposed modications rather than performing an absolute measurement of the converter efciency. The efciency measurement accounts for the power switches, printed circuit board, connections, and magnetic parts and does not include losses in the controller and drivers. For ZVS operation, the auxiliary Lzvt inductor and snubbers were included, while removing La and Lb . Several tests were performed for various input voltages vfc = 18, 25, and 30 V under variable loading conditions (501000 W range) for both power converters. The results are shown in Fig. 16, illustrating the efciency as a function of output power and input voltage in a 3-D plot. It is important to highlight that even though efciency characterization in power converters is traditionally performed using xed input voltage, FC power conversion requires the use of a polarization curve (variable input) to account for the lax voltage regulation that is characteristic in these power sources. Therefore, a surfaceefciency measurement provides a better means for comparison, as presented in Fig. 16. The efciency prole achieved with the proposed soft-switching techniques, referred to as Modied in the gure is depicted with circle markers, while the phase-shift ZVS is illustrated with star markers. It can be seen that the proposed modications present a signicant efciency gain under any operating condition. For example, an efciency gain of 3%4% in a power converter with an overall efciency of 90% provides an improvement close to 30%40% in the thermal management of the power stage and allows the use of lower cost power semiconductors/heatsinks. This can be considered

Fig. 14. Lower side diode D 8 waveforms in phase-shift ZVS operation under medium loading condition: anode-to-cathode voltage (Ch1), diode current (Ch4), and transformer-secondary current (R1).

When this is compared to the behavior under phase-shift ZVS, which is presented in Fig. 14, diode D8 presents undesirable reverse-recovery losses at the beginning of interval T8 , where a small negative-current peak can be seen due to the effect of Qrr . As predicted by the analysis, the ringing peak voltage in D8 is high, increasing the reverse-recovery losses and requiring a bulky snubber. Finally, in order to verify that the input current is positive, a fundamental requirement in FC power conversion, Fig. 15 presents the input current of the converter and the transformer input voltage operating under medium loading condition. As predicted by the analysis, the current remains positive during all the switching intervals.

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Fig. 16. Comparative efciency measurements using the proposed techniques (Modied) versus the traditional phase-shift ZVS (ZVS).

as an excellent improvement toward power density and cost of the power conversion stage, while maintaining the simplicity of a full-bridge topology. As well, the efciency gains result in cumulative fuel savings (i.e., hydrogen or methanol) under any operating condition (light, medium, and heavy) by employing the proposed soft-switching techniques. VI. CONCLUSION A set of novel soft-switching techniques for the full-bridge topology were investigated in this study including the reection of the traditional Lzvs inductor to the output of the rectier, right-aligned modulation for the upper switches, and +50% duty cycle in the lower switches. The study presented in this paper identied the main power-loss mechanism in full-bridge FC power conversion in the presence of the poor voltage regulation of polymer-electrolyte FC and the wide range of loading conditions. The combined techniques successfully addressed the most important power loss effects and issues in FC power conversion: 1) reduction in unnecessary high circulating currents in the primary, and thus, conduction losses; 2) elimination of impractical high-current inductors in the primary; 3) reduction of reverse-recovery losses in the output rectiers; 4) minimization of transformer oscillations (ringing); and 5) improved efciency under the FC wide input voltage range and 0%100% loading conditions. As anticipated by the analysis, by taking advantage of the opportunities for performance enhancements, considerable efciency gains were experimentally observed in the entire range of operation of the system while maintaining the simplicity and ruggedness of the full-bridge topology. REFERENCES
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Martin Ordonez (S02M09) was born in Neuquen, Argentina. He received the Ing. degree in electronics engineering from the National Technological University, Argentina, in 2003, and the M.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns, NL, Canada, in 2006 and 2009, respectively. He was involved in research and development at Xantrex Technology Inc./Elgar Electronics Corporation, Deep Electronica de Potencia, and TRV Dispositivos, where he developed high-density dcdc power converters, uninterruptible power system inverters, and digital controllers using DSPs. He is currently an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University, Canada. His research interest includes characterization and utilization of renewable power sources, power conversion architectures and control, and high-performance power electronics topologies. His current research activities are supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) and the Industrial Research and Innovation Fund (IRIF). His teaching interests include design-oriented courses, such as analog electronics and power electronics. Dr. Ordonez was the recipient of the David Dunsiger Award for excellence in the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science in 2009, the Birks Graduate Medal in 2006, and as a Fellow of the School of Graduate Studies (2009 and 2005), Memorial University, for leadership, contributions to the student community, and academic excellence.

John E. Quaicoe (S75M76SM93) received the B.Sc. degree from the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, in 1973, and the M.A.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Toronto, Canada, in 1977 and 1982, respectively, all in electrical engineering. Since 1982, he has been with the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns, NL, Canada, where he is currently the Dean (pro tem). He was involved in teaching electric circuit analysis, electronic circuit analysis and design, energy systems, power electronics, and power electronic systems, including modeling, analysis, control and design of power converters for various applications during his undergraduate and graduate studies. His research interests include inverter modulation and control techniques, utility interface systems and power quality, and uninterruptible power supplies. His current research programs have been concerned with the development of power electronic systems, and control strategies for fuel cells and wind generation systems. Dr. Quaicoe was the recipient of the Presidents Award for Distinguished Teaching at Memorial University of Newfoundland in 2001 and the IEEE Canada Outstanding Educator Medal in 2002. He is a member of the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Newfoundland and Labrador.