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Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) Definition Computer Integrated Manufacturing, known

as CIM, is the phrase used to describe the complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with all processes functioning under computer control and digital information tying them together. It was promoted by machine tool manufacturers in the 1980's and the Society for Manufacturing Engineers (CASA/SME). It includes CAD/CAM, computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing, CAPP, computer-aided process planning, CNC, computer numerical control machine tools, DNC, direct numerical control machine tools, FMS, flexible machining systems, ASRS, automated storage and retrieval systems, AGV, automated guided vehicles, use of robotics and automated conveyance, computerized scheduling and production control, and a business system integrated by a common data base. Computer integrated manufacturing can include different combinations of the tools listed above. The heart of computer integrated manufacturing is CAD/CAM. Computer-aided design(CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing(CAM) systems are essential to reducing cycle times in the organization. CAD/CAM is a high technology integrating tool between design and manufacturing. CAD techniques make use of group technology to create similar geometries for quick retrieval.

CIM Wheel

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Benefits of CIM Responsiveness to Rapid Changes in Market Demand and Product Modification. Better Use of Materials, Machinery, Personnel, Reduction in Inventory. Better Control of Production and Management of the Total Manufacturing Operation. The Manufacture of High-Quality Products at Low Cost.

Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal DATA Data is a general term used to describe raw facts. To put it simply, data is nothing more than a collection of related elements or items, that when properly coded into some type of input medium, can be processed by a computer. Data items might include your service number, your name, your paygrade, or any other fact. Until some meaning has been given to the data, nothing can really be determined about it; therefore, it remains data. When this data has been processed together with other facts, it then has meaning and it becomes information we can understand and properly use. REPRESENTATION OF DATA Data is represented by symbols. Symbols convey meaning only when understood. The symbol itself is not the information, but merely a representation of it. Symbol meaning is one of convention (fig. 41).Symbols may convey one meaning to you and me, another meaning to others, and no meaning at all to those that do not know their significance. Data must be reduced to a set of symbols that the computer can read and interpret before there can be any communication with the computer. The first computers were designed to manipulate numbers to solve arithmetic problems. But as you can see in figure 4-1, we create, use, and manipulate many other symbols to represent facts in the world in which we live. We are fortunate that early computer experts soon realized the need to manipulate nonnumerical symbols as well. Manipulating these symbols is possible if an identifying code or coded number is assigned to the symbol to be stored and processed. Thus, the letters in a name such as ALBERT or CAROL can be represented by different codes, as can all special characters, such as #, (,), &, $, @, and yes, even the comma. The data to be represented is called source data.

Figure 4-1. - Communications symbols.

Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal SOURCE DATA Source data or raw data is typically written on some type of paper document, which we refer to as a source document. The data contained on the source document must be converted into a machinereadable form for processing either by direct or indirect means. The data may be entered directly into the computer in its original form; namely right from the source document on which it is recorded by way of magnetic ink characters, optically recognizable characters, or bar code recognition. Or the data on the documents may be entered indirectly on input media, such as punched cards, paper tape, magnetic tape, or magnetic disk. It may also be keyed directly into a computer from a keyboard. COMPUTER CODING SYSTEMS To represent numeric, alphabetic, and special characters in a computer's internal storage and on magnetic media, we must use some sort of coding system. In computers, the code is made up of fixed size groups of binary positions. Each binary position in a group is assigned a specific value; for example 8, 4, 2, or 1. In this way, every character can be represented by a combination of bits that is different from any other combination. In this section you will learn how the selected coding systems are used to represent data. The coding systems included are Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC), and American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). EXTENDED BINARY CODED DECIMAL INTERCHANGE CODE (EBCDIC) Using an 8-bit code, it is possible to represent 256 different characters or bit combinations. This provides a unique code for each decimal value 0 through 9 (for a total of 10), each uppercase and lowercase letter (for a total of 52), and for a variety of special characters. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association, called the X3 committee UTF-8 (8-bit Unicode Transformation Format) is a variable-length character encoding for Unicode. It is able to represent any character in the Unicode standard, yet the initial encoding of byte codes and character assignments for UTF-8 is backwards compatible with ASCII

Type of Communication Systems The communication system can be classified into three categories Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal Simplex Full Duplex Half Duplex Simplex

A simplex system is communication systems in which the message can be send in one direction only. Radio and TV board casting are eg User Transmitter Receiver User Full Duplex A full duplex system is one in which the link is capable of transmitting in both the direction, at the same. Eg : telephone system. Half Duplex In a half duplex system, each end may transmit, but only one at a time. This requires both transmitting and receiving circuitary at each end, but the actual link between the two ends may be shared. Eg : A citizens band radio where a frequency channel is shared and each party has to say over to switch the direction of the communication. Different Types Of Data Communication Media? Data can be communicated from one terminal to the central computer to other terminals through different media. These media are known as data communication channels there are 1. cable, 2. microwave, 3. satellite and 4. fiber optics. Cable is the most popular and widely used medium to transmit data from one location to another. It includes telephone line, coaxial cable, twisted pair cable etc. telephone lines are less expensive and easy method of transmitting data. Cable channels have very slow data transmitting rate. Microwaves channel are used for transmitting analog signals. But data is transmitted in analog through air via boosters rather than cables. This type of transmission is same as the television and radio transmission. Data is transmitted from one location to another. Through satellites data is also transmitted in space in the form of analog signals with very high transmission rate. Special satellites are sent into space. They are normally 20,000 to 25,000 miles above the earth. With the help of satellite, data can be transmitted to any country of the world. Optic fibers are used for digital signals. In an optical fiber, semi conductors laser transmit information in the form of light with very high speed. TRANSMISSION MEDIUM A transmission medium (plural transmission media) is a material substance (solid, liquid or gas) which Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 5

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal can propagate energy waves. For example, the transmission medium for sound received by the ears is usually air, but solids and liquids may also act as transmission media for sound. Another definition: Describes the type of physical system used to carry a communication signal from one system to another. Examples of transmission media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable. Two types of medium 1. Wired medium 2. Wire-less medium CABLE MEDIA three types of cable media twisted pair - come in two types: coaxial - Coax similar to that used for cable TV, but NOT identical fiber optic - glass or plastic channels that conduct light, often red laser light Twisted Pair

Each wire is covered with an insulator, and the two wires in the pair complete a circuit. These wires suffer from crosstalk, leakage of signal. The twists help cancel out such leaks. The graphic on shows a UTP cable with eight wires in it, making four pairs. The wires in each pair are twisted around each other. This type of cable comes in several varieties: two pair, three pair and four pair are common. Also, each variety may be available in grades, such as CAT 1 (Category 1) and CAT 5 (Category 5). There are five such categories, and a major difference between them is the number of twists per foot in each pair. CAT 1 will have less than 5 twists per foot, CAT 5 will have 25 or more twists per foot (so it is better, and costs more). Coaxial cable is a cable consisting of an inner conductor, surrounded by a tubular insulating layer typically made from a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which is then surrounded by another conductive layer (typically of fine woven wire for flexibility, or of a thin metallic foil), and then finally covered again with a thin insulating layer on the outside. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing the same geometric axis. Coaxial cables are often used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. In a hypothetical ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer conductors. Practical cables achieve this objective to a high degree. A coaxial cable provides protection of signals from external electromagnetic interference, and effectively guides signals with low emission along the length of the cable. Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 6

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Fiber Optic can be glass or plastic, and is meant to conduct light instead of electricity. An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. The conductor is called a waveguide, and is covered with cladding, a material to reflect the signal back into the center of the conductor.

WIRELESS network. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

MEDIA. This means that there is no cable of any sort between certain parts of the Radio Microwave signals Satellite systems Infrared systems Broadcast infrared systems

Radio is the label used for frequencies from 10 KHz to 1 GHz. Frequencies that are used for networks can be divided into regulated and unregulated frequencies. Only a few frequencies are unregulated in the United States. Your book observes that it is not possible to guarantee error free transmission in the unregulated frequencies. This is because anyone else can broadcast in those frequencies, causing errors in your transmissions. For this reason, broadcasts are usually limited to low power in unregulated bands, to minimize interference. Microwave signals are used in two formats: terrestrial (earth-based) and satellite systems. Terrestrial systems are used in line of sight connections where it is not possible to put a wire, such as across Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 7

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal several city blocks. The factors for terrestrial microwave: Frequency range - 4 to 6 or 21 to 23 GHz Cost - moderate to high Installation - difficult Capacity -1 Mbps to 10 Mbps Attenuation - relatively high, varies with weather Satellite systems are used to connect sites that are widely separated. Usually, signals are sent to geosynchronous satellites, orbiting 22,300 miles above the earth. This orbit puts the satellite in the same part of the sky relative to a ground based observer at all times. The factors for satellite microwave: Frequency range - 11 to 14 GHz Cost - high Installation - very difficult (Yes, you have to be a rocket scientist.) Capacity -1 Mbps to 10 Mbps Attenuation - relatively high, varies with weather Infrared systems come in two types: point-to-point and broadcast. Point-to-point systems are like the remote controls we use for televisions. Some systems also use lasers. The factors for point-to-point infrared: Frequency range - 100 GHz to 1000 THz Cost - low to moderate Installation - moderate to difficult Capacity - 1 to 16 Mbps Attenuation - varies with weather and light purity Broadcast infrared systems are used in single room settings, as these waves will bounce off walls, but not penetrate them. The advantage is that you can put a system in each room where required, and the users may move their machines around as they like. The factors for broadcast infrared: Frequency range - 100 GHz to 1000 THz Cost - low Installation - simple Capacity - up to 1 Mbps Attenuation - high

COMMUNICATION LINES DSL- Digital Subscriber Line: (ADSL/SDSL) DSL broadband is delivered through your existing telephone line, using a special modem or router. There is no need to have an additional telephone line installed and you will be still be able to make and receive calls whilst surfing the web. ADSL-Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line When you have an ADSL connection it is necessary to fit small devices called microfilters to all your telephone sockets. You need to plug them in to prevent the ADSL signal from interfering with your voice calls. Typically your ISP will provide you one or two microfilters and, if you need any more they Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, 8 Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal only cost a few pounds. SDSL (Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line) Some providers also offer SDSL services. An SDSL connection is very similar to an ADSL connection. The difference is that ADSL can download data from the Internet faster than it can upload data, while SDSL is just as fast at uploading as downloading. But since SDSL requires an extra telephone line, separate from the one you use for voice calls, SDSL is not a popular option for the home user. SDSL is really just a specialist option for some businesses that need to send large amounts of data. CABLE LINE: If you already have cable TV, or if you live in an area served by a cable operator, then a broadband cable Internet connection may be an option for you. A cable Internet connection requires a special modem, which is connected to your cable along with your cable TV box. Most cable companies offer packages that include telephone and TV channels as well as a broadband Internet connection. WIRELESS LINE In some of the more remote or rural areas, ADSL and Cable Internet connections may not be available. Increasingly in these areas, smaller Internet providers are providing local coverage using wireless technology. For a wireless Internet connection, a small antenna is installed on the outside of your house (much like a TV aerial) and this sends signals to a connection point on the inside, which in turn is connected to your computer. No telephone line of any kind is required. SATELLITE Satellite is generally seen as a last resort for people who live in remote areas and cannot receive any other form of broadband Internet. Requires the installation of a special satellite dish. There are two types of satellite connection. The first type is a one-way connection, where you will be able to receive data (view web pages), but can only send data (if for example you want to send an email) by using a dial-up modem through a telephone line. Two-way services, where data is both sent and received through the satellite dish, are also available, although these tend to be quite expensive to install - typically 800 - with an additional monthly subscription. Advantages True global broadband Internet access availability Mobile connection to the Internet (with some providers) Disadvantages High latency compared to other broadband services, especially 2-way satellite service Unreliable: drop-outs are common during travel, inclement weather, and during sunspot activity The narrow-beam highly directional antenna must be accurately pointed to the satellite orbiting overhead The Fair Access Policy limits heavy usage, if applied by the service provider VPN use is discouraged, problematic, and/or restricted with satellite broadband, although available at a Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 9

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal price One-way satellite service requires the use of a modem or other data uplink connection Satellite dishes are very large. Although most of them employ plastic to reduce weight, they are typically between 80 and 120 cm (30 to 48 inches) in diameter. LLU - Local Loop Unbundling LLU is a method by which a service provider can offer an ADSL or SDSL service without using Telecom's exchange systems. This can allow LLU providers to be more competitive with the prices and features they offer. In all other respects these services are equivalent to the corresponding ADSL or SDSL connections described above.

Communication Hardware
Ethernet card is one kind of network adapter. These adapters support the Ethernet standard for highspeed network connections via cables. Ethernet cards are sometimes known as network interface cards (NICs). Ethernet cards are available in several different standard packages called form factors: Newer Ethernet cards installed inside desktop computers use the PCI standard and are usually installed by the manufacturer. Ethernet cards may operate at different network speeds depending on the protocol standard they support. Old Ethernet cards were capable only of the 10 Mbps maximum speed offered by Ethernet originally. Modern Ethernet adapters all support the 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet standard and an increasing number now also offer Gigabit Ethernet support at 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). An Ethernet card does not directly support Wi-Fi wireless networking, but home network broadband routers contain the necessary technology to allow Ethernet devices to connect via cables and communicate with Wi-Fi devices via the router. Network Hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and thus making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The device is thus a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision. Hubs also often come with a BNC and/or AUI connector to allow connection to legacy 10BASE2 or 10BASE5 network segments. The availability of low-priced network switches has largely rendered hubs obsolete but they are still seen in older installations and more specialized applications. information A network hub is a fairly un-sophisticated broadcast device. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes through them, and any packet entering any port is broadcast out on every other port (other than the port of entry). Since every packet is being sent out through every other port, packet collisions result--which greatly impedes the smooth flow of traffic. Core Router is a router designed to operate in the Internet backbone, or core. To fulfill this role, a router must be able to support multiple telecommunications interfaces of the highest speed in use in the core Internet and must be able to forward IP packets at full speed on all of them. It must also support Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 10

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal the routing protocols being used in the core. A core route is distinct from an edge router: edge routers sit at the edge of a backbone network and connect to core routers. Like the term "supercomputer", the term "core router" refers to the largest and most capable routers of the then-current generation. A router that was a core router when introduced will not be a core router ten years later. At the inception of the ARPANET (the Internet's predecessor) in 1969, the fastest links were 56 kbit/s and a given routing node had at most six links. The "core router" was a dedicated minicomputer called an IMP Interface Message Processor.[1][2][3] Link speeds increased steadily, requiring progressively more powerful routers until the mid-1990s, when the typical core link speed reached 155 Mbit/s. At that time, several breakthroughs in fiber optic telecommunications (notably DWDM and EDFA technologies) combined to permit a sudden dramatic increase in core link speeds: by 2000, a core link operated at 2.5 Gbit/s and core internet companies were planning for 10 Gbit/s speeds. The largest provider of core routers in the 1980s and 1990s was Cisco Systems, who provided core routers as part of a broad product line. This was despite the presence of faster and more capable routers from Wellfleet Communications, which existed as an independent company until it merged with SynOptics Communications in 1994, to become Bay Networks. Juniper Networks entered the business in 1996, focusing primarily on core routers. Both companies addressed the need for a radical increase in routing capability that was driven by the increased link speed. In addition, several new companies attempted to develop new core routers in the late 1990s. It was during this period that the term "core router" came into wide use. The required forwarding rate of these routers became so high that it could not be met with a single processor or a single memory, so these systems all employed some form of a distributed architecture based on an internal switching fabric. The Internet was historically supply-limited, and core Internet providers historically struggled to expand the Internet to meet the demand. During the late 1990s, they expected a radical increase in demand, driven by the Dot-com bubble. By 2001, it became apparent that the sudden expansion in core link capacity had outstripped the actual demand for internet services in the core. The core internet providers were able to defer purchases of new core routers for a time, and most of the new companies went out of business. Cisco and Juniper were able to deliver their newest core router products several years later. As of 2007, the internet core link speed is 10 Gbit/s, with a few links at 40 Gbit/s. Cisco's core router is the CRS-1 and Juniper's core routers comprise the T-series.

Network architecture
In computing, network architecture is the design of a computer network.

In telecommunication, the term network architecture has the following meanings: The design principles, physical configuration, functional organization, operational procedures, and data formats used as the bases for the design, construction, modification, and operation of a communications network. The structure of an existing communications network, including the physical configuration, facilities, operational structure, operational procedures, and the data formats in use. Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 11

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal It outlines the products and services required in data communication networks.

With the development of distributed computing, the term network architecture has also come to denote classifications and implementations of distributed computing architectures. For example, the applications architecture of the telephone network PSTN has been termed the Advanced Intelligent Network. There are any number of specific classifications but all lie on a continuum between the dumb network (e.g. Internet) and the intelligent computer network (e.g. the telephone network PSTN). Other networks contain various elements of these two classical types to make them suitable for various types of applications.

Topology in Network Design Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find a ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types: bus ring star tree or Hierarchical mesh More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

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Bus Topology Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable. Ring Topology In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. Star Topology Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 13

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.) Mesh Topology Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others. Extended star A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based. Note: If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology are replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies. Tree Also known as a hierarchical network. The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a pointto-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree Hybrid network topologies The hybrid topology is a type of network topology that is composed of one or more interconnections of two or more networks that are based upon the same physical topology, but where the physical topology of the network resulting from such an interconnection does not meet the definition of the original physical topology of the interconnected networks (e.g., the physical topology of a network that would result from an interconnection of two or more networks that are based upon the physical star topology Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, 14 Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal might create a hybrid topology which resembles a mixture of the physical star and physical bus topologies or a mixture of the physical star and the physical tree topologies, depending upon how the individual networks are interconnected, while the physical topology of a network that would result from an interconnection of two or more networks that are based upon the physical distributed bus network retains the topology of a physical distributed bus network). Summary Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. You can probably build a home or small business computer network without understanding the difference between a bus design and a star design, but becoming familiar with the standard topologies gives you a better understanding of important networking concepts like hubs, broadcasts, and routes. LAN A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide-area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently, but ARCNET, Token Ring and many others have been used in the past.

WAN A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area networks (LANs). Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.

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OSI MODEL The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy. Application (Layer 7) This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 16

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer. Presentation (Layer 6) This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer. Session (Layer 5) This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination. Transport (Layer 4) This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer. Network (Layer 3) This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing. Data Link (Layer 2) At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking. Physical (Layer 1) This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.

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Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal Database: A database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system. The structure is achieved by organizing the data according to a database model. The model in most common use today is the relational model. Other models such as the hierarchical model and the network model use a more explicit representation of relationships.

Database management systems


A computer database relies upon software to organize the storage of data. This software is known as a database management system (DBMS). Database management systems are categorized according to the database model that they support. The model tends to determine the query languages that are available to access the database. A great deal of the internal engineering of a DBMS, however, is independent of the data model, and is concerned with managing factors such as performance, concurrency, integrity, and recovery from hardware failures. In these areas there are large differences between products.

MySQL is a database management system. A database is a structured collection of data. It may be anything from a simple shopping list to a picture gallery or the vast amounts of information in a corporate network. To add, access, and process data stored in a computer database, you need a database management system such as MySQL Server. Since computers are very good at handling large amounts of data, database management systems play a central role in computing, as standalone utilities, or as parts of other applications. MySQL is a relational database management system. A relational database stores data in separate tables rather than putting all the data in one big storeroom. This adds speed and flexibility. The SQL part of MySQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is the most common standardized language used to access databases and is defined by the ANSI/ISO SQL Standard. The SQL standard has been evolving since 1986 and several versions exist. In this manual, SQL-92 refers to the standard released in 1992, SQL:1999 refers to the standard released in 1999, and SQL:2003 refers to the current version of the standard. We use the phrase the SQL standard to mean the current version of the SQL Standard at any time.

Database model
A database model or database schema is a specification describing how a database is structured and used

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Flat model Hierarchical model Network model Relational model Dimensional model Object database models

Flat model
The flat (or table) model consists of a single, twodimensional array of data elements, where all members of a given column are assumed to be similar values, and all members of a row are assumed to be related to one another. For instance, columns for name and password that might be used as a part of a system security database. Each row would have the specific password associated with an individual user. Columns of the table often have a type associated with them, defining them as character data, date or time information, integers, or floating point numbers.

Hierarchical model
In a hierarchical model, data is organized into a tree-like structure, implying a single upward link in each record to describe the nesting, and a sort field to keep the records in a particular order in each same-level list. Hierarchical structures were widely used in the early mainframe database management systems, such as the Information Management System (IMS) by IBM, and now describe the structure of XML documents. This structure allows one 1:N relationship between two types of data. This structure is very efficient to describe many relationships in the real world; recipes, table of contents, ordering of paragraphs/verses, any nested and sorted information. However, the hierarchical structure is inefficient for certain database operations when a full path (as opposed to upward link and sort field) is not also included for each record. One limitation of the hierarchical model is its inability to efficiently represent redundancy in data. Entity-Attribute-Value database models like Caboodle by Swink are based on this structure. Parentchild relationship: Child may only have one parent but a parent can have multiple children. Parents and children are tied together by links called "pointers. A parent will have a list of pointers to each of their children.

Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal

Network model
The network model is a variation on the hierarchical model, to the extent that it is built on the concept of multiple branches from one or more nodes. The model differs from the hierarchical model in that branches can be connected to multiple nodes. Network databases generally implement the set relationships by means of pointers that directly address the location of a record on disk. This gives excellent retrieval performance,

Relational model
The basic data structure of the relational model is the table (Called Entity set), where information about a particular entity (say, an employee) is represented in columns (Attributes) and rows (also called Entity or an object or an instance). Thus, the "relation" in "relational database" refers the various tables in the database. A relational database contains multiple tables, each similar the one in the "flat" database model.

to to

The strengths of the relational model is that, in principle, any value occurring in two different records (belonging to the same table or to different tables), implies a relationship among those two records. Yet, in order to enforce explicit integrity constraints, relationships between records in tables can also be defined explicitly, by identifying or non-identifying parent-child relationships characterized by assigning cardinality (1:1, (0)1:M, M:M). A key that can be used to uniquely identify a row in a table is called a primary key. Keys are commonly used to join or combine data from two or more tables. For example, an Employee table may contain a column named Location which contains a value that matches the key of a Location table. Keys are also critical in the creation of indexes, which facilitate fast retrieval of data from large tables.

Dimensional model
The dimensional model is a specialized adaptation of the relational model used to represent data in data warehouses in a way that data can be easily summarized using OLAP queries. In the dimensional model, a database consists of a single large table of facts that are described using dimensions and measures. A dimension provides the context of a fact (such as who participated, when and where it happened, and its type) and is used in queries to group related facts together. Dimensions tend to be discrete and are often hierarchical; for example, the location might include the building, state, and country. A measure is a quantity describing the fact, such as revenue. It's important that measures can be meaningfully aggregated - for example, the revenue from different locations can be added together. Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 20

Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal In an OLAP query, dimensions are chosen and the facts are grouped and added together to create a summary. The dimensional model is often implemented on top of the relational model using a star schema, consisting of one table containing the facts and surrounding tables containing the dimensions. Particularly complicated dimensions might be represented using multiple tables, resulting in a snowflake schema. A data warehouse can contain multiple star schemas that share dimension tables, allowing them to be used together. Coming up with a standard set of dimensions is an important part of dimensional modeling.

Object database models


In recent years, the object-oriented paradigm has been applied to database technology, creating a new programming model known as object databases. These databases attempt to bring the database world and the application programming world closer together, in particular by ensuring that the database uses the same type system as the application program. Example: Ruby on rails implements MVC architecture, where in Model, the object example employee object is created and the Rails frame work to create a relevant data table in the database.

Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal

Products Design -Turning Ideas into


Products

Steps in the product design flow


The Product design flow implements a gradual transition from idea to final product. It defines the following steps: 1. In a first step, ideas are tested in simulation in order to verify their potential. This step is, for example, carried out using popular tools for modeling and simulation such as Matlab/Simulink. During this step, Product can offer support through consultancy and training courses on the modeling of power electronics systems and the design of algorithms to control them. 2. In a second step, ideas and algorithms are put into practice by prototyping them onto Product Smart Inverter programmable hardware platforms. Product Smart Inverters are general purpose setups that can be used to prototype a wide variety op applications ranging from motor drives to power grid interfacing. Matlab/Simulink schematics created during the first step can be downloaded directly on the target platforms and tested against real hardware. This dramatically shortens design and test cycles while reveiling potential problems early on in the design. 3. Once the prototype is fully functional, Product provides two paths towards a final product. In a first apporach, the Product Smart Inverter technology is embedded into the customer product. Software developed during previous stages of the design can immediately be reused for purpose of production. In this way, time from prototype to product is kept to a minimum. Also, this solution keeps most of the flexibility of the prototyping platform. As an alternative, we also offer assistance in realizing a custom hardware implementation. Contact us for more information on our design flow and how it could help you to realize your ideas and to speed up your designs.

Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal Design for manufacturability (DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The basic idea exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but of course the details differ widely depending on the manufacturing technology. Here are examples:

Design for manufacturability for integrated circuits. Design for Manufacturability for printed circuit boards . Design for Manufacturability for CNC machined parts.

Design for Manufacturability for CNC machining Design for manufacturability (DFM) describes the process of designing or engineering a product in order to facilitate the manufacturing process in order to reduce its manufacturing costs. DFM will allow potential problems to be fixed in the design phase which is the least expensive place address them. Machining is a subtractive manufacturing process whereby cutting tools are used to remove material until the final net shape is established. Metal is the primary type of material used in manufacturing machined parts, but plastic, wood, glass, composites and other materials may also be machined. The design of the component can have an enormous effect on the cost of manufacturing. Other factors may affect the manufacturability such as the type of raw material, the form of the raw material, dimensional tolerances, and secondary processing such as finishing. There are many topics related to DFM for machining. This article will start with just a few and be added to over time. The most common types of tools used in machining are milling cutters such as Endmills, facemills, other types of special shaped mills; and hole making tools such as drill bits, reamers, taps.

Contents

1 Material Type 2 Material Form 3 Dimensional Tolerances 4 Design and shape

Material Type
The most easily machined types of metals include aluminum, brass, magnesium, and softer metals. As materials get harder, denser and stronger, such as steel, stainless steel, titanium, and exotic alloys, they become much harder to machine and take much longer, thus being less manufacturable. Most types of plastic are relatively easy to machine, although additions of fiberglass or carbon fiber can reduce the machinability. Plastics that are particularly soft and gummy may have machinability problems of their own.

Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Bharthiyar College of Engineering & Technology Karaikal

Material Form
Metals come in all forms. In the case of aluminum as an example, bar stock and plate are the two most common forms from which machined parts are made. The size and shape of the component may determine which form of material must be used. It is common for engineering drawings to specify one form over the other. Bar stock is generally close to 1/2 of the cost of plate on a per pound basis. So although the material form isn't directly related to the geometry of the component, cost can be removed at the design stage by specifying the least expensive form of the material.

Dimensional Tolerances
A significant contributing factor to the cost of a machined component is the geometric tolerance to which the features must be made. The higher the tolerance required, the more expensive the component will be to machine. When designing, specify the lowest tolerance that will serve the function of the component. Tolerances must be specified on a feature by feature basis. There are creative ways to engineer components with lower tolerances that still perform as well as ones with higher tolerances.

Design and shape


As machining is a subtractive process, the time to remove the material is a major factor in determining the machining cost. The volume and shape of the material to be removed as well as how fast the tools can be fed will determine the machining time. The shorter the tool is relative to its diameter the faster it can be fed through the material. A ratio of 3:1 (L:D) or under is optimum. There are many other types of features which are more or less expensive to machine. Generally chamfers cost less to machine than radii on outer horizontal edges. Undercuts are more expensive to machine. Features that require smaller tools, regardless of L:D ratio, are more expensive.

Compiled By: S. Gunabalan, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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