The Holistic Orchard

Tree Fruits and Berries the Biological Way

MICHAEL PHILLIPS

BY THE AUTHOR OF THE APPLE GROWER

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limits upon. You too will have ideas that make inherent sense for your trees and the localized dynamics
you face. Take what we understand as of this moment
and dont be afraid to tweak it.

BUGS A N D MOR E BUGS

Learning to identify whos who and then zeroing in

on the when and where of pest vulnerability (based
on family groupings) defines the crux of the matter
when it comes to bugs in the orchard. There are some
helpful ones and a few deservedly notorious ones,
but most species are in truth absolutely innocent.
Detailed specifics about the chosen few at your site
will be found in the applicable fruit sections and in
tree fruit guides listed in the resources. Our immediate goal is to understand how to balance potential
pest situations.
Insect consciousness begins with paying attention.
Seeing early signs of chewing on the edges of a bud
or a light-deflecting pinprick (indicative of a feeding
sting or an inserted egg) on developing fruit should
put you on alert. Probing for details beyond this first
impression leads to finding a tiny caterpillar curled
within the sepal leaves at the base of a flower bud or
looking for suspected culprits when cool morning dew
finds curculios sluggish but not yet in hiding. One
grower in Nebraska could not figure what was eating
the leaves on his cherry trees . . . until he went out
at night with a flashlight and found that june bugs
had come up from the ground to feed with abandon.
Different things will happen in different places
whats constant is the need to discern whats actually
going on so you can then take intelligent measures to
achieve a happy resolution.
Insect injury to fruit offers an important learning
opportunity. The ability to distinguish one fruit scar
from another more often than not reveals whos actually behind the deed. Consulting with an experienced
grower or Extension adviser, looking at regional pest
guides, and perusing the words in this book are all

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A russeted, fan-shaped scar speaks to the presence of plum curculio in the

orchard. The female makes a crescent cut above each inserted egg as a means
of preventing fruit cells from crushing her reproductive artistry. Seeing scars on
maturing fruit indicates that the apple won the race. Photo courtesy of NYSAES.

tools for getting your detective credentials in order.

Knowing the name of the guilty partyif indeed the
damage is significant and thus calls for specific action
in the next growing seasonleads to learning about
the life cycle of a particular pest. This in turn reveals
points of vulnerability where trapping, repelling,
certain beneficial allies, and specific spray strategies
have relevance.
But first lets do the numbers. You need perspective to know the difference between tolerable damage
and a pest situation rapidly ratcheting out of control.
Research that tracked the damage done in wild apple
trees in Massachusetts over a twenty-year period gives
a fairly accurate picture of whats out there. Plum
curculio and apple maggot fly can afflict as much as
90 percent of the fruit in a bad year, with codling
moth and one of its close cousins getting digs into
about half of these yet again. Additional damage from
all other fruit-feeding pests tallies below 10 percent
. . . not something to get concerned about by any
means. Overmanaging this situation to have all fruit
left untouched will have far too great an impact on

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beneficial populations and thereby induce additional

pest challenges. Its not worth the expense or craziness of doing this. Determine your must-do priorities

around those significant pests and grant that a small

portion of the crop belongs to the natural world. The
concept of balance works both ways.

SPOTLIGHT ON THE JAPANESE BEETLE

Prepare to be dismayed when this insect hits your
fruit plantings. Lets unveil the thinking process
required to cut to the quick with Japanese beetle.

juneberry, autumn olive, rose, and (surprise,

surprise) the Honeycrisp apple especially appeal.
Red clover, zinnia, common primrose, and string
beans can be surefire diversions as well.

Story line

Larvae of Popillia japonica came to this continent with a shipment of iris bulbs from Japan
sometime before 1912, when commodities entering this country started being inspected. In its
native land, this beetle was much less of a pest
than it was to become here. Hold that thought.
The combination of well-watered turf for larval
development, warm summer temperatures, and
the lack of a specific natural enemy has favored
the buildup of beetle populations.
The life cycle of any insect reveals certain
points of vulnerability to an inquiring mind.
Japanese beetle spends the greater portion of the
year in the soil: The female burrows into moist
soil to lay her eggs 24 inches deep. Larval grubs
hatch out to feed on grass roots, eventually going
into pupation before emerging as next years
hungry adults by midsummer. The first emerging
beetles seek out suitable food plants and initiate the feeding frenzy. These early arrivals will
release a congregation pheromone (odor) that is
attractive to other adults, essentially calling the
whole horde to come dine . . . on your trees and
berries!
Preferences

Japanese beetles have definite favorites in the

green world. The leaves of grape, raspberry,

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Soil pupation

An insect species committed to a long spell in the

soil risks being undone by certain biological strategies. Milky spore is a native bacterium (Bacillus
popilliae) that can be applied as a onetime soil
drench to infect grubs for many years to come.
Parasitic nematodes (Heterorhabditis spp.) can be
watered in beneath especially attractive plantings
in early fall to consume all comers. But in truth?
Everyone in the neighborhood needs to employ
one or the other for guaranteed effect.
Beneficials

Recall how Japanese beetle was held in check in

its homeland? Parasitic wasps and tachinid flies
were at work. The winsome fly has been brought
here from the Far East because of a desire to attach
its eggs to the thorax of adult beetles. Things get
rather gruesome after that. Spring tiphiid wasps
(Tiphia vernalis) specifically hunt for Japanese
beetle grubs, lured by scent alone to tunnel into
the soil to lay a single egg on the beetles larval
membrane. Each female wasp parasitizes one or
two grubs daily in this manner and can lay a total
of between forty and seventy eggs over her life
span of thirty to forty days. You encourage the
right tiphiid species by providing adult habitat
like forsythia, peonies, and tulip poplar.

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Who, what, and when

Every insect goes through a molting cycle that starts
from the egg. The larval and pupal stages subsequently

lead on to adulthood and the reproductive urge.

Damage to fruit trees is to either the foliage or the
fruit itself. Some of this consists of adult feeding, but

Hands-on solutions

Sprays

One long-standing remedy is unabashedly gross:

Take a few handfuls of gathered beetles, macerate,
and then spray onto plants you wish to protect.
Interestingly, this may work as more than just
a repellent due to an entomopathogenic fungus
in some of those captured beetles now being
sporulated into the environment. But lets face
it: The most straightforward solution to burgeoning beetle numbers is a daily scouring of valued
plants. Persistently knocking these invaders into
a bucket of soapy water morning after morning
eventually has to make headway. Pheromone
funnel traps wont accomplish as much as vigipherlance. A mixture of the aggregation and sex pher
omones draws 90 percent of the beetles within
sensory range of the trap, but usually catches only
6075 percent. But hey! What a nice gift to give
the neighbors, eh? Again, an area-wide approach
is the ticket to success. Then theres this permaculture nugget: You dont have a beetle problem, you
have a duck deficiency. Folks with roaming poultry
have yet another ally in the orchard.

Surround WP kaolin clay spray works by clogging adult beetles with a coating of refined kaolin
clay picked up when crawling across leaf surfaces.
This can be used to protect fruits that are easily
washed (like that Honeycrisp apple) but will turn
berries into a white mess. Pure neem oil gets my
highest recommendation as a feeding deterrent
by causing a vomiting sensation in the feeding
adult. Of course, neem works best applied as
a preventive prior to the beetles arriving. Last
resort lies with PyGanic sprayed on trap plants
chosen from the beetles known preferences.
Powerful toxinseven organic onesshould not
be applied ecosystemwide.

The life cycle of

any pestsuch as
Japanese beetle,
shown herereveals
certain points of
vulnerability to the
astute orchardist.

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117

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

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Not all players in the orchard are necessarily known . . . but without a doubt this twig looper belongs in the orchard moth complex, which includes dozens of species.
Photo by Mark Rawlings.

more often than not its the egg hatching out a very
hungry caterpillar or grub. Lets look at family groupings within the insect world relevant to orcharding
as a quick means of getting a handle on potential
pest situations. The goal here is not so much entomological precision as identifying similar patterns to
discern possible responses to a pest dynamic deemed
unacceptable.
Every fruit grower will experience the orchard
moth complex in some form or another. This ubiquitous force can involve dozens of species, but it always
means tiny caterpillars munching away on some part
of the tree. Internal-feeding larvae go for the seeds
in developing fruit, often risking a mere twenty-four
hours of vulnerable leaf exposure before getting safely
tucked away inside. Look for a small hole in the side
of the fruit and often in the calyx end from which

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orange-brown frass (poop) protrudes. Surface-feeding

larvae are content to nibble upon the skin of the fruit,
hiding beneath an overarching leaf or where two fruit
touch. Many of these are second-generation leafroller
species, which in the spring larval phase were intent
on feeding on buds and unfurling leaf tissue. Any
resulting fruit damage at this early stage often appears
as corky indentations.
Lets key in on this generational concept, for
therein lies both the amplification of the moth problem and the timing of extremely targeted solutions.
A given species overwinters as a hard-to-find egg
mass, perhaps as larvae (in a dormant state known
as diapause), some in a pupal cocoon, and some even
as adult moths where mild winters allow for feeding
and procreation. Location specifics vary as well, but
mostly orchard moths favor laying eggs on leaves and

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The cherry fruit fly attacks cherries throughout the eastern half of North
America. Dont worry, howeverclosely related cousins will find the rest of you!
Photo courtesy of NYSAES.

twigs where larvae can subsequently feed. These go

on to find some secluded place to pupate: in crevices
in the bark, litter on the orchard floor, or sheltered
nooks provided by a nearby fence or wall. One way
or another, with adult emergence in spring dependent
on the development stages still to be achieved, first
flight takes place when females get impregnated and
then proceed to lay eggs on the new seasons growth.
That hatch initiates what is considered to be the first
generation of the orchard yearlimit this generation and all subsequent generations will be fewer in
number. Some species are content with a single round
of action, whereas others will achieve as many as five
or six generations of egg laying and larval feeding in
the extended growing season of warmer climes. The
vulnerability points with moths lie in adult attraction
around the times of feeding and mating, the need for
eggs to respire, larval ingestion and/or contact with
biological toxins, and exposing pupae hiding on the
tree trunk for physical destruction.
Fruit-oriented flies affect chosen fruits across
the spectrum. Fly larvae are called maggots, which
I expect reveals the gruesome scene about to be
revealed.17 The female adult lays her eggs directly into

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the yielding flesh of ripening fruit, with specific preference by maggot fly species for apple, cherry, blueberry,
and so forth. All such fruit becomes a maggoty mess
of meandering tunnels and decay. Feeding attractants
are used to manipulate adult flies to a deadly meal
instead, along with sticky sphere traps that promise
the perfect nursery for junior on which to lay an egg.
Soil pupation suggests additional vulnerability points.
Pick up early drops biweekly to prevent larvae from
ever getting into the ground. Spraying the ground
beneath badly infested trees with Beauveria bassiana
in fall can help reestablish a clean starting gate: These
parasitic fungi consume the fly pupae waiting in the
soil for next season. Even more deliberately, plant a
Dolgo crab tree to draw apple maggot flies in droves
. . . use this as a trap tree to protect other apples, and
then apply beneficial nematodes in early fall (the
Steinernema feltiae species is recommended for AMF)
to seek out the pupae in the ground below.
Sawflies are a different category of critter altogether. Wasp aspects seem to have been incorporated
with fly-like behavior in this insect, resulting in a
pollinator that in its larval form just happens to bore
into developing fruit or strip gooseberry branches of
all greenery. Pear slugs (aka pear sawflies) look pretty
much like fleshy blobs designed to skeletonize leaves.
The vulnerability points here lie with sticky card
traps, desiccants like insecticidal soap and diatomaceous earth, and knowing precisely when a certain
biological toxin will come in contact with apple sawfly
larvae moving from a first fruitlet to the next.
The thing about hard-backed beetles is that the
majority of these species pupate in the soil. (Those
that opt for wood tissue will get a separate designation.) Most infamous of all are the curculios, which
decimate most any tree fruit in the eastern half of
North America.18 Repellents form the backbone of
an organic plan for dealing with these small weevils,
with trap trees providing an effective diversion to
curtail an otherwise prolonged window of activity.
Applicable organic spray options along with groundlevel strategies become cost-effective when a species

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Green june beetles have an affinity for apples and all stone fruits, whether
immature or fully ripe. Feeding damage tends to be sporadic across southeastern
states and into the Lower Midwest. Photo courtesy of NYSAES.

can essentially be funneled to far fewer unprotected

trees. More innocuous sorts like earwigs and click
beetles contribute back to the ecosystem, reminding me that tolerance has a place. The accompanying sidebar directed at Japanese beetle is this books
example of taking a particular pest through the
biological wringer in order to fully understand what
all might be done. Rose chafers are noted for having
similar desires for peaches. Out west, look for green
fruit beetles emerging from unturned (big clue, right
there!) manure piles to wreak havoc on nearby soft
fruits.
We blur species lines in mentioning the unspeakable evil done by fruit tree borers. The reason for
lumping certain beetles with certain moths applies
to across-the-board damage to wood tissue. Grub
consumption of cambium and sapwood eventually
does in whole trees. Physical inspection and removal
involves a great deal of work on your knees with a
knife or similar grub-seeking tool like a drill spade
bit.19 Some of the moths can be deterred by pheromone
trapping, but reducing beetle numbers often involves
limiting nearby alternative hosts. Sending an army of

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parasitic nematodes into badly infested bark tissue by

means of a mudpack may rectify extreme situations
(see Trunk care in chapter 3, page 79), and even if
you lose a favored tree, you may ultimately save others
by having eliminated the next round of destruction.
Botanical trunk sprays made with pure neem oil are
especially promising, acting as an oviposition repellent and adding an element of insect growth inhibition to all such borer wars.
True bugs exhibit an occasional hankering for
fruit. These include assorted plant bugs, stink bugs,
mullein bugs, apple red bugs, and hawthorn dark
bugs. Conventional recommendations for removing
the alternative plant habitat for such bugs from the
orchard environs go against a diversity plan intended
to attract and hold important beneficials. Bug damage
often takes the form of a feeding sting, which develops into brownish rough blotches or even outright
dimples on the skin of the fruit. Pure neem oil will
deter feeding and interrupt the molting cycle on all
these guys, whichtruthfullyare rarely an all-out
force of devastation.20
Ill mention a few insect erratica, as certain regional
curveballs can and do show up on occasion. The leafcurling midge is a tiny fly whose larvae set back young
apple tree growth by tightly curling terminal leaves
on the ends of shoots. Less photosynthesis means less
growth. Red-humped caterpillars seemingly are Moths
from Mars that attack apple, pear, cherry, and quince,
defoliating entire branches in just a few days in late
summer. Next years buds will make a comeback, but
meanwhile you can practice the fine art of handpicking off a fleshy meal for the chickens. Pear thrips attack
all deciduous fruit trees by feeding on flower clusters,
causing a shriveled, almost scorched appearance if the
clusters dont fall off the tree altogether. Early-season
neem oil applications will prevent the majority of
thrips invasions. Scale insects are like tree barnacles
in that they select permanent feeding sites on branch
twigs and limbs. Heavily infested trees appear to be
undergoing water stress, with leaves yellowing and
dropping. Parasitic wasps often keep scale in check

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Lesser peachtree borer initially makes its presence known by pushing frass out
entry holes in a frenzied assault on cambium tissue at branch junctures. Photo
courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

The resulting gummosis surrounding that larvae is the trees attempt at turning
out the varmint. Photo courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

(use a magnifying glass to look for holes drilled

through the hard shell of mature scale), so unless
youve chosen to kill everything in sight, dont expect
much trouble from either San Jose or oystershell scale.
Last but far from least we must give heed to the foliar
feeders. Allowing mites, aphids, psylla, and leafhoppers to run amok can set back tree vigor considerably.
The good news is that much of this is indeed taken
care of by numerous beneficial species given a little
time. Commercial orchardists have far more problems
with soft-bodied invaders because many of the chemical toxins used for significant pests kill the good guys
that would otherwise checkmate foliar feeders, thus
increasing these sorts of problems dramatically. Its

far simpler to count on natural dynamics like predator mites to get the job done. You can pinch aphid
infestations off terminal shoots on young trees if
necessary, or shut down the ant highway by applying
sticky goo to plastic wrap on the trunk.21 If a certain
plum variety appears overwhelmed by honeydew
secretions from aphids and thus accompanying sooty
molds cover most of the canopy, I rely on pure neem
oil applications (made at a 0.5 percent concentration
every four to seven days) on that particular tree while
an especially severe problem persists. Woolly, rosy, or
plain green . . . aphids do not like neem. Leafminers
(the larvae of a small moth) tunnel into the cellular
layers of the leaf to feed, but you will rarely see much

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Tarnished plant bug damage to buds and developing fruit is typically minimalprovided these bugs are not pushed up into the fruit trees by exuberant mowing of all
nearby ground cover in spring. Photo courtesy of Alan Eaton, University of New Hampshire.

of this damage in a home orchard because certain

braconid wasps know their duty. Thats the rub in a
sense . . . we actually need low numbers of foliar feeder
populations to maintain helpful species to a sufficient
degree to keep those same foliar feeders in balance.
Lets consider that next.

Beneficial mathematics
Natural predators are too often judged as being insufficient at providing complete control of a pest problem. What an appropriate moment to say poo pah!
Dismissing helpful allies in the orchard ecosystem for
not providing a complete solution on a species basis is
exceedingly shortsighted, and frankly arrogant. How
much better it is to understand that several partial
solutions add up to substantial biocontrol. And that

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this might just be diversitys way of doing higher math.

Lets consider the codling mothalmost anyone
anywhere will deal with this pest of apples, pears,
quince, and even some apricots and plums. Eggs are
laid singly in proximity to the developing fruit, often
on a nearby leaf if not on the fruitlet itself. Each
female moth will deposit thirty to a hundred pinheadsized eggs. These sit exposed for six to fourteen days
before hatching. Certain parasitic wasps can sense
precisely where they are and will lay their eggs inside
each moth egg to provide a feed for their young. Call
that a 2060 percent advantage . . . provided plenty
of flowering diversity exists to support the presence
of plenty of adult wasps.22 Just-hatched codling moth
larvae have significantly better odds of avoiding beneficial predators than most moth caterpillars, as this

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Green peach aphids are the main vector of plum pox virus in the East. Spring applications of neem oil (part of the holistic spray mix) and numerous beneficials keep
foliar feeders like these guys in check. Photo courtesy of NYSAES.

internal-feeding species bores into the fruit generally

within twenty-four hours. A spined soldier bug or an
especially astute chickadee might end this passage,
however. Still other parasitic wasps lay their eggs in
the larva itself to provide a feed for their young.23
Score that 5 percent given the short duration of exposure. Codling larvae eat the seeds in the fruitlet and
then exit some two to three weeks later, either by
dropping to the ground in a fallen fruit or by crawling back toward the trunk. Yellow jackets gather such
caterpillar meat for their young . . . spiders weave,
pounce, and otherwise frolic . . . ground beetles never
let creamy flesh walk on by. Lets take away another
520 percent. Surviving larvae spin a cocoon in which
to pupate beneath bark scales on the trunk or in a
sheltered place at the base of the tree. Woodpeckers

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and nuthatches work this situation; tachinid flies

arent averse to sticking an egg within that cocoon to
facilitate a pupal feast. That puts codling moth down
another 1020 percent.
Beyond letting all this happen by fostering biodiversity, our job on the insect balance front should
be considered blessedly small in comparison! The
advantages spoken of here apply to all pests to varying degrees. Spend some time getting to know your
friends and revering their limited contributions in the
grand scheme of things.

Pest options
Nudging the remaining portion of problematic pests
in line with a human take on reasonable balance for
fruit production is up to us as orchardists. The organic

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