KUTIPAN DATA KUANTITATIF

Apa itu data kuantitatif?

kuantiti Pengumpulan data berbentuk angka

Data kuantitatif

Istilah-istilah tertentu

Survey/ descriptive research

Jenis-jenis kaedah penyelidikan kuantitatif

Correlational research

Causal-comparative research

Experimental research

Alat ukur kajian

Soal selidik

Soal selidik

Teknik pengumpulan data kuantitatif

Pemerhatian

Check list

Ujian

ujian

Temu bual berstruktur

Protokol temu bual

Istilah-istilah utama
Variabel (pembolehubah)

Bebas
Null

Bersandar

Hipotesis

Alternatif

Analisis Unit

Unit yang dikaji

Generalisasi

Sampel kepada populasi

Survey/ descriptive research

bermatlamat menerangkan sesuatu fenomena yang sedang berlaku dengan mengumpulkan maklumat mengenai pembolehubah tidak bertujuan untuk menguji hipotesis (tiada hipotesis dibina dalam kajian ini) tidak mengarah kepada penghasilan sesuatu penyelidikan yang baru

Survey Research
Definition
Determines and describes the way things are

Importance:
Frequently used in research studies Used to influence opinion Useful for investigating a variety of educational problems

Tujuan utama kajian survey:

To describe the characteristics of a population. Contoh: What is the distribution of Malaysians according to age groups? To describe and relate how certain characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, political affiliation, and others) are distributed within a group and related between (or among) selected variables. Contoh: How many persons in Malaysia vote for a political party and the relation between such voting and variables like sex, race, religious preference, and the like?

Types of Surveys
Public opinion polls Developmental surveys Follow-up studies

Longitudinal Kajian survey survey Cross-sectional survey

Survey Data Collection Methods

Questionnaire Interview Observation Telephone

Steps for designing survey research project

Define the objectives in clear, specific terms

Design the approach

Collect the data

Report the results

Limitations of survey research

Only tap respondents who accessible and cooperative

Often make the respondent feel special or unnatural and thus produce artificial responses or fabricated
Arouse response set such as acquiescence or a process to agree with positive statements or questions Are vulnerable to over-rater or under-rater the tendency for some respondents to give consistently high or low ratings

In the case of interviews, biased reactions can be elicited because of characteristics of the interviewer or respondents, or the combination the elicit favourable or unfavourable pattern of response.

Correlational research
Definition
Whether and to what degree variables are related

Purpose
Determine relationship Make predictions

Limitation
Cannot indicate cause and effect

Correlational research
Korelasi bertujuan mencari hubungan/ perkaitan antara pemboleh ubah dalam sesuatu kajian Kekuatan hubungan korelasi diukur menggunakan ujian korelasi (e.g Pearson correlation coefficient) Nilai hubungan adalah antara 1 0 +1

Process
Problem selection Derived from theory Logical Participant and instrument selection Minimum of 30 participants Instruments must be valid and reliable Instrument validity affects sample size needed Design Collect data on two or more variables for each participant Data analysis Correlation coefficients

Types of Correlation Coefficients

Linear relationships
Pearson r Spearman rho Phi coefficient

Curvilinear relationships
Correlation ratio or eta

The Correlation Coefficient

Size
Low Moderate High

Direction
Positive correlation Negative correlation Zero or no correlation

Scatterplots

Nilai r = 1

Nilai r = 0.5

Nilai r = 0.08

* * * * ** * * * * *

* * * * *

* * * * * *

* * * *

* * * * * * *

 Nilai r ditandai dengan tanda + dan - Tanda + bermaksud hubungan yang berkadar langsung antara dua variabel Tanda bermaksud hubungan yang berkadar songsang antara dua variabel Contoh: adakah terdapat hubungan antara minat Bahasa Inggeris dengan pencapaian matematik pelajar luar bandar?

Jenis korelasi

Hubungan berkadar langsung (+)

Hubungan berkadar songsang ( )

Causal-comparative research
Juga dirujuk sebagai ex post facto (after the fact) Usaha untuk menentukan sebab kepada sesuatu akibat Asas kepada kajian sebab-akibat dimulai dengan sesuatu akibat menyebabkan usaha mencari sebab/ punca kepada akibat tersebut bermula Dua pemboleh ubah yang terlibat adalah pemboleh ubah bebas dan pemboleh ubah bersandar Terdapat beberapa kumpulan yang terlibat untuk perbandingan Contohnya: Apakah faktor yang menyebabkan pencapaian matematik pelajar luar bandar rendah?

Purpose
Attempts to determine cause Alleged cause and effect have already occurred Orientations
Retrospective - starts with an effect and seeks possible causes Prospective - starts with a cause and investigates its effect on some variable

Similarities to Correlational Research

Both lack manipulation Both require caution in interpreting results Both can support subsequent experimental research

Differences with Correlational Research

Correlational
No attempt to understand cause and effect Two or more variables One group

Causal comparative
Attempts to understand cause and effect At least one independent variable Two or more groups

Comparison to Experimental Research

Experimental
Causal group comparisons Individuals randomly assigned to treatment groups Independent variable manipulated by the researcher

Causal comparative
Group comparisons Individuals already in groups before research begins Independent variable not manipulated

Examples of Variables
Non-manipulated variables
Age Sex Ethnicity Learning style Socioeconomic status Parental educational level Family environment Preschool attendance Type of school

Design and Procedures

Select two groups that differ on some independent variable
One group possesses some characteristic that the other does not Each group possesses the characteristic but in differing amounts

The independent variable must be clearly operationally defined

Design and Procedures

Randomly sample subjects from each of the two groups Collect background information on subjects to determine the equality of the groups Compare groups on the dependent variable

Experimental research
Menguji hipotesis untuk memperkukuh hubungan sebab-akibat Ia mewakili rantaian sebab musabab yang kuat tentang hubungan antara pembolehubah

Ciri-ciri
Research designed to investigate cause and effect relationships through the direct manipulation of an independent variable and control of extraneous variables
Independent variable the variable being manipulated Dependent variable the variable in which the effect of the manipulation of the independent variable are observed Researcher manipulation and control choice of treatments, choice of a research design, use of specific procedures, etc.

Manipulation and Control

Manipulation
The researchers decisions related to what will make up the independent variable

Control
The researchers efforts to remove the influence of any extraneous variables that might have an effect on the dependent variable The goal is to be assured the only differences between groups is that related to the independent variable

Experimental Validity
Internal validity the degree to which the results are attributable to the independent variable and not some other rival explanation External/ecological validity the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable

Group Designs
Two major classes of designs
Single-variable designs one independent variable Factorial designs two or more independent variables

Types of designs
Experimental designs Quasi-experimental designs

Kaedah eksperimen

tulen

kuasi

True Experimental Designs

Types
Pretest-posttest control group design Posttest only control group design

Quasi-Experimental Designs
Types
Non-equivalent control group design Time series design

Single-Subject Research
Designs that can be applied when the sample size is one
Study behavior change in an individual as the result of some treatment Subject serves as his or her own control

Rationale
Sophistication of specific designs allows for the control of internal validity threats Research is focused on therapeutic impact in clinical settings, not contribution to a research base Group comparison designs are sometimes opposed or unethical Group comparison designs are not possible

 Walau bagaimanapun, dalam penyelidikan pendidikan, eksperimen lazimnya merujuk kepada eksperimen kuasi.
Melibatkan sekurang-kurangnya 2 pemboleh ubah iaitu pemboleh ubah bebas dan pemboleh ubah bersandar. In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates at least one independent variables, and controls other relevant variables, and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables.

2 kumpulan sampel yang terlibat iaitu kumpulan eksperimen dan kumpulan kawalan
Kumpulan eksperimen ujian pra Kumpulan kawalan ujian pra

eksperimen

ujian pasca

ujian pasca

Soal selidik
Teknik yang lazim digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data kuantitatif dalam kebanyakan kaedah kajian. Untuk populasi yang besar, kedudukan responden yang berjauhan antara satu sama lain teknik pengumpulan soal selidik yang lain kurang sesuai.

Kelebihan
Kurangkan perbelanjaan, masa dan tenaga untuk pengumpulan data. Keupayaan soal selidik menggunakan sampel yang banyak akan meningkatkan ketepatan anggaran statistik sampel untuk menganggar parameter populasi. Sampel yang banyak juga mengurangkan ralat persampelan. Item soal selidik: piawai dan serupa kepada semua responden- mendapatkan respons yang sama. Soal selidik boleh meningkatkan ketepatan dan kebenaran respons responden kerana tidak dipengaruhi oleh personality dan tingkah laku penyelidik. Responden juga berasa dirinya selamat untuk memberikan jawapan yang tepat

Kelemahan
Ketepatan dan kebenaran jawapan yang diberi oleh responden terhad kepada sejauh mana soal selidik tersebut difahami dan dihargai oleh responden mungkin disalah tafsir. Keupayaan responden untuk mengingat adalah terhad: sekiranya item soal selidik memerlukan responden mengingat, responden tidak akan dapat memberikan jawapan yang tepat. Terhad kepada responden yang celik huruf, boleh membaca, memahami soalan dan menulis jawapan. Jawapan tidak tepat daripada responden: berdasarkan jawapan terutama yang diberikan, waktu yang kurang mencukupi. Kesukaran memulangkan soal selidik menyukarkan soal selidik diperoleh kembali.

Jenis soal selidik

Soal selidik jawapan dipilih

Soal selidik jawapan diberi

nominal

SKALA

ordinal interval

ratio

Kesahan (validity)

Kajian rintis
Kebolehpercayaan (reliability)

Kesahan kandungan

Kesahan

Kesahan gagasan (konstruk)

Kesahan kriteria

Kaedah meningkatkan kebolehpercayaan

Kebolehpercayaan
Indeks kebolehpercayaan

Pemerhatian
Melakukan pemerhatian terhadap perkaraperkara tertentu. Lazimnya dalam kajian kuantitatif, senarai semak (check list) akan digunakan bagi memerhatikan sesuatu perkara.

Kecerdasan

Ujian

Pencapaian

Bakat

Temu bual Boleh dilakukan dengan beberapa kaedah: soal selidik, senarai semak atau soalan berstruktur. Boleh dilakukan secara bersemuka atau melalui telefon. Perbezaan antara temu bual kuantitatif dan kualitatif temu bual kuantitatif akan dikelompokkan dan dikodkan kepada nombor dan lazimnya melibatkan responden yang ramai.

Sekian.