4 SeismicVelocity

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko
Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity
Conceptual Overview of Rock

and Fluid Factors that Impact
Seismic Velocity and Impedance
28
Type of formation P wave S wave Density Density of

velocity velocity (g/cm3) constituent
(m/s) (m/s) crystal
(g/cm3)
Scree, vegetal soil 300-700 100-300 1.7-2.4 -
Dry sands 400-1200 100-500 1.5-1.7 2.65 quartz
Wet sands 1500-2000 400-600 1.9-2.1 2.65 quartz
Saturated shales and clays 1100-2500 200-800 2.0-2.4 -
Marls 2000-3000 750-1500 2.1-2.6 -
Saturated shale and sand sections 1500-2200 500-750 2.1-2.4 -
Porous and saturated sandstones 2000-3500 800-1800 2.1-2.4 2.65 quartz
Limestones 3500-6000 2000-3300 2.4-2.7 2.71 calcite
Chalk 2300-2600 1100-1300 1.8-3.1 2.71 calcite
Salt 4500-5500 2500-3100 2.1-2.3 2.1 halite
Anhydrite 4000-5500 2200-3100 2.9-3.0 -
Dolomite 3500-6500 1900-3600 2.5-2.9 (Ca, Mg)
CO32.8-2.9
Granite 4500-6000 2500-3300 2.5-2.7 -
Basalt 5000-6000 2800-3400 2.7-3.1 -
Gneiss 4400-5200 2700-3200 2.5-2.7 -
Coal 2200-2700 1000-1400 1.3-1.8 -
Water 1450-1500 - 1.0 -
Ice 3400-3800 1700-1900 0.9 -
Oil 1200-1250 - 0.6-0.9 -
Typical rock velocities, from Bourbié, Coussy, and

Zinszner, Acoustics of Porous Media, Gulf Publishing.
29
The Saturation and Pressure Dependence of

P- and S-wave Velocities.
6 Bedford 7
Bedford Limestone
Limestone Westerly Granite
Westerly Granite
Water-saturated
Sat. Flat asymptote Sat.
5 6
V
Velocity (km/s)
(km/s)
VP P
Velocity (km/s)
(km/s)
4
Dry Number 5
Dry
of cracks
Velocity
Velocity
3 Crack shape Dry 4 V
S Dry
Sat. V
2
Saturated S
Sat.
3
1 2
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Effective Pressure (bars) Effective Pressure (bars)
Solenhofen limestone
7
Sat.
6 Solenhofen Limestone
V
P
(km/s)
Dry Sat. and Dry V

(km/s)
P
Velocity(km/s)
6 5
Velocity (km/s)
Webatuck
Webatuck Dolomite
dolomite
Velocity
Velocity
5 4
Sat.
V Sat. and Dry
S
4 Dry
3
V
S
3 2
0 100 200 300 0 100 200
Effective Pressure (bars) Effective Pressure (bars) F.1
Peffective = Pconfining − Ppore

30
Fundamental Observations of Rock Physics
• Velocities almost always increase with effective

pressure. For reservoir rocks they often tend toward
a flat, high pressure asymptote.
• To first order, only the difference between confining
pressure and pore pressure matters, not the absolute
levels of each -- ”effective pressure law.”
• The pressure dependence results from the closing of
cracks, flaws, and grain boundaries, which elastically
stiffens the rock mineral frame.
• The only way to know the pressure dependence of
velocities for a particular rock is to measure it.
• Make ultrasonic measurements on dry cores; fluid-
related dispersion will mask pressure effects.
• The amount of velocity change with pressure is a
measure of the number of cracks; the pressure range
needed to reach the high pressure asymptote is a
measure of crack shape (e.g. aspect ratio).
• Velocities tend to be sensitive to the pore fluid
content. Usually the P-wave velocity is most
sensitive and the S-wave velocity is less sensitive.
• Saturation dependence tends to be larger for soft
(low velocity) rocks.
31
Pressure-Dependence of Velocities
Consolidated Rocks ~ elastic
Vp Vs
= 1.0 − 0.40 *exp(−Peff /11) = 1.0 − 0.38* exp(−Peff /12)
Vp(40) Vs(40)
F29
Remember: Calibrate to Dry Cores!

It is customary to determine the pressure dependence of
velocities from core measurements. A convenient way to
quantify the dependence is to normalize the velocities for
each sample by the high pressure value as shown here.
This causes the curves to cluster at the high pressure point.
Then we fit an average trend through the cloud, as shown.
The velocity change between any two effective pressures
P1 and P2 can be conveniently written as:
V(P2) 1.0 − 0.38exp(−P2 /12)
=
V(P1) 1.0 − 0.38exp(−P1 /12)
Vp and Vs often have a different pressure behavior, so
determine separate functions for them.
Remember to recalibrate this equation to your own cores!
32
Pressure-Dependence in Soft Sands:

Permanent Loss of Porosity
Initial loading
reloading
unloading
In soft sediments, permanent, inelastic

deformation can occur during increases of
effective stress (decrease in pore pressure).
Data Courtesy of Mike Zimmer
33

Velocities Show Small Hysteresis
Data Courtesy
of Mike Zimmer
34

Direction-dependence in pressure response
Fractional changes in
P and S impedance
Dry
dP = +2
Water Sat.
dP = -2
Data Courtesy of Mike Zimmer
35
4D Example: Deep, Stiff, Gas Sand

Replace Gas with Water Gas Water Difference
Small
impedance
increase from
fluids
Increase Pp by 100 bars Before After Difference
Modest
impedance
decrease
from pressure
Trajectories in the AVO plane
Increasing Pp Increasing Sw
F32
36
4D Example: Deepwater, Soft, Gas Sand

Replace Gas with Water Gas Water Difference
Large
impedance
increase
Increase Pp by 100 bars Before After Difference
Small
impedance
decrease
Trajectories in the AVO plane
F32
Increasing Sw
Increasing Pp
37

Effects of Pore Fluid on P-wave Velocity (Low Frequency)
Density does not lead to ambiguity

when Impedance is measured. lmp = ρV = ρ × modulus
Calculations made from dry velocities, using Gassmann relation,
Kmin = 36 GPa, Kwater = 2.2, Koil = 1.
38
Effects of Pore Fluid on P-wave Velocity (Low Frequency)

Beaver Sandstone Fontainebleau Sandstone
6% porosity 15% porosity
F.4
39
Velocities depend on fluid modulus and

density
• When going from a dry to water saturated rock,
sometimes the P-velocity increases; sometimes it
decreases.
• The rock elastic bulk modulus almost always
stiffens with a stiffer (less compressible) pore fluid.
• The stiffening effect of fluid on rock modulus is
largest for a soft (low velocity) rock.
• The bulk density also increases when going from a
dry to water-saturated rock.
• Because velocity depends on the ratio of elastic
modulus to density, the modulus and density
effects “fight” each other; sometimes the velocity
goes up; sometimes down.
• Measures of modulus ( M = ρV 2), impedance
( lmp = ρV = ρ modulus ), and VP / VS don’t have
the density effect “ambiguity.”
• Be careful of ultrasonic data! At high frequencies,
the elastic-stiffening effect is exaggerated for both
bulk and shear moduli; so we don’t often see the
density effect in the lab and the velocities will be
contaminated by fluid-related dispersion.
40
Effect of Pore Pressure

Beaver Sandstone
6% porosity
5.4
5.2 Increasing pore

Velocity (km/s)
pressure
5
4.8 water
oil
4.6
dry
4.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
F.6
40
Pore Pressure (MPa)
Effect of pore pressure on velocity,

calculated assuming effective pressure law
is valid, and assuming a fixed confining
pressure of 40MPa (low frequency
calculations using Gassmann relation).
41
Ways that Pore Pressure

Impacts Velocities
• Increasing pore pressure softens the elastic

mineral frame by opening cracks and flaws,
tending to lower velocities.
• Increasing pore pressure tends to make the
pore fluid or gas less compressible, tending to
increase velocities.
• Changing pore pressure can change the
saturation as gas goes in and out of solution.
Velocities can be sensitive to saturation.
• High pore pressure persisting over long
periods of time can inhibit diagenesis and
preserve porosity, tending to keep velocities
low.
42
Pressure Dependence of Velocities
Ultrasonic velocities and porosity in Fontainebleau sandstone

(Han, 1986). Note the large change in velocity with a very
small fractional change in porosity. This is another indicator
that pressure opens and closes very thin cracks and flaws.
43
Dry shaly sandstone data from Han (1986). Each vertical

“streak” plotted with the same symbol is a single rock at
different pressures. Note the large change in modulus with
little change in porosity -- another illustration that cracks and
flaws have a large change on velocity, even though they
contribute very little to porosity.
Only the values at high pressure and with Han's empirical

clay correction applied. F.8
44
The Information in a Rock's

Velocity-Pressure Curve
1. High pressure limiting velocity is a function of

porosity
2. The amount of velocity change with pressure

indicates the amount of soft, crack-like pore space
3. The range of the greatest pressure sensitivity

indicates the shape or aspect ratios of the crack-
like pore space
45
Soft, Crack-Like Porosity

1. Includes micro and macrofractures and
compliant grain boundaries.
2. Soft Porosity:
• Decreases both P and S-wave velocities
• Increases velocity dispersion and attenuation
• Creates pressure dependence of V and Q
• Creates stress-induced anisotropy of V and Q
• Enhances sensitivity to fluid changes

(sensitivity to hydrocarbon indicators)
3. High confining pressure (depth) and cementation,

tend to decrease the soft porosity, and therefore
decreases these effects.
4. High pore pressure tends to increase the soft

porosity and therefore increases these effects.
46
Curves on the left show the typical increase of velocity with effective
pressure. For each sample the velocity change is associated with the
opening and closing of cracks and flaws. These are typical when rapid
changes in effective pressure occur, such as during production.
Curves on the right show the same data projected on the velocity- porosity
plane. Younger, high porosity sediments tend to fall on the lower right.
Diagenesis and cementation tend to move samples to the upper left
(lower porosity, higher velocity). One effect of overpressure is to inhibit
diagenesis, preserving porosity and slowing progress from lower right to
upper left. This is called “loading” type overpressure. Rapid, late stage
development of overpressure can open cracks and grain boundaries,
resembling the curves on the left. This is sometimes called “transient” or
“unloading” overpressure. In both cases, high pressure leads to lower
velocities, but along different trends.
47
Seismic Velocity and Overpressure
F31
A typical approach to overpressure analysis is to look for

low velocity deviations from normal depth trends. Caution:
when overpressure is “late stage,” estimates of pressure
can be too low.
48

5 p =80 MPa
c
4.5 p =0 VP
Velocity (km/s)
p
4
St. Peter sandstone
3.5
p =80 MPa
3 c
VS
p =0
2.5 p
0 20 40 60 80
Effective Pressure (MPa)
3.6
p =80 MPa
3.4 c
VS
Velocity (km/s)
3.2 p =0
p
3 Sierra White granite

2.8
2.6
0 20 40 60 80
F.9
Experiments that illustrate the effective pressure law. In the first part of
the experiment, effective pressure is increased by increasing confining
pressure from 0 to 80 MPa, while keeping pore pressure zero (solid dots).
Then, effective pressure is decreased by keeping confining pressure fixed
at 80 MPa, but pumping up the pore pressure from 0 to nearly 80 MPa
(open circles). (Jones,1983.)
The curves trace approximately (but not exactly) the same trend. There is
some hysteresis, probably associated with frictional adjustment of crack
faces and grain boundaries. For most purposes, the hysteresis is small
compared to more serious difficulties measuring velocities, so we assume
that the effective pressure law can be applied. This is a tremendous
convenience, since most laboratory measurements are made with pore
pressure equal 0.
49
Pierre shale (ultrasonic), from Tosaya, 1982.

4
Sat.
3.5 p p=1MPa
p p=41 MPa VP
pp=0
3
Velocity (km/s)
(km/s)
Dry
2.5
Dry
Velocity
p p=0
2 VS
p p=1MPa
1.5 p p=41 MPa
Sat.
0.5 F.11
0 50 100 150 200

Confining
Confining Pressure (MPa)
Pressure (MPa)
For shales, we also often see an increase of velocity with
effective pressure. The rapid increase of velocity at low
pressures is somewhat elastic, analogous to the closing of
cracks and grain boundaries that we expect in sandstones.
The high pressure asymptotic behavior shows a continued

increase in velocity rather than a flat limit. This is probably
due to permanent plastic deformation of the shale.
50
Pore
pressure
Confining
pressure transducer
Rock
sample
transducer
Jacket
Concept of
Induced Pore Pressure
Δσ = 1bar
transducer
We expect a small ΔPp ~ 0.2bar Stiff Pore

induced pressure
in stiff pores ΔPp ~ 1bar Soft Pore
transducer
51
Chalk (ultrasonic), from Gregory, 1976, replotted from Bourbié,

Coussy, and Zinszner, 1987, Gulf Publishing Co.
Chalk
3.5
φ = 30.6%
VP
Sw
(km/s)
3
Velocity (km/s)
100
0
80
5
Velocity
2.5 10
20
40
60
VS
2
5
1.5
0 10 20 30 40 50
F.12
For chalks, we also see an increase of velocity with

effective pressure. The rapid increase of velocity at
low pressures is somewhat elastic and reversible.
The high pressure asymptotic behavior shows a

continued increase in velocity rather than a flat limit.
This is probably due to permanent crushing of the
fragile pore space.
52
Influence of temperature on oil saturated samples,

from Tosaya, et al. (1985).
F.16
We observe experimentally that velocities are most

sensitive to temperature when the rocks contain
liquid hydrocarbons (oil). We believe that this results
from an increase of the oil compressibility and a
decrease of the oil viscosity as the temperature goes
up.
In field situations other factors can occur. For
example, gas might come out of solution as the
temperature goes up.
53
An Early, Successful 4D Field Study

Thermal Signature of Steam Flood
Traveltime increase in After a few more months,

steamed interval after a few the anomaly spreads.
F30
months of steam injection.
Tar sand
From DeBuyl, 1989
54
Velocity vs. viscosity in glycerol saturated samples,

from Nur (1980).
1 Bedford limestone
0.9 Vp
V/Vo
0.8 Vs
0.7
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Temperature
1.1
1 Barre granite
0.9
µ/µο
0.8
0.7
0.6 Bedford limestone
0.5
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Log viscosity (poise) F.17
Temperature
In this experiment the pore fluid is glycerol, whose viscosity
is extremely sensitive to temperature. The data show a
classical viscoelastic behavior with lower velocity at low
viscosity and higher velocity at higher viscosity. Viscosity is
one of several pore fluid properties that are sensitive to
temperature.
55
F.18
Compressional velocities in the n-Alkanes vs. temperature.

A drastic decrease of velocity with temperature! The
numbers in the figure represent carbon numbers. From
Wang, 1988, Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University.
56
F.19
Compressional velocities in the n-Alkanes vs. inverse of the

carbon numbers, at different temperatures. From Wang, 1988,
Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University.
57

Batzle-Wang formulas for fluid density and bulk
modulus (Geophysics, Nov. 1992).
F30
58
API = 141.5
ρ −131.5
O
3
1 l/l = 5.615 ft /bbl F30
59
Brine Density (kg/m3)

Brine Bulk Modulus (Gpa)
F30
60

BubblePoint computed using Batzle, Wang Relations
Caution: Calibrate to lab

data when possible!
F30
61
Soft
Deepwater
Sands
62
Fluid Properties
• The density and bulk modulus of most reservoir

fluids increase as pore pressure increases.
• The density and bulk modulus of most reservoir
fluids decrease as temperature increases.
• The Batzle-Wang formulas describe the empirical
dependence of gas, oil, and brine properties on
temperature, pressure, and composition.
• The Batzle-Wang bulk moduli are the adiabatic
moduli, which we believe are appropriate for wave
propagation.
• In contrast, standard PVT data are isothermal.
Isothermal moduli can be ~20% too low for oil, and
a factor of 2 too low for gas. For brine, the two don’t
differ much. 2
−1 αT −1
K =K −
S T
ρC P
α = thermal expansion; Cp = heat capacity
Nice paper by Virginia Clark, July ‘92 Geophysics.
63

Stress-Induced Velocity Anisotropy -- the Historical
Basis for Seismic Fracture Detection
Axial Stress
P and S waves
Measurement angle related to the

uniaxial stress direction
F.20
Stress-induced velocity anisotropy in Barre Granite (Nur, 1969). In this

classic experiment, Nur manipulated the crack alignment by applying
uniaxial stress. Initially the rock is isotropic, indicating an isotropic
distribution of cracks. Cracks normal to the stress (or nearly so) closed,
creating crack alignment and the associated anisotropy.
64
Stress-Induced Velocity Anisotropy

Due to Crack Opening Near Failure
P
S
T
e
tur
SII Source
ac
Fr
S S II
T
Source
S IIA
P
Source
1.2
1.1
1
V/Vo
0.9
0.8 P
S⊥
0.7 SII
SIIA
0.6
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Failure Strength F.21
Uniaxial stress-induced velocity anisotropy in Westerly

Granite (Lockner, et al. 1977).
65
Seismic Anisotropy Due to

Rock Fabric
90
80 horizontal (c1 1)
70
60
ρV p 2
vertical (c3 3)
50
40
30
20
10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
fabric anisotropy
Isotropic mixture layered

slight alignment
Virtually any rock that has a visual layering or fabric at a scale finer
than the seismic wavelength will be elastically and seismically
anisotropic. Sources can include elongated and aligned grains and
pores, cracks, and fine scale layering. Velocities are usually faster
for propagation along the layering.
66
Velocity Anisotropy Due to Fabric
Anisotropic velocities vs. pressure. (a) and (b) Jones

(1983), (c) Tosaya (1982).
67
Velocity Anisotropy in Shale
Cotton Valley shale (ultrasonic), from Tosaya, 1982.
68
Velocity Anisotropy Resulting From

Thinly Layered Kerogen
F.23
P-wave anisotropy in shales (from Vernik, 1990):

(1) Bakken black shales, (2) Bakken dolomitic siltstone,
(3) Bakken shaly dolomite, (4) Chicopee shale (Lo, et al,
1985).
Vernik found that kerogen-bearing shales can have very

large anisotropy, easily 50%.
69
F.24
Velocities in kerogen-rich Bakken shales (Vernik, 1990)

and other low porosity argillaceous rocks (Lo et al.,
1985; Tosaya, 1982; Vernik et al., 1987). Compiled by
Vernik, 1990.
70

4 SeismicVelocity

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4 SeismicVelocity

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Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Conceptual Overview of Rock

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Type of formation P wave S wave Density Density of

Typical rock velocities, from Bourbié, Coussy, and

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

The Saturation and Pressure Dependence of

Dry Sat. and Dry V

Peffective = Pconfining − Ppore

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Fundamental Observations of Rock Physics

• Velocities almost always increase with effective

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Remember: Calibrate to Dry Cores!

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Pressure-Dependence in Soft Sands:

In soft sediments, permanent, inelastic

Data Courtesy of Mike Zimmer

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Pressure-Dependence in Soft Sands:

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Pressure-Dependence in Soft Sands:

Data Courtesy of Mike Zimmer

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

4D Example: Deep, Stiff, Gas Sand

Increase Pp by 100 bars Before After Difference

Trajectories in the AVO plane

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

4D Example: Deepwater, Soft, Gas Sand

Increase Pp by 100 bars Before After Difference

Trajectories in the AVO plane

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Density does not lead to ambiguity

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Effects of Pore Fluid on P-wave Velocity (Low Frequency)

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Velocities depend on fluid modulus and

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Effect of Pore Pressure

5.2 Increasing pore

Effect of pore pressure on velocity,

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Ways that Pore Pressure

• Increasing pore pressure softens the elastic

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Pressure Dependence of Velocities

Ultrasonic velocities and porosity in Fontainebleau sandstone

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Dry shaly sandstone data from Han (1986). Each vertical

Only the values at high pressure and with Han's empirical

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

The Information in a Rock's

1. High pressure limiting velocity is a function of

2. The amount of velocity change with pressure

3. The range of the greatest pressure sensitivity

Parameters That Influence Seismic Velocity

Soft, Crack-Like Porosity

• Decreases both P and S-wave velocities

• Increases velocity dispersion and attenuation

• Creates pressure dependence of V and Q

• Creates stress-induced anisotropy of V and Q

• Enhances sensitivity to fluid changes