AIR STANDARD POWER CYCLES

INTRODUCTION
Engine cycle analysis is an important tool in the design of n IC engines. This is because, before as
engine is designed and fabricated, one has to have a rough idea on how it would behave and what
performance it would exhibit. Therefore, wed go for cycle analysis in order to have an idea about
the performance limits of an engine.
Thermodynamic cycle is defined as a series of processes through which the working fluid
progresses, which will eventually return to its original state. In another words, it implies a closed
system with no exchange of matter with surroundings.
Though, actually speaking, the IC engine operation does not follow the closed system as shown in
Fig. (1) below, however, it is often possible to analyze the open system as though it were a closed
one by imagining one or two processes which would bring the working fluid to its original state.
The actual analysis of the cycle is difficult since it involves a lot of complications like change of
properties of working fluid, chemical reactions, frictional losses etc., however, using certain
assumptions one can simplify the process to make it possible for analysis, though it would bring the
results of this analysis farther from the real situation.
IDEAL or AIR STANDARD POWER CYCLES
Air Standard Cycle is defined as a cycle using perfect gas as the working medium.
ASSUMPTIONS
The assumptions made in order to simplify the cycle for analysis are mentioned below :
Working fluid is a perfect gas which obeys the gas law PV = mRT
The properties of the working fluid is that of the air @ NTP, i.e. C
P
= 1.005, C
V
=
0.718 kJ/Kg.k and = 1.4.
The working fluid has constant specific heats.
No chemical reaction takes place all throughout the process.
There is always fixed mass inside the cylinder.
Heat addition and rejection always takes place in a reversible manner.
Engine operation is frictionless.
Kinetic and Potential energies are neglected.
Compression and expansion processes are reversible adiabatic.
THE CONSTANT VOLUME OR OTTO CYCLE.
Pressure Temperature
3 Reversible Adiabatic 3
PV

= Constant

Q
in
W
out
Q
in
W
out

2 4 2 4
Q
out
W
in

W
in
1 1 Q
out
V
C
= V
2
V
S
= V
1
-V
2
Volume Entropy
V
t
= V
1
= V
S
+ V
C
W.D. in compression 1-2 = area under 12 Heat added during 2-3 = area under 23
W.D. in expansion 3-4 = area under 34 Heat rejected during 4-1 = area under 41
Net W.D. = area 1234 Net Heat = area 1234
Working Principle of Ideal Otto Cycle.(Explain)
Process (1-2) : Adiabatic Compression of air from V1 to V2.
1
Q
2
= 0.
Process (2-3) : Constant Volume heat addition.
2
W
3
= 0.
Process (3-4) : Adiabatic Expansion of air from V3 to V4.
3
Q
4
= 0.
Process (4-1) : Constant Volume heat rejection.
4
W
1
= 0.
After the air is introduced into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke
(not shown here), it immediately undergoes isentropic compression from (1)
to (2) as the piston moves from the BDC (V
1
) to the TDC (V
2
). This results in
volume reduction as pressure as well as temperature rise. Heat is then added
instantaneously at constant volume (process 2-3) while the piston is
momentarily at rest at the TDC.
This raises the pressure and temperature further. This expansion of the air
pushes the piston from TDC to BDC where power is produced and given to its
consumption point. To complete this ideal air power cycle, the working fluid
has to return back to its initial state that is state point (1). This requires that
the air reject its heat, which occur at constant volume when the piston is at
BDC and then the cycle is repeated.
Mathematical Analysis of the cycle.
Let us take m= 1 Kg.
Heat added during process 2-3 is = C
V
(T
3
T
2
) kJ/Kg
Heat Rejected during the process 4-1 is = C
V
(T
4
T
1
) kJ/Kg
Therefore, the net work done is W
net
= C
V
[(T
3
T
2
) - (T
4
T
1
)] kJ/Kg
Calculation of Thermal Efficiency
Thus the thermal efficiency
th
is

,
_

,
_

1
2
T
3
T
1
1
T
4
T
2
T
1
T
1
)
2
T
3
(T
V
C
)
1
T
4
(T
V
C
- 1
add
Q
rej
Q
1
add
Q
rej
Q
add
Q

Supplied Heat
Done Net Work
th

Now,
2
T
3
T
1
T
4
T
; OR
1
CR
4
T
3
T
1
T
2
T

Hence the equation for thermal efficiency can be written as:
1) - (
CR
1
- 1
3
T
4
T
- 1
2
T
1
T
1
th

Example (1-Otto):
In an ideal constant volume cycle the pressure and temperature at the
beginning of compression are 97 kN/m
2
and 40
o
C, respectively. The volume
ratio of compression is 7:1. The heat supplied during the cycle is 1200 kJ/Kg
of working fluid. Calculate the following :
1) The maximum temperature attained by the cycle, 2) The thermal efficiency
of the cycle and 3) Work done during the cycle per Kg of working fluid. Take
C
v
= 0.718 kJ/kg.K and = 1.4.
Given : P
1
= 97 kPa, T
1
= 313
o
K, CR = 7 and q
in
= 1200 kJ/kg
1) T
2
= T
1
* (V
1
/V
2
)
-1
= 313 * (7)
1.4-1
= 681.68 K
q
in
= C
v
* (T
3
T
2
) i.e. 1200 = 0.718 * (T
3
-681.7) T
3
= 2353.989 K
2) Thermal efficiency = 1-(T
1
/T
2
) = 1- (T
4
/T
3
) = 1- (1/CR
-1
) = 0.5408
3) Work done per cycle = q
in
* thermal efficiency OR W.D. = 1200 * 0.541 = 649 kJ/Kg
Example (2-Otto):
In an Otto cycle, air at 15
o
C and 105 kPa is compressed adiabatically until
the pressure is 1300 kPa. Heat is added at constant volume until the pressure
rises to 3500 kPa. Calculate the air standard efficiency, the compression
ratio, the clearance and stroke volume and the mean effective pressure. Take
C
v
= 0.718 kJ/kg.K and R=0.287 kJ/kg.K
Solution : given, P1 = 105 kPa, T1 = 288 K, P2 = 1300 kPa, P3 = 3500 kPa.
1) (V
1
/V
2
) = (P
2
/P
1
)
1/
OR CR = (1300/105)
0.715
= 6.033
2) Thermal efficiency = 1- (1/CR
-1
) = 0.512
3) Mean Effective Pressure = WD/V
S
Further, WD = C
v
[ (T
3
T
2
)] *
From Process (1-2) T
2
= T
1
* (CR
-1
) = 288 * (6.033)
1.4-1
= 591.025 K
From Process (2-3) (P
3
/ T
3
) = (P
2
/ T
2
) T
3
= 1591.22 K
q
in
= 0.718 * (1591.22 591.025) = 1000.196 kJ/kg
WD = q
in
* Ther. Eff. = 512.1 kJ/Kg
V1 = m * R * T1 / P1 = (1 * 0.287 * 288 )/(105) = 0.7872 m
3
/kg
Clearance volume = V
2
= V
1
/CR = 0.787/6.033 = 0.1304 m
3
/kg
Displacement volume = V
1
V
2
= 0.6568 m
3
/kg
Mean Effective Pressure = WD/Vs = (367.688)/(0.6568) = 779.69 kPa
The Constant Pressure or Diesel Cycle.
This is a theoretical cycle for a slow speed engines using diesel as a fuel.
The basic difference between it and the Otto cycle is that heat is added at constant
pressure while in the case of Otto cycle, heat is added at constant volume.
In this cycle, the compression ratio (V
1
/V
2
) the expansion ratio (V
4
/V
3
).
Q
add
P 2 3 Temperature 3

Reversible Adiabatic Q
add
PV

=Constant 4
2

V
3

4 Q
rej
V
C
=V
2
Q
rej
1
V
S
= V
1
-V
2
1

5 6 Volume 5 6 Entropy
W.D. in compression 1-2 = area 1256 Heat added during 2-3 = area 2365
W.D. in expansion 2-4 = area 23465 Heat rejected during 4-1 = area 4156
Net W.D. = area 1234 Net Heat = area 1234
Working Principle of Ideal Diesel Cycle. (Explain)
Process (1-2) : Adiabatic Compression of air from V1 to V2.
1
Q
2
= 0.
Process (2-3) : Constant Pressure heat addition.
2
W
3
0.
Process (3-4) : Adiabatic Expansion of air from V3 to V4.
3
Q
4
= 0.
Process (4-1) : Constant Volume heat rejection.
4
W
1
= 0.
After the air is introduced into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke
(not shown here), it immediately undergoes isentropic compression from (1)
to (2) as the piston moves from the BDC (V
1
) to the TDC (V
2
). This results in
volume reduction and pressure as well as temperature rise. Heat is then
added instantaneously at constant pressure (process 2-3) and the piston is
momentarily moves slightly away from TDC.
This raises the pressure and temperature further. This expansion of the air
pushes the piston from TDC to BDC where power is produced and given to its
consumption point. To complete this ideal air power cycle, the working fluid
has to return back to its initial state that is state point (1). This requires that
the air reject its heat, which occur at constant volume when the piston is at
BDC and then the cycle is repeated.
Mathematical Analysis of the Cycle.
Let us take m= 1 Kg.
Heat added during process 2-3 is = C
P
(T
3
T
2
) kJ/Kg
Heat Rejected during the process 4-1 is = C
V
(T
5
T
1
) kJ/Kg
Therefore, the net work done is W
net
= C
P
(T
3
T
2
) - C
V
(T
5
T
1
) kJ/Kg
Calculation of Thermal Efficiency.
Thus the thermal efficiency
th
is
1
2
T
3
T
1
1
T
4
T
2
T
1
T
1
)
2
T
3
(T
)
1
T
4
(T

1
- 1
add
Q
rej
Q
1
add
Q
rej
Q
add
Q

Supplied Heat
Done Net Work
th

,
_

,
_

Now,
1
4
V
3
V
3
T
4
T
and ,
1
1
V
2
V
2
T
1
T

,
_

,
_

also, V
4
= V
1
Thus,
1
T
2
T
2
T
3
T
3
T
4
T
1
T
4
T

=
1
1
V
2
V
4
V
3
V
2
T
3
T

,
_

1
T
4
T
=
( )
1
V
V
2
V
3
V
2
3

,
_

,
_

2
V
3
V
Hence the equation for thermal efficiency can be written as :
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
1
V
V
V
V
V
V
th

or, finally the equation for thermal efficiency could be written as:
1
1
]
1

1) (r
1

r
1
CR
1
1
th

Analysis of the results.

From the figures below we can conclude the following:
1. Thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle differs from that of Otto cycle by the amount inside
the bracket which is always > 1. Hence
th Diesel
<
th Otto
.
2. Thermal efficiency is a function of the cut-off ratio () which is in turn dependent on
engine load being maximum for maximum load. As the cut-off ratio increases, thermal
2
V
3
V
2
T
3
T
; 3 - 2 process pressure constant the from Further
efficiency decreases. Further, if > 10% of the stroke smoke will tend to appear
because lesser time would be available for the combustion to be completed by the time
EVO.
3. Unlike Otto cycle, the efficiency of diesel cycle decreases as the engine load
decreases.
4. In actual Practice,
th Diesel
>
th Otto
.This is due to the fact that diesel cycles uses
higher compression ratios than Otto cycles.
100 65

80 r=1 (Otto Cycle) CR = 22
r=2
60 r=3 50
CR = 18
40 CR = 14
20 35
0.0 5 10 12 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 10
Compression Ratio (CR) Cut-Off Ratio (r)
Example (1-Diesel) :
An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 14. The pressure at
the beginning of the compression stroke is 100 kPa and the temperature is
27
o
C.The maximum temperature is 2500
o
C. Determine the state of the
system at all points hence the thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure
of the cycle.
Solution:
Given: CR = 14, T1 = 300
o
K, P1 = 100 kPa and T3 = 2773
o
K.
At state point (1):
T
1
= 300
o
K, P
1
= 100 kPa V1 = R*T
1
/P
1
= 0.287 * 300 / 100 = 0.861 m
3
/Kg
At state point (2):
T
2
= T
1
* (V
1
/V
2
)
(-1)
= 300 * 14
0.4
= 300 * 2.88 = 862.129
o
K.
P
2
= P
1
* (T
2
/T
1
)
/-1
= 100*(862.129/300)
3.5
= 100*40.232 = 4023.2 kPa.
V
1
/V
2
= 14 V
2
= 0.861/14 = 0.0615 m
3
/Kg
At state point (3):
P
2
= P
3
= 4023.2 kPa (constant pressure process) and T3 = 2773
o
K.
V
3
/V
2
= T
3
/T
2
= 2773/862.129 = 3.216 V3 = 3.216*0.0615 = 0.1978 m
3
/Kg
At state point (4):
V
4
= V
1
= 0.861 m
3
/Kg (constant volume process).
T
3
/T
4
= (V
4
/V
3
)
-1
= (V
4
/V
2
* V
2
/V
3
)
-1
= (CR * 1/r) = (14 * 1/3.216)
0.4
= 4.36
0.4
= 1.801
Hence, T
4
= 2773/1.801 = 1539.66
o
K.
P
1
/T
1
= P
4
/T
4
P
4
= P
1
* (T
4
/T
1
) = 100*(1539.66/300) = 513.22 kPa
OR we can also use the adiabatic relation P3/P4 = (T3/T4)
/-1
(Check).
Thermal efficiency ( ) = 1 [(T
4
-T
1
)/ (T
3
-T
2
)]
= 1 [(1539.66-300)/1.4*(2773-862.129)] = 1 0.4633 = 0.5366
OR we can use the other relation
1
1
]
1

1) (r
1

r
1
CR
1
1
th

.
Mean Effective Pressure = Net work done per cycle/Stroke volume
= (q
in
q
out
)/ (V
1
V
2
)
= [(C
p
(T
3
-T
2
) C
v
(T
4
-T
1
)) / (V
1
V
2
)]
= [1.005*(2773-862.129)-0.718*(1539.66-300)]/0.7995 = 1288.39 kPa
The Brayton or Joule Cycle.
This is a theoretical cycle in which heat exchange takes place at constant pressure.
P T 3
Q
add
Q
add

2 3 Isothermal
PV=C

2 4

1 Q
rej

1 4
Q
rej
V S
W.D. in compression 1-2 = area under 12 Heat added during 2-3 = area under 23
W.D. in expansion 3-4 = area under 34 Heat rejected during 4-1 = area under 41
Net W.D. = area 1234 Net Heat = area 1234
Working Principle of Ideal Diesel Cycle. (Explain)
Process (1-2) : Isothermal Compression of air from V1 to V2.
1
Q
2
= 0.
Process (2-3) : Constant Pressure heat addition.
2
W
3
0.
Process (3-4) : Isothermal Expansion of air from V3 to V4.
3
Q
4
= 0.
Process (4-1) : Constant Pressure heat rejection.
4
W
1
= 0.
Mathematical Analysis of the Cycle.
Let us take m= 1 Kg.
Heat added during process 2-3 is = h3-h2 = C
P
(T
3
T
2
)
Heat Rejected during the process 4-1 is = h4-h1 = C
P
(T
4
T
1
)
Therefore, the net work done is W
net
= C
P
[ (T
3
T
2
) - (T
4
T
1
) ]
Thus the thermal efficiency
th
is
)
2 3
(
)
1 4
(
- 1
add
Q
rej
Q
1
add
Q

Supplied Heat
Done Net Work
T T
T T
add
Q
rej
Q
th

Now, let us represent all temperatures in terms of T
1
and T
4
.
( ) ( )

1 -
r

3
T

4
T can write we also and
1 -
r
2
T

1
T


substituting into main equation and simplifying we can finally write the equation for thermal
efficiency could be written as:
1
1
1

r
th
Making use of the constant pressure processes, we can write the equation as a function of
the pressure ratio (r
P
= P2/P1) as follows:
4
T
3
T

) 1 (
4
P
3
P

) 1 (
1
P
2
P

1
T
2
T

,
_

,
_

, since (P2 = P3 and P1 = P4)

Therefore we can write ; (T4/T1) = (T3/T2)
From which we can write :

th

2
T
1
T
- 1
1)
2
T
3
T
(
2
T
1)
1
T
4
T
(
1
T
- 1
)
2
T
3
(T
)
1
T
4
(T
- 1

th

1) (
2
P
1
P
- 1
2
T
1
T
- 1

,
_

From which we can write the final equation in terms of pressure ratio as follows:
1)/ (
P
r
1
1
th

Analysis of the result.
The effect of the pressure ratio is clearly shown in the following Figures :
0.6 2 CC 3
0.3 C T
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1 4
Example (1-Brayton):
In a gas turbine air is drawn in at 102 kPa and 15
o
C and is compressed to 612 kPa.
Calculate the thermal efficiency and the work ratio of the ideal constant pressure cycle
when the maximum cycle temperature is limited to 800
o
C. Take =1.4 and C
P
=1.005.
Solution :
Given : P1 = 102 kPa, T1 = 288
o
K and T3 = 1073
o
K.
At state point (1) :
P1 = 102 kPa, T1 = 288
o
K
Taking for a unit mass we can calculate V1 = R*T1/P1 = 0.287*288/1.02*100
V1 = 0.81 m
3
/Kg
At state point (2) :
P2 = 612 kPa
4
T
3
T

) 1 (
4
P
3
P

) 1 (
1
P
2
P

1
T
2
T

,
_

,
_

1.67
0.286
6
4 . 1
) 1 4 . 1 (
102
612

4
T
3
T

1
T
2
T

,
_

T2 = 1.67*288 = 481
o
K
Taking for a unit mass we can calculate V2 = R*T1/P1 = 0.287*481/6.12*100
V2 = 0.2255 m
3
/Kg
At state point (3) :
P3 = P2 = 612 kPa, T3 = 1073
o
K
Taking for a unit mass we can calculate V3 = R*T3/P3 = 0.287*1073/6.12*100
V3 = 0.503 m
3
/Kg
At state point (4) :
P4 = P1 = 102 kPa
T4 = T3/1.67 = 1073/1.67 = 643
o
K
Taking for a unit mass we can calculate V4 = R*T4/P4 = 0.287*643/1.02*100
V4 = 1.845 m
3
/Kg
Thermal efficiency = 1 1/(r
P
(-1)/
) = 0.403 Ans.
Work done by turbine = C
P
*(T
3
T
4
) = 432 kJ/Kg
Work consumed by compressor = C
P
*(T
2
T
1
) = 194 kJ/Kg
Net work = W
net
= C
P
[ (T
3
T
4
) - (T
2
T
1
) ] = 238 kJ/Kg
Back Work Ratio = W
C
/ W
T
= 194/238 = 0.815 Ans.