CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 GENERAL

Designing of structures is an art and science of designing a safe, durable and elegant structure with economy. This is not only requires imaginations but also a good knowledge of science of designing besides practical aspects, like the relevant codes and local municipal byelaw experience and judgment. The architect where as the requirement of safety, serviceability, durability and economy are taken care of by the structural engineer looks after the design structure of the structure and the aesthetics. The structural planning of structure involves the determination of the form of the structure, the materials to be used, and the structural system, the layout of its components. The Principal elements of the R.C.C. building frame are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Slabs to cover large areas Beams to support slabs and walls Columns to support beams, and Footings to distribute concentrated column loads over a large area of the supporting soil. The Structural planning of the building frame involves the determination of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Column position Beam location Slab spacing Planning of stairs Type of footing
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2.1

STRUCTURAL DESIGNING

Structural Design for framed R.C.C structure can be done by three methods. a) b) c) Working stress method Ultimate strength method Limit state method

2.1.1 Working Stress Method of Design

It is the earliest modified method of R.C.C. structures. In this method structural element is so designed that the stress resulting from the action of service load as computed in linear elastic theory using modular ratio concept does not exceed a pre-designed allowable stress which is kept as some fraction of ultimate stress, to avail a margin of safety. Since this method does not utilize full strength of the material it results in heavy section, the economy aspect cannot be fully utilized in the method.

2.1.2 Ultimate Strength Method of Design

This method is primarily based on strength concept, in this method the structural element is proportioned to with stand the ultimate load which is obtained by exchanging the service load of some factor referred to as load factor for giving margin of safety. Since this method is based on actual stress strain behavior of the material, of the member as well as structure that too right up to failure, the value calculated by this method agree well the experiment results.

2.1.3 Ultimate State Method Design

During the past several years, extensive research works have been carried out on the different aspects of research in the actual behavior of the member and structure have lead to the development of design and approach of LIMIT STATE METHOD OF DESIGN.

2.1.4

Limit State Concept

In limit state method, the working load is multiplied by partial factor of safety. In accordance with the clause of IS-456-2000; and also the ultimate strength of the material is divided by partial safety in accordance with clause of IS-456-2000. Partial safety factor is introduced to reduce probability of failure to about zero. When a structure or a part of structure becomes unfit for use, it is said to have reached a limit state, unfitness for use can arise in various ways and aim of limit state method of design is to provided an acceptable probability that the structure will not reach any of limit states during its service life span. Limit state can be broadly classified into two main categories: 1. Limit state of collapse 2. Limit state of serviceability 2.1.4.1 Limit State of Collapse: It is the limit state on attainment of which of the structure is likely to collapse. It relates to stability and strength of the structure design to this limit ensures safety of the structure from collapse. 2.1.4.2 Limit State of Serviceability: structure. This limit is concern with cracking and deflection of the structure. 2.2 THEORY OF SLABS It relates to performance or behavior of

structure at working loads and is based on causes effecting serviceability of the

Slab means the covering provided to the four wall or beams in order to enclose a room. The RCC slabs are used to provide flat and useful surface. They are supported by RCC beams and being poured monolithically wiser such beams. Slabs depending upon their ration of longer sided to shorter side can be classified into two groups: 1. Having ratio of longer side to shorter side more than 2. In this case they are supported two parallel sides only and structural action by essentially one way.

2. Having ratio of longer side to shorter side less than 2. In this case they are supported on all four sides and a two-way action is obtained. The supporters on all the sides are usually considered relatively stiff with deflections relatively small composed to those of one-way slab. Slab sometimes can be carried directly by the columns without help of beams; such slabs are called FLAT SLABS. But in this project we are using only the abovementioned two types i.e. one way and the two ways. Two-way slabs are further divided into two types depending upon the resistance to the torsion they are: 1. Restrained slabs 2. Simply supported slabs. 2.2.1 Restrained Slabs: These will be in accordance with clauses C.1.0 of I.S.

456-2000 appendix C The max B.M in accordance with the clause C.1.1 of I.S.456-2000 Mx My = x = y W Lx2 W Lx2

Where Lx and Ly are coefficient given in table 22 of IS456 2000 for different ratio of Lx and Ly and condition of fixidity @ different edges. Lx and Ly length of shorter and longer span respectively. My and My Moment on strength of unit with spanning. For analysis of such slab coefficient given in table 22 of IS 456 1978 are strictly used in accordance with clause 36.1.2. Of IS 456-1978. 2.2.2 Simply Supported Slab: This type of slabs does not have adequate provision

to resist torsion 2 corners in accordance with clause C.2.1. Of IS: 456-1978. Mx = x W Lx2

My Lx

= y

W Lx2

and Ly are the coefficient given in the table 23 of IS 456 1978 for simple

supported slabs as per clause C.2.1.1 of code. At least 50% of the tension reinforcement provided @ midspan should be continued up to the support. The remaining 50% should extend to within 0.1 LX or 0.1 Ly of supports as appropriate.

2.3

ANALYSIS OF FRAMES

A reinforced concrete structure is a combination of beams, columns, slabs or walls rigidly connected together to form a monolithic frame. Each individual member must be capable of resisting the forces acting on it, so that the determination of forces is an essential part of designing process. The full analysis of a rigid concrete frame is rarely simple, but simplified calculations of adequate precision can often be made if the basic action of structure is understood. Building frames consist of a multi-storied and multi-paneled network of beams and columns cast monolithically and rigidly connected with each other. The building frame is subjected to vertical as well as horizontal loads. The exact analysis of the entire frame using classical methods is beyond the capacity of manual hand computations. Even the formulation using computer involves solution of large number of unknown displacements which works out to be costly and beyond the reach of a common man. Therefore, for manual computations approximate methods are used. They are of two types. Type 1: Analysis for vertical loads Substitute frame method Type - 2 : Analysis for horizontal loads Cantilever method or portal method. A building frame can be analyzed as a complete frame, or it can be simplified into series of substitute frames for analysis. The substitute frame consists of one complete

floor beam with its connecting columns, which are assumed rigidly fixed at their remote ends. An analysis of this frame will give the bending moments and shear forces in beams and columns for floor level consideration. The approximate method is based on the principle of dividing the structure into parts and analyzing the parts of interest disregarding the effect of loads and resistances of members away from the member of interest. The above simplification is based on the fact that a load on any member and its stiffness hardly affects a member, which is two spans or two stores beyond. It is applicable for braced frames, which are designed to resist vertical loads only. In low rise buildings the effect of side sway need not be considered because the resistance can be provided by bearing walls. Depending on the level of approximations substitute frames are categorized into three types Substitute frame I: Floor frames Substitute frame II: Bay frames Substitute frame III: Beam Column system. The resulting frame can be analyzed by any method for different loading cases to determine the maximum forces bending moments and shearing forces for the design of members.

2.4

DESIGN OF BEAMS
Beam is an integral part of a structure which transfers the loads imposed on it,

from the slab and other load carrying members acting on it to its supports, a reinforced flexural member should be able to resist tensile, compressive and shear stresses induced in it. Concrete is fairly strong in compression but very weak in tension. Plain concrete members are thus limited in carrying capacity by the low tensile strength. Steel is very strong in tension. Thus the tensile weakness of concrete is overcome by the provision of reinforcing steel in the tension zone and the concrete to make a reinforced concrete member. According to yield line theory, distribution of

load on slab or location of yield lines depends on Ly and Lx ratio and the support conditions. IF Ly/Lx > 1.5, and all the supports are fixed distribution is in triangular pattern and if Ly/Lx >1.5 and all the supports are fixed then, distribution of load consist of 2 triangles and 2 trapezoids. There are two types of reinforced concrete beams: 1. Singly reinforced beams, 2. Doubly reinforced beams In singly reinforced simply supported beams reinforcing beams, reinforcing steel bars are placed near the bottom where they are most effective in resisting the tensile stress. In singly reinforced cantilever beams, reinforcing bars are placed near the top of the beam for the same reason. A doubly reinforced concrete section is reinforced in both compression regions. The section of beam may be a rectangular, T and L section, the necessity of using steel in the compression region raised due to 2 main reasons: When depth of the section is restricted, the strength available from a singly reinforced section is inadequate. At a support of a continuous beam where bending moment changes sign, such a situation may also arise in the design of a beam circular in plan. In most reinforced concrete structures, concrete slabs and beams are cast monolithic. Thus beams from part of the floor system together with the slab. In bending, the slab forming the top part of the beam at mid-span should be in compression for a definable width greater that the width of the rib (or a beam), thus increasing the moment of resistance for a given rib width. At continuous supports, the situation is reversed. The slab is in tension and part of the rib is in compression. Since concrete is assumed too have cracked in tension, this beam is equivalent to a rectangular section at the support. When designing a reinforced section, the loading, span, grade of concrete and steel, and breadth of the section are usually known in advance.

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The section dimensions and area of reinforcing bars remain to be determined. There can be no unique section for a given set of forces. There are many possible combinations of breadth, depth and area of steel thus; cost will govern the final design. 2.5 DESIGN OF COLUMNS Columns are defined as members that carry load in compression. Usually columns carry bending moments as well one or both axes of cross sections and the bending action may produce tensile forces over a part of cross sections. Even in such cases, columns are generally referred to as compression members because the compression forces dominate their behavior. Compression members include arch ribs, rigid frame trusses, shells or portions thereof that carry axial compression and other forms. Three types of reinforced concrete compression members are in use: 1. Members reinforced with longitudinal bars and lateral ties 2. Members reinforced with longitudinal bars and continuous ties. 3. Composite compression members reinforced longitudinally with structural shapes, pipe or tubing with or without additional longitudinal bars and various types of lateral reinforcement. Types one and two are far the most common in use. The main reinforcement in column is longitudinal, parallel to direction of load and consists of bars arranged in square, rectangular or circular pattern. The ratio of longitudinal steel area Ast to gross concrete cross section Ag is in the range of 0.008 to 0.06 to I.S.CODE. The lower limit is necessary bending moments not accounted for the analysis and to reduce the effects of creep and shrinkage of the concrete under sustained compression. Ratio higher than 0.06 not only are to congestion of the reinforcement particularly where the steel must be spliced. Generally the larger bars are used to reduce placement costs and to avoid unnecessary congestion. According to ISCODE minimum of 4 bars are required in square or rectangular columns and 6 in circular column.

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Columns may be divided in to 2 broad categories i.e., short columns for which strength is governed by strength of materials and the geometry of cross section and Slender Columns for which the strength may be significantly reduced by lateral deflections. A number of years ago an ACIASCE survey indicated that 90% of columns braced against side sway and 40 % of unbraced columns should be designed as short columns. Shear walls, elevator and stair well shafts, diagonal bracing or a combination of these, commonly provide effective lateral bracing, which prevents relative movement of two ends of a column. Although slender columns are more common now because of wider use of high strength materials and improved methods of dimensioning members, it is still true that most columns in ordinarily practice can be considered short columns. 2.6 DESIGN OF FOOTING The substructure, or foundation is the part of a structure that is usually placed below the surface of ground and that transmits the load to the under lying soil or rock. All soils compress noticeably when loaded and cause the supported structure to settle. The two essential requirements in the design of the foundation are that the total settlement of the structure of the various parts of the structure eliminated as nearly as possible. With respect to possible structural damage, the elimination of differential settlement i.e., different amounts of settlement with the same structure, is even more important that limitations on uniform overall settlement. To limit the settlement as indicated, it is necessary 1. To spread the load over a sufficiently large area of that stratum to minimize bearing pressure 2. To transmit the load of the structure to a soil stratum of sufficient strength. Load is transferred to the soil from the column through a footing. In the plan, single column footings are usually square. Rectangular footings are used if space restriction dictates this choice or if the supported columns are of strongly elongated rectangular cross section.

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Isolated footings can be represented as cantilevers projecting out from the column in both directions and are loaded upward by the soil pressure corresponding tension stresses are developed in both these directions at the bottom surface. Such footings are therefore reinforced by two layers of steel, perpendicular to each other & parallel to the edges the required bearing area is obtained by dividing the total load, including the weight of the footing, by the selected bearing pressure, weight of footing at this stage, must be estimated & usually amount of 4% to 8%. Of the column load, the forms value applying to the stronger type of sils. In computing ending moments & shear, only the up ward pressure is caused by the factored column load is considered the weight of the footing proper doesnt cause moments or shear, just as , obviously, no moments or shear are present in a book lying flat on a table 2.7 DESIGN OF STAIRCASE

Layout Of Stairs: The type and layout of stair is governed by the size of the staircase room and the positions of the beams and columns along the boundary. Some of the guidelines for deciding the layout of the staircase are Longer spans for flights are to be avoided, as the staircase slabs are heavier than the roof slabs because of 1. Heavier dead load due to the inclined length of the slab and due to the additional weight of the steps. 2. Stair flights are supported on beams or walls. 3. Landing beams are provided at the end of flights to reduce the span. 4. Central stringer beam is to be provided if the span of the stair flight exceeds 4.5m. 5. Skew supports are avoided as far as possible as they induce torsion in the flight slab. Beam shall be provided over the skew supports

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1. In cases where the column is rigidly connected to beams at right angle, the column carries moment in addition to the axial load. Here the column is to be so oriented that the depth of the column is perpendicular to the major axis of bending so as to get larger moment capacity. Load on the beam increase , since the moment varies with the square of the span & directly with the load 2. From the control the defection & cracking considerations, larger spans of beams are to be avoided since the defections varies directly with the cube of the span & inversely with the cube of the depth.

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