Market Area

Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells

The Solar Cell of the Next Generation

Solar cells are fascinating. They generate electricity without damaging the environment, operate silently and are maintenance-free for decades. They are powered by the energy of the numerous photons which are incident as sunlight on the solar cell surface. The goal of world-wide research and development activities is to reduce the costs of photovoltaics. As well as optimising the silicon wafer solar cells which presently dominate the market, thin-film solar cells, the solar cells of the second generation, are being intensively developed. Thin-film solar cells can be realised with a variety of materials. At the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, research is being carried out on the crystalline silicon (c-Si) thin-film solar cell. The principle is simple: On an economical substrate at temperatures of over 1 000 C we produce an extremely thin layer of highly pure crystalline silicon to create a thin-film solar cell. We are convinced that with this method thinfilm solar cells with efficiencies comparable to those of conventional wafer solar cells can be produced at much lower costs.

The advantages of the c-Si thin-film solar cell in comparison to other thin-film solar cells are convincing: - They do not contain toxic and environmentally harmful materials. - They profit similarly from all advances made in the area of conventional silicon wafer solar cells. - Like all crystalline solar cells, they show no degradation over a long period of time. - Silicon is widely available. Silicon ore is simply quartz sand, which can be found all over the world. Additionally, as valid for all thin-film solar cells, it is possible to automatically manufacture large area c-Si thin-film solar cells, e.g. in the size of a table top. In short, the c-Si thin-film solar cell unites the advantages of c-Si wafer solar cells with those of thin-film solar cells. Our competence covers all aspects of research and development in the area of c-Si thin-film solar cells. Our concentration of know-how on this subject is unique world-wide, and our expertise includes constructing the systems, manufacturing the layers, processing and characterising the solar cells and layers. This all-encompassing know-how guarantees excellent results both for us and for our customers. In spite of this, there is still much to do in this area. As the partner on your side, we are in the process of bringing the next generation of solar cells to the market.

Silicon wafer

20 m

Silicon wafer

Substrate (ceramic, low cost silicon) 250350 m 300800 m

Structure of a silicon wafer solar cell in comparison to a c-Si thinfilm solar cell. For the silicon wafer solar cell, more than ten times the amount of highly pure silicon is required.

Module Glass, frame, interconnection 40% Solar cell technology Diffusion, metalisation 20% Silicon wafer Silicon, crystallisation, sawing 40%

Breakdown of costs of a conventional solar cell module. Almost two thirds of the costs are attributed to the solar cell, and alone two thirds of these are attributed to the silicon wafer.

Interdigitated grid c-Si thin-film solar cell from Fraunhofer ISE on highquality SIMOXSubstrate. World record efficiency of up to 19.2% shows the enormous potential of this technology.

Fraunhofer ISE Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells

Our Cell Concepts

There are many ways possible to produce the c-Si thin-film solar cell. In our opinion, processes using atmospheric pressure and high temperature are the most economical and energetical ways to success. This forms the basis of both our concepts.

Wafer equivalent concept

Antireflection coating Emitter contact Emitter

Integrated module concept Innovation through integration, the secret of success for the chip industry, can be applied also to thin-film solar cells. Thin-film solar cells are processed simultaneously on a large substrate, and the electrical connections to form a module are integrated into the metalisation step. In addition to the decreased amount of work required compared to that for the conventional electrical connection of solar cells, potential sources of failure in the module connections, i.e. soldered points and cell connectors, are eliminated. For our integrated module concept, we just substitute the conductive substrate of the wafer equivalent with an electrically insulated substrate and modify the solar cell production process. The idea is irresistibly easy. The realisation remains our challenge for the future.

Not only must a successful concept be good, but also it must be able to be easily adopted into existing structures. Our wafer equivalent concept fulfils both of these requirements. From the outside, a wafer equivalent looks like a silicon wafer. The active part, however, is only a thin silicon layer. It can be directly processed to solar cells without changes to existing production lines. To produce a wafer equivalent, we choose two methods: The first and the fastest method is to deposit a high grade silicon layer on a substrate of low cost silicon. The second method offers somewhat more freedom, whereby a silicon layer is first deposited on an arbitrary conductive substrate and then melted. By the following recrystallisation, an improved quality is then achieved. Both methods have advantages, and costs will ultimately be the deciding factor as to which method will dominate.

Base

Siliconsubstrate

Base contact

The simplest wafer equivalent structure: The thin silicon solar cell layer is deposited on a cost effective silicon substrate.

Base Emitter Emitter Conductive Base contact intemedi- contact Antireate layer flection coating

Substrate

Structure of a wafer equivalent on a given conductive foreign substrate with a conductive intermediate layer.

Emitter Intercon- Insulation Base contact contact nection trench Active silicon layer Insulating intermediate layer Substrate Schematic of an integrated series connection of single thin film solar cells on a substrate to form an integrated module.

c-Si thin-film solar cell on an inactive multicrystalline silicon wafer with an epitaxially deposited silicon layer. Efficiencies to date of up to 13% are an excellent basis for further optimisation.

First integrated c-Si thin-film solar cell module on high-quality SIMOX substrate. It holds the world record with over 17% efficiency.

Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells Fraunhofer ISE

Competence and Service Available for You

The quality of the system as a whole is a direct function of the quality of every part. At Fraunhofer ISE successful cell concepts are realised using our collective experience and know-how for each production step along the way. This is to your advantage.

From the substrate... We manufacture SSP silicon substrates and can assess the quality of your ceramic substrate. A high quality c-Si thin-film solar cell can be made only with a substrate that can withstand all the demands of the manufacturing process. Our substrate manufacturing process, the SSP (Silicon Sheets from Powder) ribbon process, is optimally suited in this case. With our reactor developed specifically for this purpose, we can manufacture ribbons up to 20 cm wide and 1 m long by melting silicon powder. In dealing with ceramics, we also have a strong expertise, which is constantly being expanded. From aluminium-nitride to zirconium silicate, we have tested to date many different types of ceramics for c-Si thin-film solar cells. We would furthermore be glad to test your ceramic.

...over the layers.... Layer deposition and zone melting recrystallisation (ZMR) belong to our main areas of competence. In these areas also, we gladly offer you our services. We use layers made out of: - Silicon dioxide and silicon nitride as intermediate layer and passivation layer - Silicon carbide as intermediate layer - Silicon as the active solar cell layer doped with boron or phosphorus Depending on the cell concept, the crystal quality of a deposited silicon layer must be improved prior to processing. For years we have used the ZMR procedure to change microcrystalline silicon layers into coarse grained ones. In our lamp heated zone melting furnaces we can melt layers with a width of up to 20 cm.
Silicon ribbon of 20 cm width made by the SSP procedure.

After the zone melting recrystallisation, the Si layer is made up of long, high-quality crystals, shown here on a 10 cm wide SSP substrate.

...to the cell... For our customers samples, we first find the optimal solar cell process and then carry it out. Only a well-fitting solar cell process brings out the best capabilities of the silicon layer. At our disposal we have all the necessary equipment that one needs to produce solar cells with peak performance. - Wet chemical processing, tube furnace diffusion, photolithography, vacuum metalisation and electroplating for highly efficient solar cell processes - RTP and in-line diffusion, screen and pad printing for fast industrial processes - Plasma technology and remote hydrogen passivation for processing completely without wet chemicals

...and to the characterisation Layer and cell form a whole. We characterise both and compile the single measurement results to achieve an overall result. For this we use both standard methods and special methods: - We characterise layers with optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy on polished sections, with mass spectroscopy as well as with spreading resistance profilometry. - We analyse solar cells with illuminated and dark IV characteristics, with internal and external quantum efficiency as well as with spectrally resolved light beam induced current topography to name a few.
Clean room for wet chemical processing of silicon solar cells.

10 30 8 y [mm] 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 x [mm] 8 10 0 Leff [m] 15

By the electrical characterisation of the solar cell, like the lifetime topography shown here, the weak areas can be immediately identified.

Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells Fraunhofer ISE

Development and Construction of the Equipment

We develop and build special laboratory equipment for manufacturing substrates and layers for c-Si thin-film solar cells, which are destined not only for the market but especially for our own purposes. Our self-interests in process development, error elimination and technical advancement are also of major benefit to our customers.

Equipment for melting silicon... For many years now melting silicon has belonged to one of our main areas of expertise. The know-how gained over the years in this area is transferred into the development of our melting systems for c-Si thin-film solar cells. We can offer you two types of systems and willingly can adapt them to fit your specific demands. - SSP melting system for manufacturing SSP silicon ribbons. The manually operative SSP120 is designed for a maximum ribbon width of 10 cm, and the SSP250 is designed for a maximum ribbon width of 20 cm, respectively. - Zone melting recrystallisation system for the automatic melting and recrystallisation of thin silicon layers. Three apparatuses are available for processing a maximum substrate width of 10 cm, 20 cm or 40 cm, respectively.

...and for coating with silicon In the microchip industry, the chemical vapor deposition process (CVD) has been successfully used for decades for the deposition of silicon. For c-Si thin-film solar cells we develop specially customised silicon-CVD reactors. Our simple reactor system realises a concept that enables high throughputs by an efficient gas use during in-line processing. - With our newly developed compact laboratory system RTCVD160, substrates having an area up to 10 x 30 cm2 are coated with silicon at temperatures of 900 1300 C. This apparatus is ideally suited for the wide variety of tasks carried out in the field of research. - Together with Centrotherm GmbH, we are developing the ConCVD, which will go into operation for the first time at our Institute. The ConCVD is a continuous in-line processing deposition system for silicon. It is customised for substrates with a maximum width of 20 cm. With an annual projected coating area of 10 000 m2, this system is large enough to be used for a pilot production.

Installation in China of a SSP120 system for SSP ribbons with a width of 10 cm.

Zone melting recrystallisation apparatus ZMR100 for 10 cm wide layers in operation. Like all of our melting equipment, it is heated with halogen lamps.

Our newest development: optically heated Sideposition system, RTCVD160, for substrates with a width of 10 cm.

Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells Fraunhofer ISE

Our Customers and Our Team

Are you interested in our research and technical services? We would be glad to further inform you either by personal consultation or through our internet page.

Several customers We have numerous customers, both national and international - German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology - European Union - Bayer AG - Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, China - RWE Solar GmbH

Addresses Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, ISE Heidenhofstrae 2 D-79110 Freiburg Tel: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-0 Fax: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-90 00 http://www.ise.fhg.de Area of Business Solar Cells Market Area Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells Co-ordination Dr. Stefan Reber Tel: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-52 48 Fax: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-92 48 E-Mail: Stefan.Reber@ise.fhg.de Contact Persons Dielectric Layers Dr. Friedrich Lutz Tel: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-52 67 Fax: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-92 67 E-Mail: Friedrich.Lutz@ise.fhg.de We work within a network of 56 Fraunhofer Institutes with a total of ca. 11 000 employees. For our customers this means direct contacts and additional competence. Title page Left: Melting furnace for SSP ribbons with a width of 20 cm. Middle: Back side of a SSP ribbon, taken with a scanning electron microscope. Right: Interdigitated grid (onesided contact) with industrial screen printing procedure for c-Si thin-film solar cells.

... and our projects - Development and building of deposition and melting equipment - Process development for the silicon deposition - Aptitude test for ceramic substrates - Production of c-Si thin-film solar cells

Several Examples - First c-Si thin-film solar cell on industrial ceramic - Construction and installation of an SSP and silicon CVD apparatus in China - Development of fast screen printing processes for c-Si thin-film solar cells - Design and manufacture of zone melting equipment for recrystallisation of silicon layers up to 40 cm in width Silicon-CVD Dr. Albert Hurrle Tel: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-52 65 Fax: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-92 65 E-Mail: Albert.Hurrle@ise.fhg.de SSP ribbons and Recrystallisation Dr. Achim Eyer Tel: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-52 61 Fax: +49 (0) 7 61/45 88-92 61 E-Mail: Achim.Eyer@ise.fhg.de

Visit us on the Internet! http://www.ise.fhg.de

October 2001