Chapter 01: purpose & use of Navigation 01.

Tow most Fundamental methods of finding the way: Pilotage: VFR dead reckoning: Deduced Reckoning Both need NO electronic aids 02. dead reckoning performance requests: Properly calculate the course & fuel Fly accurately Correctly predicted of en-route wind by Met office 03. Other Nav methods: Celestial Nav: completely redundant Radio, Satellite & INS: Short range Radio ( up to 200nm), due to accuracy & less interference Name three of them: 1. NDB 2. VOR 3. VORTAC 4. DME Long range Radio Nav, (up to 10,000nm) a) Area Nav System: hyperbolic pattern b) OMEGA: Hyperbolic Aid, LF

c) Satellite GPS: by USA GLONASS, (Global Orbiting Navigational Satellite System),: by USSR Independent Long Range Nav Systems: 1. INS, Inertial Navigation System Self-Contained, Vertical, Lateral, Longitudinal 2. RLG, Ring Laser Gyro Best Two Vote out the 3rd set of reading Chapter 02: The Earth Properties & Effects 01. Not perfect sphere, 40km thicker at equator, 12,756km in diameter. 02. One day = 23 hours 56 minute 03. Elliptical Anticlockwise, 365 days & 6 hours per Year. 04. Mean Solar Day = Every 24 hours 05. LMT, Local Mean Time UTC, Co-ordinated Universal Time: LMT at the Prime Meridian

06. Standard Time Zones, (Zone 0) 24 TZ Apply the LMT at the centre of TZ 15 for each TZ Chapter 03: Position 01. Graticule shape 02. Latitude: Angular DIS from the equator 03. WGS-84, World Geodetic System, 1984. Current use Datum Chapter 04: System of Coordinates, Direction & Distance 01. Definitions: Great Circle: A circle drawn on the surface of the earth, whose radius & centre are the same as the Earths Small Circle: A circle drawn on the surface of the earth, whose radius & centre are NOT the same as the Earths Equator: A great circle is whose plane is Perpendicular to the Earths axis of rotation and divides the Earth into Two Equal Hemispheres.

 Meridian: A Semi-great circle joining poles Rhumbe Line: regular curved line on the surface, cutting the meridians at the Same Angle. 02. Directions: Cardinal Points: North, South, East, West Quadrantal Points: NNE, NE, ESE, SE, SSE, etc. Compass rose 03. Measurement of DIS Nautical mile: 1 = 1 nm, (surface distance of 1) Kilometer: 1/10,000 of distance from Equator to Either pole Length Conversion: 1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 m = 3.2808 ft 1 nm = 6080 ft 1 sm = 5280 ft, (sm, statute mile) 1 nm = 1.852 km 1 km = 0.5396 nm 1 nm = 1.15 sm 1 km = 3280 ft 41 nm = 76 km 41 nm = 66 km 66 nm = 76 sm

Chapter 05: Magnetism & Compass 01. Accuracy depend on: Manufacture Irregularities & Fluctuations in Earths magnetic field. 02. Variation: local magnetic field Inclination: Dip error 03. Variation Present on Maps. Isogonals: Equal Variation lines Marginal Diagram: TN to MN to CN VAR East, read Least; VAR West, read Best. Statement in Words, Double Compass Rose. Chapter 06: Map-Marking & Projection 01. Charts & Maps are all 2-D Charts: normal used for Plotting Lines of Latitude & Longitude Coastal Outlines Maps: for Visual Map Reading Significant additional Topographical detail

02. Chart Scale: Representative Fraction: or 1:1000 Statement in words: Ten miles to One inch Graduated Scale line: Larger scale Denominator, Greater Distance shown, Less detail Smaller scale Denominator, Shorter Distance shown, More detail 03. Scale = Chart distance/Earth distance 04. Ideal Map, Properties: Area are everywhere correctly represented. All Distance are correctly represented. All Angles are correctly represented. The Shape of any area is correctly represented. All Directions on the map are the same as the earth 05. Conformal: when all Angles & Bearing are correctly represented. Conformal will appear in the name of the chart. Enable all DIR, Hdg & Bearings to be measured correctly. Unsuitable for FLT if without Conformal.

06. The Mercator PJ Touches the Equator Rhumb line: Straight line Great Circle: Shallow Curves concave to Equator 07. The Transverse Mercator PJ Touched Selected Meridian & Anti Topographical Charts, N-S DIR Countries: New Zealand, Italy, Norway, UK. 08. The Lambert PJ Cone shape, Parallel of Origin Non-conformal 09. Modified Lambert Correct scale where cone Touches Earth. Scale contracted within 2 PTs. Scale expands Outside of 2 PTs Exhibit Constant scale Great Circle in Straight Lines within parallels

 Rhumb line concave to poles Used for: Plotting radio bearing Great Circle for long FLT 10. The Polar Stereographic PJ Conformal To produce: Topographical & Geographical specialist Aeronautical charts for Polar Large area Meteorological forecast charts Chapter 09: Measurement & Vector Diagrams 01. Wind TN, (MN in ATC) Direction + Speed = W/V 02. Triangle of Velocities & Distance Hdg & TAS W/V TK & GS 03. TK error TK Made Good: real TK over GND

 The difference between TK Made Good & Required TK 04. Remember: Wind from Hdg TK Use same datum: Wind (TN) Hdg or TK, change (M)(C) into (TN) Use kts or nms 05. Delton Computer 06. Wind Direction against RWY v.s Cross Wind Force 0 ~ 15 0 15 ~ 30 1/4 30 ~ 45 1/2 45 ~ 60 3/4 60 & above FULL Chapter 10: influence of Wind 1. Travel for 60nm, 1nm Deviation, 1 TK error 2. Reliable up to 20 Chapter 11: Speed 01. Pitot-tube

 Undisturbed Air Pitot Pressure = Static P + Dynamic P 02. Errors of AI Instrument error a) Manufacturing Imperfection b) Use Error Card for Indication Pressure error a) Position error b) Manoeuvre error Density error a) Calibrated to ISA b) Error occurs if deviate from ISA Compressibility error a) At speed above 300kts b) AI over read 03. Expression of AS IAS Indicated AS. AI reading Used by ATC for Speed Control. Varies from TAS due to Alt, Air Density, Temp. RAS, Rectified AS. IAS without Pressure & Instrument errors.

 TAS True AS. RAS without Density error. Shows on FPL & FPS GS Ground Speed. TAS without Wind Speed. M Mach number. TAS as a Fraction of LSS Lower Temperature, Lower Speed of Sound. Mcrit, depend on Aerodynamic Shape of the airframe. The Mach Meter, allows pilot fly close Mcrit, to Optimum Performance & Controllability, Minimum Discomfort from turbulence. Chapter 12: GND-Based System1 01. ARNS Aeronautical Radio Navigation Service Continuous use If NOT Continuous, shall be active on request from a) An A/C b) Any Controlling Authority. c) Authorized Representative of AL Ops AGN 02. Definition Radio Determination (RDN) Of the Position, V &/or Characteristics of an object, or

Obtaining of Info relating to these Parameters, by means of propagation properties of RW. Radio Navigation (RNav) RDN Used for the Purpose of Nav including Obstruction Warning. Radio Direction Finding (RDF) RDN Using Reception of RW for the purpose of Determining the DIR of a STN or object. Radio Direction Finding Station (RDF STN) RDN STN using RDF, Certain MF, HF & VHF RDFS for EM & DTRS Only. FREQ, HR of SVC, C/S, LOC of STN are in AIP Homing The PROC of USING D/F EQPT of one Radio STN with the emission of another Radio STN, where at least one is Mobile & whereby the mobile STN continuously towards the other STN. Radio Bearing The Angle BTW the apparent DIR of a definite source of emission of EW & REF DIR, as determined at a RDF STN. True Radio Bering REF DIR is TN Magnetic Radio Bering

 REF DIR is MN QTE: TN, from STN QUJ: TN, from A/C QDR: MB in relation to DF STN QDM: No Wind effect, MB to follow to the DF STN, Non-Phonetic form. 03. Bearing & its accuracy Class A - 2 Class B - 5 Class C - 10 04. Purposes of D/F & systems is to obtain INFO of: Bearing Position Homing 04. Principle of D/F D/F working alone determine the DIR Only D/F network establish the A/C Position at the Intersection of the Bearing. 05. Some of the D/F names MF/HF EQPT

 VHF EQPT CRDF, Cathode Ray Direction Finder CADF, Commutated Antenna Direction Finder DRDF, Digitally Resolved Direction Finder VHF 06. ADF, Automatic Direction Finding (Radio Compass) RBI, Relative Bearing Indicator Bearing to NDB = RBI reading + Hdg RMI, Radio Magnetic Indicator Show A/C Hdg QDM of NDB QDM of 2nd NDB 07. NDB, Non Directional Beacon. LF & MF With Audio tone Morse Code, 2~3 letters 10~150 nm radius Low Power (Locator) used for Airfield APP Aids High Power for Long range Nav 7 errors Static Interference Station Interference Mountain Effect Night Effect

 Coastal Refraction Quadrantal Error System Malfunction No Failure Warning device Chapter 13: GND-Based system 2 01. DME/TACAN/VORTAC, Distance Measuring EQPT Accurate, Slant RQST SPEL EQPT on GND or in A/C Distance Indicator Digital or Analogue UHF A/C, Interrogator, FREQ A DME, Transponder, reply in FREQ B Use Varies Pulse Train, 1nm accuracy Up to 100 A/C Slant Error, Closer to the beacon Less accuracy Usage: VOR/DME provide Range & Bearing Positive range, ATC separation + precision App Aids, Accurate range from TD Enhance the accuracy of Holding Pattern PC + DME Accurate Area Nav

 Air Refueling by Military 02. VOR, VHF Omni-directional Radio Range Automatic, Continuous provide Accurate MB The Range depend on A/C Height 3-letter Morse code, or Speech Omni-Directional Reference Signal Variable Signal No usable signal vertical upward Cone of Confusion or Cone of Silence, A/C receive No Signal Increases with HI 03. DVOR, Doppler VOR A circle of Spherical aerials surrounded by large circle of Horizontal Reflectors. (25m D) Frequency Modulated Reduced site & propagation errors For difficult terrain 04. A/C VOR EQPT TT 160 spot FREQ In the Cockpit, via RMI Give QDM In the Cockpit, via OBS

 Earlier form VOR Info Only Shows L or R Deflection of Pre-selected QDM Shows To or From Later form Earlier form + Purpose of ILS as VOR Include Fail Flag when No Signal 2 per Dot Lateral Guidance TO/FROM tells Position in Relation to beacon VOR limitations: Line-of-Sight Reliable Range: - 50 nms @ 1,000 ft - 90 nms @ 5,000 ft - 150nms @ 15,000ft - 200nms @ 25,000ft Accuracy: 2 50nms & 100nms apart to ensure Low Level Coverage VOR Errors: Site error Propagation error EQPT error Interference error

a) Same FREQ interference b) VOR on same FREQ 500nms apart VOR Uses: a) Homing to STN b) TRK to AW c) Obtaining Position-Line (Bearing) d) Flying Holding Pattern e) IFR App f) Get FIX by 2 or more STN g) ATIS Chapter 14: GND-Based System3 01. ILS Precision App Aids Azimuth & Elevation RWY + ILS = Precision App Instrument RWY Advantages: Pilot Interpreted Aid For Low C/B or L/V Orderly flow of LND TFC OPT W/O assistant from ATC, continuously 02. ILS Components LLZ Transmitter

 Defined Extended RWY Ctr-line Indicate DEV from Optimum Lateral App path 300m Beyond THD Up-Wind end of RWY GP Transmitter Normal Safe Descent Slope, 3 Indicate DEV from Optimum Vertical App path 300m from LND THD, 100~200m from RWY Ctr-line Marker Beacons Outer Marker 3~6nms from THD Tx 2 dashes per Second at 400Hz, Flashing Blue Middle Maker 900~1200m from THD Tx ALTN dot at 1300Hz, Flashing Amber Inner Marker 300~450m from THD Tx 6 dots per Second at 3000Hz, Flashing White With DME Transponder Provide Ranger Info instead of Markers. FREQ-Paired with LLZ DME Auto-Tuned with ILS THD shows Range 0 of DME Accurate Range: Within LLZ range Up to 25,000ft

03. ILS Ops LLZ Ops VHF band, 108~112MHz 2 Horizontal Lobes. L of LLZ 150Hz; R of LLZ 90Hz, 5 overlap. Range: LH & RH overlap 5 ,Max Range: 25nms 35out of Ctr-line, Max Range: 17nms, Reduce to 10 up to 25nms At Ctr, Equal Intensity GP Ops UHF band, 329.3~335MHz 2 Vertical Lobes. Upper, 90Hz: Lower 150Hz, 1overlap. Range Max 10nms along extended App Path, Normally 3 Horizontally 8 either side of Ctr-line. Vertical 0.45xGP ~ 1.75xGP ILS Ref Point GP aerial Location of GP aerial & App Angle depend on: A/C likely to use the AD Terrain Obstacles within App & Miss App area LCL Met Condition

RWY Length ILS Ref Datum, On Glide Slope Intersection of RWY Ctr-line & THD GP = 3 , 300m to THD, so ILS Ref Datum = 50ft Descent Rate accord to GP angle - 2.5 = 250ft/nm - 3 = 300ft/nm - 3.5 = 350ft/nm FREQ Pairing Tx of LLZ & GP FREQ Paired Reduced Cockpit WL Guards against Mismatching LLZ FREQ Published Only ILS Monitoring EQPT been monitored LLZ GP Markers ILS Auto-Switch Off, when Power drops Beams Deflected Monitoring System Failure Failure warning to ATC & Pilots STN ID

 3-letter Morse code When WIP, remove the codes or Replaced by C.Tone 04. A/C ILS Indicators HSI, Horizontal Situation Indicator OBS, Omni-directional Bearing Selector 5-dots display, 1st dot: Edge of Ctr-ring. Each dot means: 0.5DEV from Ctr of LLZ. Horizontal. Each dot means: 0.15 DEV from Ctr of GP. Vertical. When Both Needles on Ctr, means Receiver Switched Off No Signal A/C on Ctr line Fail Flag appears, when: SIG distortion of GND Tx A/C outside the margin either of LLZ or GP Tx Failure of either GND or A/C EQPT Switch-Off of either GND or A/C EQPT, or Power failure Signal too weak 05. ILS Installation & Ops Criteria Modern EQPT permit A/C to LND Automatically ILS for Precision App depend on: A/C EQPT

 Tx clear of External Interference A/C & Vehicle clear from ILS vicinity 06. ILS accuracy Cat Cat I: 200ft above ILS Ref Point Cat II: 50ft above ILS Ref Point Cat III: Down to RWY Wx Conditions: CAT RVR DH CAT I 550m 200ft CAT II 350m 100ft CAT IIIa 200m CAT IIIb 50m No DH CAT IIIc 0m 07. MLS For Overcome ILS limitation & Greater Flexibility New Generation of Precision App Systems Less adoption than ILS Shall overtaken by GPS Tx Azimuth & Elevation beam Timing the Delay between reception of To/Fro & Up/Down Signals SHF band

 FREQ Paired with Improved-Version DME Guidance as ILS 200 channels Tx Wx & AD SVC data via Azimuth Signal Prefixed M 3-letter code Chapter 15: Area Nav System 1 01. VLF system LORAN-C All Wx, HI accuracy, Reliable Accuracy: Hundreds Meters Info supply: Bearing/Distance to DEST G/S ETA Course DEV W/V 02. INS Self-Contained, Stand Alone system Can NOT be restarted once A/C In-flt Triplicate to ensure Integrity Basic Principles 3 Panes of MVT

Fore & Aft X axis Sideways Y axis Vertically Z axis Calculation Acceleration in each Pane Velocity Duration of each App The Overall result X.Y.Z Velocity Distance X.Y.Z Displacement Integration, by On-board Computer Beacon POS Way Airspace Boundaries Point Airfield Location RP PTs Flt Deck Display Unit Allows to Input & RCV Nav Info Display Ops TK/GS Hdg/DA(drift angle) XTK/TKE(DIS off TK/TK angle) POS WAY/PT DIS/TIME to next WP WIND, W/V

DSRTK/STS, desired TK to next WP & System Status. Inertial Platform Gyroscope ensures the remains of Earth surface Level Incorporation of Laser Ring eliminate Drift May Ref to IRS (Inertial Reference System) Setting up Switch-on & Input Current POS (at Park POS or AIP) before Taxi Align Computer find TN Select Nav after alignment Triplicate systems Long range, Over Oceans. Chapter 16: Area Nav system 2 01. GPS Satellite Position-Fixing System(NAVSTAR) Opt by US DOD 3 D coverage Accuracy & Use Down to 30m, enough for En-route, Not enough for IL. Overcome by knowing-exact-position GND based STN 02. GLONASS 50~70m

 Enhanced by using Differential GPS Tec 03. GNSS, Global Navigation Satellite System Must include: Real Time Nav Info Autonomous Integrity Checking Accuracy Sufficient for Safe Navigation Chapter 17: FMS 01. Components FMC, Flight Management Computer Head of System AFS, Auto Flight System AFDS, (Autopilot Flight Director & auto Throttle System) NS, Navigation System Majorly INS & GPS Giving Raw Info of Flt, ALT & Hdg EFIS, Electronic Flight Instrument System EADI, Electronic Attitude Display Indicator EHSI, Electronic Horizontal Status Indicator In some A/C PFD, Primary Flt Display ND, Navigation Display Display Flt Info

CMD from FMC ALT Hdg POS Planned Route Flt TK Function of each Component NS, to Send Info FMC, to Calculate AFS, to Control EFIS, to Display 02. The use of FMC Reduce Pilot WL Most fuel efficient Manner