1

Introduction & Review

1.3 Wireless Channel (Part 1)
Office Hours:
BKD 3601-7
Monday 9:20-10:20
Wednesday 9:20-10:20

Dr.Prapun Suksompong
prapun.com/ecs455
Wireless Channel
2
Large-scale propagation effects
1. Path loss
2. Shadowing
Typically frequency independent
Small-scale propagation effects
Variation due to the constructive and
destructive addition of multipath signal
components.
Occur over very short distances, on the
order of the signal wavelength.


[Goldsmith, 2005, Fig 2.1]
c
f
=
8
3 10 [m/s] ~
f = 3 GHz = 0.1 m
Path loss
3
Caused by
dissipation of the power radiated by the transmitter
effects of the propagation channel
Models generally assume that it is the same at a given
transmit-receive distance.
Variation occurs over large distances (100-1000 m)
[
G
o
l
d
s
m
i
t
h
,

2
0
0
5
,

F
i
g

2
.
1
]

Path Loss (PL)
4
Free-Space Path Loss:


P
r
falls off inversely proportional to the square of the distance d
between the Tx and Rx antennas.
Simplified Path Loss Model:
Transmitted power
Average received power
t
L
r
P
P
P
= =
Averaged over any random variations
2
1
r
t
P
P d

0 r
t
d P
K
P d

| |
=
|
\ .
To be discussed
Friis Equation (Free-Space PL)
5
One of the most fundamental equations in antenna theory



More power is lost at higher frequencies.




Some of these losses can be offset by reducing the maximum
operating range.
The remaining loss must be compensated for by increasing the
antenna gain.

2 2
4 4
Tx Rx Tx Rx
r
t
G G G G c
P
P d df

t t
| | | |
= =
| |
| |
\ . \ .
0.7 GHz 2.4 GHz 5 GHz 60 GHz
10
5
20log
2.4
6.4 dB loss 21.6 dB loss
10
60
20log
5
10.7 dB loss
10
2.4
20log
0.7
(Path loss of the free-space model)
1 for non-directional antennas
Path Loss Models
6
Analytical models
Maxwells equations
Ray tracing
Empirical models: Developed to predict path loss in typical
environment.
Okumura
Hata
COST 231
by EURO-COST (EUROpean Cooperative for Scientific and Technical
research)
Piecewise Linear (Multi-Slope) Model
Tradeoff: Simplified Path Loss Model


Prohibitive (complex, impractical)
Need to know/specify almost
everything about the environment.
Indoor Attenuation Factors
7
Building penetration loss: 8-20 dB (better if behind windows)
Attenuation between floors
@ 900 MHz
10-20 dB when the Tx and Rx are separated by a single floor
6-10 dB per floor for the next three subsequent floors
A few dB per floor for more than four floors
Typically worse at higher frequency.
Attenuation across floors


[Goldsmith, 2005, Sec. 2.5.5]
Simplified Path Loss Model
8
K is a unitless constant which depends on
the antenna characteristics and
the average channel attenuation

4
0
2
for free-space path gain at distance d
0
assuming
omnidirectional antennas
d
0
is a reference distance for the antenna far-field
Typically 1-10 m indoors and 10-100 m outdoors.
is the path loss exponent.
0 r
t
d P
K
P d

| |
=
|
\ .
Captures the essence of
signal propagation without
resorting to complicated
path loss models, which are
only approximations to the
real channel anyway!

[Goldsmith, 2005, Table 2.2]
(Near-field has scattering
phenomena.)
( )
10 10 1 0 0
10log 10log 10 log
r
t
d
P
Kd
P

=
[dB]
Path Loss Exponent
9
2 in free-space model
4 in two-ray model
[Goldsmith, 2005, eq. 2.17]
Cellular: 3.5 4.5
[Myung and Goodman, 2008 , p 17]
Larger @ higher freq.
Lower @ higher antenna heights
Shadowing (or Shadow Fading)
10
Additional attenuation caused by obstacles (large objects such
as buildings and hills) between the transmitter and receiver.
Think: cloud blocking sunlight
Attenuate signal power through absorption, reflection, scattering,
and diffraction.
Variation occurs over distances proportional to the length of the
obstructing object (10-100 m in outdoor environments and less in
indoor environments).

[
G
o
l
d
s
m
i
t
h
,

2
0
0
5
,

F
i
g

2
.
1
]

[
M
y
u
n
g

a
n
d

G
o
o
d
m
a
n
,

2
0
0
8
,

F
i
g

2
.
1
]

Contours of Constant Received Power
11

[Goldsmith, 2005, Fig 2.10]
Log-normal shadowing
12
Random variation due to blockage from objects in the signal
path and changes in reflecting surfaces and scattering objects
random variations of the received power at a given
distance



This model has been confirmed empirically to accurately
model the variation in received power in both outdoor and
indoor radio propagation environments.
( )
2
10
10log ,
t
r
P
P
o
4 13 dB
in dB
with higher values in urban
areas and lower ones in flat
rural environments.
[Erceg et al, 1999] and [Ghassemzadeh et al, 2003]
Log-normal shadowing (motivation)
13
Location, size, dielectric properties of the blocking objects as well
as the changes in reflecting surfaces and scattering objects that
cause the random attenuation are generally unknown
statistical models must be used to characterize this attenuation.
Assume a large number of shadowing objects between the
transmitter and receiver
O
b
j
e
c
t

1

O
b
j
e
c
t

2

O
b
j
e
c
t

3

Without the objects, the attenuation factor is

.
Each object introduce extra power loss factor of o
i
.
So,
By CLT, this is
approximately
Gaussian
0
0
10 10 10
10log 10log 10log
r
i
i
t
r
i
i
t
d P
K
P d
d P
K
P d

o
o
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
[

PDF of Lognormal RV
14
Consider a random variable

Suppose

Then,
t
r
P
R
P
=
( )
2
10
10log , R o
( )
( )
2
10log 1
2
1 10 1
, 0
ln10
2
0, otherwise.
r
R
e r
f r
r

o
to
| |

|
\ .

>
=

PDF of Lognormal RV (Proof)

15
Suppose
( )
2
log , .
b
c Y o
Let log .
b
X c Y =
Then,
X
k
Y e =
where .
ln
c
k
b
=
( ) ( )
log ln ln .
ln
b
c
X c Y Y k Y
b
= = =
( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( )
ln ln .
X
k
Y X
F y P Y y P e y P X k y F k y
(
( = s = s = s =
(


( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
ln 1
2
1
ln ln .
2
k y
Y X X
d k k
f y F k y f k y e
dy y y

o
to
| |

|
\ .
= = =
Recall, from ECS315 that to find the pdf of Y = g(X) from the pdf of
X, we first find the cdf of Y and then differentiate to get its pdf:
Note that
PDF of Lognormal RV (Proof)
16
Suppose
( )
2
log , .
b
c Y o
Let log .
b
X c Y =
Then,
X
k
Y e =
where .
ln
c
k
b
=
( ) ( )
log ln ln .
ln
b
c
X c Y Y k Y
b
= = =
Alternatively, to find the pdf of Y = g(X) from the pdf of X, when g is
monotone, we may use the formula:
Note that
( ) ( )
X Y
f x dx f y dy =
( ) ( )
Y X
dx
f y f x
dy
=
This gives ( ) ( )
log
Y X b
k
f y f c y
y
=
(same as what we found earlier).
Signal Power and Energy
17
Consider a signal g(t).
Energy:

|(|
2
=

|(|
2
.
Power:

= |(|
2
= lim

2
2
|(|
2
= lim

1
2

|(|
2
.
g(t) is an energy signal iff 0 <

< .
In which case,

= 0.
g(t) is a power signal iff 0 <

< .
In which case,

= .
If g(t) is periodic with period
0
, then
g(t) is a power signal,

=
1

0
|(|
2

0
,
g(t) can be expanded in terms of complex exponential signals as

=
(Fourier series) and

2
=
(Parsevals identity)
Power Calculation: Examples
18
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
cos 2
2 2
c c
j f t j f t
c
g t f t e e
t t
t

= = +
2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
g
P
| | | |
= + =
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( ) ( )
cos 2
c
g t a t f t t | = +
1
2
g a
P P =
Assume A(f-f
c
) and A(f+f
c
) do not overlap.

( ) ( ) ( )
cos 2
k c k
k
g t a t f t t | = +

1
2
k
g a
k
P P =

( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
cos 2 cos 2
c c
g t a f t a f t t | t | = + + +
( )
2 2
1 2 1 2 2 1
1 1
cos
2 2
g
P a a a a | | = + +
Assume the A
k
(ff
k
)s do not overlap.

Ray tracing
19
Approximate the solution of Maxwells equations
Approximate the propagation of electromagnetic waves by
representing the wavefronts as simple particles.
Thus, the reflection, diffraction, and scattering effects on the
wavefront are approximated using simple geometric equations
instead of Maxwells more complex wave equations.
Assumption: the received waveform can be approximated by the
sum of the free space wave from the transmitter plus the reflected
free space waves from each of the reflecting obstacles.

Tx
Rx
d
( ) ( )
2 cos 2
t c
x t P f t t =
( )
2 cos 2
t c
d
y t P f t
d c
o
t
| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
From Friis equation,
=

4
.
Ex. One reflecting wall (1/4)
20
There is a fixed antenna transmitting the sinusoid , a
fixed receive antenna, and a single perfectly reflecting large
fixed wall.
Assume that the wall is very large, the reflected wave at a
given point is the same (except for a sign change) as the free
space wave that would exist on the opposite side of the wall if
the wall were not present
W
a
l
l

w
Tx
Rx
d
Ex. One reflecting wall (2/4)
21
W
a
l
l

w
Tx
Rx
d
( ) ( )
( )
2 cos 2
2 cos 2 2 cos 2
2
2 cos 2 2 cos 2
2
2
2 cos 2 2 cos 2
2
t c
t c t c
t c t c
t c t c
x t P f t
d w w d
y t P f t P f t
d c w w d c
d w d
P f t P f t
d c w d c
d w d
P f t P f t
d c w d c
t
o o
t t
o o
t t
o o
t t
=
| | | | +
| | | |
=
| |
| |
+
\ . \ .
\ . \ .
| | | |
| | | |
=
| |
| |

\ . \ .
\ . \ .
| |
| | |
= +
|
|

\ . \
\ .
t
| |
|

|
|
.
\ .
Ex. One reflecting wall (3/4)
22
W
a
l
l

w
Tx
Rx
d
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2
2 cos 2 2 cos 2
2
2 cos
2 2
2 2 1
2 2
/ 2
t c t c
y t
c
d w d
y t P f t P f t
d c w d c
P P
d w d d w d
w d
f w d
c
o o
t t t
o o o
|
| t t t t

| | | |
| | | |
= +
| | | |

\ . \ .
\ . \ .
| |
| | | |
= + + A
|
| |
|

\ . \ .
\ .

A = + = +
form constructive
and destructive
interference
pattern
Ex. One reflecting wall (4/4)
23

200 400 600 800
0
2 10
5

4 10
5

6 10
5

5.496 10
5

1.736 10
7

P d ( )
Pu d ( )
Pl d ( )
800 100 d
200 400 600 800
70
60
50
40
30
39.554
67.604
10 log P d ( ) ( )
10 log Pu d ( ) ( )
10 log Pl d ( ) ( )
800 100 d
500 500.2 500.4 500.6 500.8
0
2 10
6

4 10
6

6 10
6

8 10
6

7.109 10
6

1.766 10
6

P d ( )
w
2
1 +
w
2
d
900 MHz
1 km
f
w
=
=
Ex. Two-Ray Model
24
Floor (Ground)
Tx
Rx
d
h
t h
r
( )
1 2 2 1
1 2
1 2
2 2
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
2 cos 2 2 cos 2
c c c
t c t c
r r r r
j f j f j f
y
c c c
x
r r
y t P f t P f t
r c r c
P
e e e
P r r r r
t t t
o o
t t
o o o o


| | | |
| | | |
=
| | | |
\ . \ .
\ . \ .
= =
Delay spread =
2 1
r r
c c

Assume ground reflection coefficient = -1.

Ex. Two-Ray Model
25

900 MHz
50 m
2 m
t
r
f
h
h
=
=
=
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 10
4
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
d
P
y
/
P
x
Ex. Two-Ray Model
26

10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
P
y
/
P
x
log d
900 MHz
50 m
2 m
t
r
f
h
h
=
=
=
Ex. Two-Ray Model
27

10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
log d
P
y
/
P
x
1800 MHz
50 m
2 m
t
r
f
h
h
=
=
=
Ex. Two-Ray Model (Approximation)
28
Floor (Ground)
Tx
Rx
d
h
t h
r
,
t r
d h h
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2 2 4
1 1 2 2
t r t r
h h h h
j j
y
d
x
t r t r t r
Tx Rx t r
P
e e
P r r d
h h h h h h
j j
d d d d d
G G h h
d
t t

o o o
to o o
t t


~ ~
| | | | | |
~ = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
| |
=
|
|
\ .
Ex. Two-Ray Model
29

10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
P
y
/
P
x
log d


Exact
Approx
No reflection
Upper bound
Lower bound
Ex. Two-Ray Model
30

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 10
4
-170
-160
-150
-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-90
-80
-70
d
P
y
/
P
x


Exact
Approx
No reflection
Upper bound
Lower bound
dBm
31
The range of RF power that must be measured in cellular phones
and wireless data transmission equipment varies from
hundreds of watts in base station transmitters to
picowatts in receivers.
For calculations to be made, all powers must be expressed in the
same power units, which is usually milliwatts.
A transmitter power of 100 W is therefore expressed as 100,000mW.
A received power level of 1 pW is therefore expressed as
0.000000001mW.
Making power calculations using decimal arithmetic is therefore
complicated.
To solve this problem, the dBm system is used.
Range of RF Power in Watts and dBm
32

[Scott and Frobenius, 2008, Fig 1.1]
W = 10log
10

1mW
dBm
[Smillie, 1999, p 11]
10log
10
100
1mW
=20 dBm
Doppler Shift: 1D Move
33
At the transmitter, suppose we have

At distance r (far enough), we have


If moving, r becomes r(t).
If moving away at a constant velocity v, then




( )
2 cos 2
t c
P f t t | +
2 cos 2
t c
r
P f t
r c
o
t |
| |
| |
+
|
|
\ .
\ .
Time to travel a distance of r
( )
0
. r t r vt = +
( ) ( )
0 0
cos 2 cos 2 2
c c c c
r vt r v
f t f f t f
r t c r t c c
o o
t | t t |
| | + | |
| | | |
+ = +
| | | |
\ . \ .
\ . \ .
Frequency shift
v

=
Review: Instantaneous Frequency
34
For a generalized sinusoid signal

the instantaneous frequency at time t is given by


When
( ) ( )
cos , A t u
( ) ( )
1
.
2
d
f t t
dt
u
t
=
( )
( )
2 ,
c
r t
t f t
c
u t |
| |
= +
|
\ .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
2
c
c c
f d d d
f t t f r t f r t
dt c dt dt
u
t
= = =
Frequency shift
Doppler Shift: With angle
35
Rx speed = v(t). At time t, cover distance
( )
0
t
v d t t
}
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
0
2 cos
2 2 cos
2 2 cos
cos 0
t
r t d t d t
t d
d
r t v t
dt
d t d t
d
r t v
dt
u
u
u
u
=
= +

=
+
=
d
( )
t
u
( )
r t
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
new
new
1
1
0 cos 0
c
c
d
f t f r t
dt
f f v

=
= +
Frequency shift
( )
v t
Doppler Shift: Approximation
36
For typical vehicle speeds (75 Km/hr) and frequencies
(around 1 GHz), it is on the order of 100 Hz
[Goldsmith, 2005, Fig 2.2]
cos v
f
u

A =
d
( )
t
u
( )
r t
( )
cos t u
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
new
cos
cos
cos
r t d t
d
r t v t
dt
v t
f t f
u
u
u

~
~
~ +
Big Picture
37
Transmission impairments in cellular systems
[Myung and Goodman, 2008, Table 2.1]
(Path Loss)