Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept.

of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Sensors Sensors are the devices that sense what is actually occurring in the process and inform the controller. Most sensors work by converting some physical parameter such as force, pressure, temperature or position into an electrical signal. This is why sensors are also called transducers, which are devices that convert energy from one form to another. POSITION SENSORS Position sensors report the physical position of an object with respect to a reference point. The information can be an angle, as in how many degrees a radar dish has turned, or linear distance, as in how many inches a robot arm has extended. Potentiometers A potentiometer (pot) can be used to convert rotary or linear displacement to a voltage. The pot itself gives resistance, but this resistance value can easily be converted to a voltage.

Linear potentiometer
B C

Single-turn rotary pot Above figure illustrates how a rotary pot works. A resistive material is formed in the shape of a circle (terminating at contacts A and C. This material has a very uniform resistivity. Connected to the shaft is the slider, or wiper, which slides along the resistor and taps off a value [contact B in Figure]. The single-turn pot has only about 350 of useful range. Such a pot could only be used where the rotation never exceeds 350. Multiturn pots are available with a wiper that moves in a helix motion, allowing for up to 25 or more revolutions of the shaft. The figure also illustrates a linear-motion potentiometer. In this case, the wiper can move back-and forth along a straight line. Linear-motion pots are useful for sensing the position of objects that move in a linear fashion. Figure 6.2 shows a pot that detects the angular position of a robot arm. In this case, the pot body is held stationary, and the pot shaft is connected directly to the motor shaft.

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

EXAMPLE A pot is supplied with 10 V and is set at 82. The range of this single-turn pot is 350. Calculate the output voltage.

Motor SOLUTION If the pot is supplied 10 V, then the maximum angle of 350 will produce a 10V output. Using these values, we can set up a ratio of output to input and use that ratio known as transfer function to calculate the output for any input. Assuming linearity, Transfer function = Output/Input = 10Vdc/350 Now, for an input of 82, The Pot output voltage (at 82} = 10Vdc x 82/350 = 2.34 Vdc Optical Rotary Encoders An optical rotary encoder produces angular position data directly in digital form, eliminating any need for the analog to digital converter (ADC). It consists of a rotating disk, a light source, and a photodetector (light sensor). The disk, which is mounted on the rotating shaft, has coded patterns of opaque and transparent sectors. As the disk rotates, these patterns interrupt the light emitted onto the photodetector, generating a digital or pulse signal output. There are two types of optical rotary encoders: the absolute encoder and the incremental encoder.

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Rotary encoders are used in many applications that require precise shaft rotation including industrial controls, robotics and computer input devices (such as optomechanical mouse). Absolute rotary encoder Absolute encoders produce a unique digital code for each distinct angle of the shaft. The encoder disc is made of glass or plastic with transparent and opaque areas. A light source and photo detector array reads the optical pattern that results from the disc's position at any one time. This code can determine the angular position of the shaft.

The figure shows an example an extremely simplified encoder with only three contacts. The binary code is shown below. Contact 1 indicates the innermost track Standard Binary Encoding Sector Contact 1 Contact 2 Contact 3 Angle 1 off off off 0 to 45 2 off off on 45 to 90 3 off on off 90 to 135 4 off on on 135 to 180 5 on off off 180 to 225 6 on off on 225 to 270 7 on on off 270 to 315 8 on on on 315 to 360

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

In general, where there are n contacts, the number of distinct positions of the shaft is 2n. In this example, n is 3, so there are 2 or 8 positions. In the above example, the contacts produce a standard binary count as the disc rotates. However, this has the drawback that if the disc stops between two adjacent sectors, or the contacts are not perfectly aligned, it can be impossible to determine the angle of the shaft. To avoid the above problem, Gray encoding is used. This is a system of binary counting in which adjacent codes differ in only one position. Incremental rotary encoder The incremental rotary encoder is the most widely used of all rotary encoders due to its low cost. Incremental encoders can track motion and can determine position and velocity. Because the direction can be determined, very accurate measurements can be made. They employ two outputs called A & B which are called quadrature outputs as they are 90 degrees out of phase.

Fig: Two square waves in quadrature (clockwise rotation). . The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) The LVDT is a high resolution position sensor that outputs an AC voltage with a magnitude proportional to linear position. It has a relatively short range of about 2 inches but has the advantage of no sliding contacts. It consists of three windings and a moving iron core or armature. The center winding or primary is connected to an AC reference voltage. The outer two windings called secondaries are wired to be out of phase with each other and are connected in series. When the moveable armature is centered between the two secondaries, equal magnetic flux couples into both secondaries and the voltage induced in one half of the secondary winding is balanced and 180 degrees out-of-phase with the voltage induced in the other half of the secondary winding. Thus in the balanced condition the voltages induced in the two secondaries cancel out and therefore the output voltage is zero. 4

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

When the moveable armature is displaced from the balanced condition, more magnetic flux will induce into one half of the secondary than into the other producing an imbalance voltage output at the primary coil excitation frequency. The output voltage of the LVDT is therefore a direct function of the displacement of the moveable magnetic armature. ANGULAR VELOCITY SENSORS Angular velocity sensors are called tachometers. These are devices that give an output proportional to angular velocity and find wide application in motor-speed control systems. They are also used in position systems to improve their performance. Velocity from position sensors If the system already has a position sensor and the hardware has its own clock to determine the time interval between two positions, then velocity may be easily calculated.

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Tachometers The optical tachometer is a simple device used to determine a shaft speed as revolution per minute or rpm. Typically, a contrasting stripe is placed on the shaft. A photo sensor is mounted in such a way as to output a pulse each time the stripe goes by. The period of this pulse waveform is inversely proportional to the rpm of the shaft and can be measured using a counter circuit. A toothed rotor tachometer consists of a stationary sensor and a rotating iron made toothed wheel which looks like a big gear. The toothed wheel may be built into the rotating shaft. The sensor generates a pulse each time a tooth passes by. The angular velocity of the wheel is proportional to the frequency of the pulses. Typical sensors consist of a magnet with a coil of wire around it. Each time an iron tooth passes near the magnet, the magnetic field within the magnet increases, inducing a small voltage in the coil of wire. EXAMPLE: A toothed rotor sensor has 20 teeth. Find the rpm if the sensor outputs pulses at 120 Hz. Ans: 360 rpm. A direct current tachometer is essentially a DC generator that produces a DC output voltage proportional to shaft velocity. The output polarity is determined by the direction of rotation. PROXIMITY SENSORS A proximity sensor simply tells the controller whether a moving part is at a certain place. Examples are limit switches, optical proximity sensors, Hall effect proximity sensors. A limit switch is a mechanical push button switch that is mounted in such a way that it is actuated when a mechanical part or lever arm gets to the end of its intended travel. For example in an automatic garage door opener, all the controller needs to know is if the door is all the way open or all the way closed. Limit switches can detect these two conditions. Switches are fine for many applications but they have at least two drawbacks: (1) Being a mechanical device, they eventually wear out and (2) they require a certain amount of physical force to actuate. Optical and Hall effect proximity sensors do not have these problems. Optical proximity sensors use a light source and a photo sensor that are mounted in such a way that the object to be detected cuts the light path. Four types of photo sensors are in general use: photo resistors, photodiodes, photo transistors and photovoltaic cells. Optical sensors enjoy the advantage that neither the light source, nor the object to be detected, nor the detector has to be near each other. An example is burglar alarm system. The light source is on one side of the room, the burglar is in the middle, and the detector is on the other side of the room.

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Hall-effect proximity sensors output a voltage when the magnetic field in which it finds itself increases. This is done either by moving a magnet or by changing the magnetic field path. LOAD SENSORS Load sensors measure mechanical force. The forces can be large or small for example, weighing heavy objects or detecting low force tactile pressures. In most cases, it is the slight deformation caused by the force that the sensor measures, not the force directly. The bonded wire strain gage can be used to measure a wide range of forces from few kgs to many tons. It consists of a thin wire looped back-and-forth a few times and cemented to a thin paper backing. More recent versions use printed circuit technology to create the wire pattern. The entire strain gage is securely bonded to some structural object and will detect any deformation that may take place. The gage is oriented so the wires lie in the same direction as the expected deformation. The change in resistance of the wires under deformation is used to calculate the elongation of the strain gage which is ultimately related to the force being applied. Semiconductor force sensors use the piezo-resistive effect of silicon. These units change resistance when force is applied and are 25-100 times more sensitive than the boded wire strain gage. A semiconductor strain gage is a single strip of silicon material that is bonded to the structure. When the structure stretches, the silicon is elongated and the resistance from end to end increases. Some applications require low force sensors. For example, imagine the sensitivity required for a robot gripper to hold a water glass without slipping and without crushing it. Strain gages can measure low forces if they are mounted on an elastic substrate, like rubber then a small force will cause a significant deflection and resistance change. Conductive foam tactile sensors are very low force sensors made of conductive foam. They are used in membrane keypads. The conductive foam is a soft foam rubber saturated with very small carbon particles. When the foam is squeezed, the carbon particles are pushed together and the resistance of the materials falls. This change in resistance is, in some fashion, proportional to the force. PRESSURE SENSORS Pressure is defined as the force per unit area that one object exerts on another. Pressure sensors usually consist of two parts: the first one converts pressure to a force or displacement and the second one converts the displacement to an electric signal. Pressure measurements are made only for gases and liquids. The simplest measurement gives a gage pressure, which is the difference between the measured pressure and the ambient pressure. A slightly more complicated sensor can measure differential pressure, the difference in pressure between two places.

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

A Bourdon tube is a short bent tube, close at one end. When the tube is pressurized, it tends to straighten out. The displacement due to this motion is proportional to the applied pressure. A position sensor such as an LVDT or pot can convert this displacement into electric signal. Example: steam and water pressure gages. Bellows use a small metallic bellow to convert pressure into linear motion. As the pressure increases the bellows expand against the opposing force of a spring. This motion is detected with a position sensor such as pot. Bellows are capable of more sensitivity than the Bourdon tube in lower pressure range of 0-30 psi. Semiconductor pressure sensors use piezo-resistive property of silicon. The piezoresistive element converts pressure directly into resistance and consequently to voltage. These sensors have the advantage of no moving parts and are available in pressure ranges in 0-1.5 psi to 0-5000 psi. TEMPERATURE SENSOR Temperature sensors give an output proportional to temperature. Bi-metallic temperature sensor consists of a bi-metallic strip wound into a spiral. The bi-metallic strip is a laminate of two metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion. As the temperature rises, the metal on the inside expands more than the metal on the outside and the spiral tends to straighten out. These sensors are typically used for on-off control. The thermocouple sensors consist of two dissimilar metallic wires fused together to form junctions at both ends. When the two junctions are placed at different temperatures, a voltage proportional to the temperature difference is generated in the circuit due a phenomenon called Seeback effect. One junction is on the probe and is called hot junction and the other junction is kept at some known reference temperature and is called the cold junction or reference junction. Typically the reference junction is kept in an icewater bath at 0 deg C. So the output voltage is directly proportional to the hot junction temperature. Commercial thermocouples are available with different temperature range, sensitivity and combinations. Type J made of iron-constantan pair has the highest sensitivity but the lowest temperature range. Type K made of chromel-alumel pair has a high temperature range but low sensitivity. Type R made of platinum-rhodium pair has an even lower sensitivity but can work at higher temperatures. Thermocouples are simple, reliable and stable sensors; they enjoy wide use in measuring high temperatures in furnaces and ovens. Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) are temperature sensors based on the fact that metals increase in resistance as temperature rises. It consists of a wire, such as platinum, wrapped around a ceramic or glass rod. In contact to a hot object the resistance of the platinum wire in a RTD increases. They have the advantages of being very accurate and

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

stable. The limitations are their low sensitivity, relatively slow response time to temperature changes and high cost. A thermistor is a two terminal device that changes resistance with temperature. Thermistors are made of oxide based semiconductor materials and come in variety of sizes and shapes. They are nonlinear and, therefore, not usually used to record temperature accurately. Rather they are used to indicate temperature changes, for example overheating. Most thermistors have negative temperature coefficient, which means their resistance deceases with increasing temperature. A very desirable feature of these sensors is their high sensitivity, i.e. a very small change in temperature can produce a large change in resistance. Integrated circuit (IC) temperature sensors come in various configurations. A common example is the LM34 and LM35 series. The LM34 produces an output voltage that is proportional to F and the LM35 produces an output voltage proportional to C. FLOW SENSORS Flow sensors measure the quantity of fluid passing by a point in a certain time. Pressure based flow sensors is based on the fact the pressure in a moving fluid is proportional to the flow. The pressure detected with a pressure sensor. The simplest flow sensor is orifice plate and it is simply a restriction in the pipe that causes a pressure drop in the flow. The sensor requires two pressure ports, one upstream and one downstream of the restriction. The flow is proportional to the difference between these two ports. Another popular pressure based flow sensor is venturi meter. Turbine or spin type flow sensors employ a paddle wheel or propeller placed in the line of flow. The rotational velocity of the wheel is directly proportional to the flow velocity. Magnetic flowmeters can be used if a liquid is slightly conductive. It has the advantages that it has no moving parts and it does not restrict the flow. A noncontacting section of the pipe is placed in the magnetic field. The moving fluid in the pipe is like the moving conductor in a generator it produces a voltage. The voltage, which is proportional to the fluid velocity, is detected from the electrodes placed in the sides of the pipe. LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS Liquid level sensors measure the height of a liquid in a container and have two classes: discrete and continuous. Discrete level sensors can only detect whether the liquid is at a certain level. Continuous level sensors provide an analog signal that is proportional to the liquid level. Discrete level sensors detect when a liquid has reached a certain level. The simplest type of it uses a float and a limit switch. The float is attached to a vertical rod with a cam. At a certain level, the cam activates the limit switch. Some level detectors are based on

Compiled by Dr. M. M. Razzaque, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

photocell. When the liquid level submerges the light path, the photoconductor signal changes, thus indicating the presence of the liquid. In case of conductive liquids, such as tap water, coffee, etc., an electric probe is suspended over the liquid. When the liquid reaches the probe, the resistance in the circuit abruptly deceases. Continuous level detectors provide a signal that is proportional to the liquid level. One of the most direct methods is to use a float along with a position sensor like pot. Another way is to measure the pressure at the bottom. This method is based on the fact that the pressure at the bottom of the tank is directly proportional to the level. Monitoring the weight of the liquid with load cell is another technique to determine the level. Ultrasonic range detectors mounted over the tank can directly give the level of a liquid in a container. VISION SENSORS A vision sensor is a CCD camera connected to a computer. Machine vision is being used to perform inspection and to guide machine operations. It consists of an electronic camera connected to a special video processing PCI card. The PCI card is plugged into a PC that is running special vision recognition and image processing software. Usually the camera is rigidly mounted so that it is looking down upon the area of interest. The visual information is passed from the camera to the PCI card which converts the information into digital format, typically a 640x 480 pixel frame. This frame is then quickly sent to the PC where it is processed to get useful data.

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