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1. Initial
Elastic Deformation
2. Small load
bonds stretch return to initial
3. Unload
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation? Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation occurs? What materials deform least? Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent deformation occur? What materials are most resistant to permanent deformation? Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure them?
Non-Linearelastic
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, :
Ft
Area, A Area, A
Ft
F Fs
Ft F
linear elastic linear elastic
Fs F = s Ao F Ft
F lb f N = t = 2 or m2 A o in
plastic
F F = Ao M
F Ao
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ac M
2R
Fs
Ao F = s Ao
F = Ao
Strain
/2 Lateral strain:
= Lo
L /2 Shear strain:
wo
Lo
L = L wo
Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
> 0 z > 0
x y
90
= x/y = tan
90 -
h < 0
Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test machine Typical tensile specimen
extensometer
specimen
=E
stress = E
* strain
gauge length
Linearelastic
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Poisson's ratio,
Poisson's ratio, :
Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress-strain plot proportional
to the elastic modulus.
= L
metals: ~ 0.33 ceramics: ~ 0.25 polymers: ~ 0.40
> 0.50 density increases < 0.50 density decreases (voids form)
=G
Elastic Bulk modulus, K:
L/2
L/2
d = midpoint deflection
R
circ.
P K V P Vo
P P
pressure test: Init. vol =Vo. Vol chg. = V
rect.
P = -K
V Vo
x
slope =
E= F
L3 4bd 3
L3
12 R 4
circ. cross section
linear-elastic behavior
Measuring Strength
3-point bend test to measure room T strength. F cross section
L/2 L/2 d
rect.
Composites /fibers
R
circ.
location of max tension
d = midpoint deflection
E (GPa)
Tungsten Molybd. Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Aramid fibers only
Glass-soda Concrete
AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only
GFRE(|| fibers)* GFRE* Graphite CFRE* GFRE( fibers)* CFRE( fibers) * AFRE( fibers) *
Flexural strength:
Typical values:
fs =
Ff
1.5Ff L
rect.
bd 2
Ff L R3
Material
x
fs
fs (MPa) E(GPa) Si nitride 250-1000 304 Si carbide 100-820 345 Al oxide 275-700 393 glass (soda) 69 69
Epoxy only
Wood(
grain)
Based on data in Table B2, Callister 7e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.
= FL o = Fw o L EA o EA o F
Ao /2 Lo
2ML o
4 r o G
wo
L /2
Lo 2ro
Yield Strength, y
Yield Strength = YS = y = Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation occurs (when p ~ 0.002).
tensile stress,
2000
Polymers
Composites/ fibers
in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a W (pure) Cu (71500) cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140) a Steel (1020) cd Al (6061) ag Steel (1020) hr Ti (pure) a Ta (pure) Cu (71500) hr
Hard to measure,
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered
100 70 60 50 40 30 20
Tin (pure) Al (6061) a
dry
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
LDPE
10
Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
5000
engineering stress
TS
wood (
fiber)
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = aramid, glass, & carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, with 60 vol% fibers.
Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Engineering tensile stress,
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 7e.
Toughness
%EL = Lf Lo x 100 Lo Energy to break a unit volume of material Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
small toughness (ceramics)
Lo
Ao
Af
Lf
%RA =
Ao - Af x 100 Ao
tensile strain,
Brittle fracture: elastic energy Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region
Ur =
Ur
Adapted from Fig. 6.15, Callister 7e.
1 y y 2
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:
resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. better wear properties.
e.g., 10 mm sphere
D
most plastics
increasing hardness
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20 -100. Minor load Major load 10 kg 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
Hardness: Measurement
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Hardening
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.
T = F Ai
T = ln(l i l o )
T = (1 + ) T = ln(1 + )
y 1 y
( )n
hardening exponent: n = 0.15 (some steels) to n = 0.5 (some coppers) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches y. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
working =
y N
working =
220,000N d2 / 4
y N
d Lo
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm