IGCSE Biology Notes

:cc6:cc,
Contents
r The Variety of Life
s.s Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
s.: Tle Binomial Naming Syem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
s., Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Animal Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Protocia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s. Claraceriics of Ling Tlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s., Brancling Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Couplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
z CeIIs, Diusion & Osmosis
:.s Specialised Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
:.: Cell Acities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s,
y Enzymes r
,.s Properties of Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s,
,.: How Enzymes Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s6
,., Uses for Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s6
,. Immobilisng Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s;
Nutrition & BaIanced Diets ry
.s Food Tes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s,
Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s,
Starcl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :c
Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :c
s
Protein (Biuret te) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :c
.: Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :c
Alcolol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :s
Digestion & Absorption zr
,.s Teetl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :,
Tootl Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :,
,.: Duodenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
,., Small Inteine (Ileum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
,. Ler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
,., Large Inteine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :,
6 Nutrition in PIants z6
6.s Plotosyntlesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :6
6.: Tle Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :;
Clloroplas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Stomata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
y Transport in AnimaIs z
;.s Tle Circulatory Syem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :,
Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,c
Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,s
Composition of tle Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,:
Blood Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,
Tissue Fluid Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
;.: Tle Lymplatic Syem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Tle Immune Syem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Transplants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,
k Transport in PIants y
.s Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,
.: Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,6
Facors Aecing Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,6
., Xeroplytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,;
. Movement of Plotosyntletic Producs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,;
., Syemic Peicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,;
:
Respiration & Gaseous Exchange yy
,.s Aerobic Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
,.: Anaerobic Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Yea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
,., Calorimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
,. Tle Lungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
Increase in Breatling Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,
Cigarene Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,
ro Excretion & Homeostasis o
sc.s Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c
sc.: Homeoasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c
sc., Tle Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
rr Reproduction z
ss.s Asexual Reproducion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Baceria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Fungli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
List of Figures
s A bacerium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sc
: A pical plant cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ss
, A pical animal cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s:
Tle process of osmosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s
, A plant cell reacing to dierent pes of turgor pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . s,
6 Tle acion of an enzyme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s6
; Tle alimentary canal (digee syem). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::
A crosssecion of a luman tootl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :,
, A single luman llus nom tle small inteine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :,
sc A pical leaf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :;
ss A clloropla. On eacl membrane are many molecules of clloroplyll. . . . . . . :,
s: A single oma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,c
s, Diagram of a luman leart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,s
s Human blood vessels. Tle lumen in tle artery is mucl smaller tlan tle lumen in
tle vein, as tle blood is at a mucl ligler pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,:
s, Red blood cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,
,
s6 Antigens on a cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
s; A lymplocyte. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
s A lymplocyte indenti[ing a bacerium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
s, A root lair cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
:c Water vapour buildup around a oma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
:s A simple calorimeter used to measure tle energy value of a respiratory subrate.
:: Tle lungs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:, Some alveoli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
: Tle acion of breatling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
:, Part of tle lining of tle respiratory passages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
:6 Tle excretory syem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;
:; Urea producion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: Tle Snucure of an amino acid. R can and for anytling. Tle NH
,
part of
tle molecule (ammonia) is toc, and is converted into urea. Deamination is tle
removal of tle ninogencontaining part of tle amino acid. . . . . . . . . . . . .
:, How urine is produced tlere are two processes. ulnalnation, and selece
reabsorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
,c An indidual glomerulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,c
,s Kidney failure if one or botl kidneys fail tlen dialysis is used or a nansplant
performed to keep urea and solute concennation in tle blood conant. . . . . . . ,s
,: Kidney nansplant may be necessary as Rlenal dialysis is inconvenient for tle patient
and coly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,:
,, A summary of low body and blood temperature are maintained. . . . . . . . . . ,,

r The Variety of Life

r.r Taxonomy
Tlis is tle scientic name for puning tlings into groups classication and naming.
Tlis large group is called a kingdom.
Tle syem was desed in tle s
tl
Century by Carl Linnaeus.
Kingdom
Plylum .
.in
c
re
a
s
in
g
s
im
ila
ri
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
r.z The BinomiaI Naming System
All organisms lave two Latin (a unersal language) names Genus and Species. Tle Genus is
wrinen witl a capital lener. Wlen landwriting, botl words are underlined. Wlen ping, tley are
put in italics. For example.
Homo Sapiens (Handwrinen)
Felix cattus (Typed)
r.y Kingdoms
Animalia
Plantae
Baceria (monera, prokaryote)
Fungi
Protocia
AnimaI Kingdom
Tlere are , Plyla. Among tlem are.
Clordates (vertebrates) (in order of evolution.)
Fisl
,
Amplibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Artlropods
Insecs
* Grassloppers, buneries, beetles, ants etc.
* sccc,ccc described world species
* Tlree body regions. lead, tlorax, abdomen
* S legs anacled to tle tlorax (wlicl las , segments)
* Adults witl one or two pairs of wings anacled to tle tlorax (some lave none)
* Tow antennae
* Lateral compound eyes
Araclnids
* Spiders, scorpions, ticks, moites, etc.
* 6,,ccc described world species
* Two body regions. ceplalotlorax, abdomen
* Eiglt legs
* No antennae
* Moutl parts are clelicerae (modied appendages) wlicl in spiders are fangs
Cruaceans
* Teclnically a subplylum
* Classes include crabs, slrimps, lobers, barnacles, isopods etc.
* ,ccc described world speies
* Two body regions
* Two pairs of antennae
* , or more pairs of legs
* Primarily aquatic, few terrerial
Myriapods
* Clilopods
Centipedes
:,cc described world species
welldened lead
r pair of legs modied for envenomation
anened top to bonom
one pair of legs persegment
6
one pair of antennae
* Diplopods
Millipedes
sc,ccc described world species
Two pairs of legs per segments, r four segments lave s pair of legs
one pair of antennae
welldened lead
usually cylindrical
Nematodes
Roundworms
Can be microscopic, or up to scm in lengtl
Can be nee ling or parasitic
No circulatory or respiratory syem
Snucure is a tube witlin a tube
No claetae
Use sexual reporoducion
Molluscs
Sof bodied
No segmentation
Single muscular foot
Hard external slell (calcium carbonate) or internal slell
Mo lave rasping tongue (radula)
Filter feeders mussels
Carnorous ocopi
Marine organisms witl slells (except barnacles and cruaceans)
Terrerial snails & slugs
Annelids
Segmented worms (e.g. eartlworm)
Leecles
Sexual and asexual reporoducion (depending on species)
Vascular and nervous syem
No legs but may lave claetae (i lairs) to aid movement
may lave obous lead
;
Protoctista
Singlecelled Eukaryotes Protia
Protozoa & Protoplyta
Multicelled
Seaweed
* Kelp
* Algae
Slime molds
Amoeba
Ciliates
Diatoms
Paramecia
Forams
etc.
r. Characteristics of Living Things
M ovement
R espiration
S ensiti
G rowtl
R eproducion
E xcretion
N unition
r. Branching Keys
A key is a means of identi[ing an unfamiliar organism nom a selecion. Indidual organisms are
found by following a series of paired, numbered options, or a clart wlicl oers no more tlan two
cloices at eacl age. A key eitler wrinen in couplets, or as a clart.
Tley lave a proper nucleus as opposed to Baceria. Eukaryots are aquatic/plantlike organisms tlat dont t in tle
Animal/Plant/Baceria kingdoms.

CoupIets
s. Hairy skin ooosrrrnnv.
Nonlairy skin go to :.
:. External pips s+n~vrrnnv.
No external pips go to ,.
,. Near splerical slape go to .
Otler slape r~~~.
. Smootl surface ~rrrr.
Indented surface go to ,.
,. Snucure made up of subunits rr~ckrrnnv.
Snucure made up of single unit on~or.
Key
Foop. Woop.
Moop.
.
.Does it lave tlree antennae:
.Does it lave tlree eyes:
.Is it round:
.Its a Moop.
.vrs
.Its a Foop.
.o
.vrs
.Its a Woop.
.o
.vrs
.It does not e.
.o
z CeIIs, Diusion & Osmosis
z.r SpeciaIised CeIIs
All cells are designed to do a particular job in an organism. Tlis is called crrr srrci~ris~+io.
Examples of specialised cells are slown below.
,
Pili
Plasmid
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Capsule
Nucleoid (circular DNA)
Bacterial Flagellum
Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg
Figure s. A bacerium.
PIant ceIIs AnimaI CeIIs
Always lave cell wall made of cellulose and lence a denite slape No cell wall, lence no dinite slape
Usually lave large, permanent vacuole Any vacuoles are small and temporary
Some lave clloroplas Never lave clloroplas
Up to smm long Usually less tlan c.c,mm long.
ExampIes:
palisade cells cleek lining cells
plloem sieve tube elements muscle bres
root lair cell red blood cells
Table s. Dierences between plant and animal cells.
sc
Golgi body
(Golgi apparatus)
Golgi vesicles
Cytoplasm
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
(mitochondria)
Vacuole
Tonoplast
thylakoid membrane
Starch grain
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Plasmodesmata
Filamentous
cytoskeleton
Small membranous
vesicles
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Nuclear pore
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plant_cell_structure_svg.svg (Public Domain)
OrganeIIe Function
Nucleus Connols tle cells acities, contains DNA
Cytoplasm Wlere metabolic reacions take place
Cell membrane Partially permeable, connols tle enny/et of subances
Mitoclondria Wlere aerobic respiration takes place
Cell wall (plants only) Fully permeable, prevents cell nom buring
Permanent vacuole Storage area, contains cell sap
Clloropla (plants only) Wlere plotosyntlesis takes place
Figure :. A pical plant cell.
Sperm ceII designed to fertilise eggs
A sperm cell is very small and las a linle tail wlicl prodes movement so it can swim and nd
an egg to fertilise.
Its lead contains enzymes (in tle vacuole) wlicl allow it do dige its way tlrougl an egg
membrane so tle two nuclei can join.
It contain lalf tle number of clromosomes in tle nucleus tlese caryy genetic information
nom tle fatler, wlicl will be passed on to tle ospring.
ss
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Plasma membrane
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Cytoskeleton
Free Ribosomes
Ribosomes
Nucleus
Nucleal pore
Nucleal envelope
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Golgi vesicles
(golgi apparatus)
Lysosome
Centrioles
Cytoplasm
Secretory vesicle
Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_cell_structure_en.svg (Public Domain)
OrganeIIe Function
Nucleus Connols cell acities, contains DNA
Cytoplasm Wlere metabolic reacions take place
Cell membrane Partially permeable, connols enny/et of subances
Mitoclondia Site of aerobic respiration
Figure ,. A pical animal cell.
Ovum (egg) ceII designed to be fertilised
An ovum is large and bulky because no ace ovement is needed it ju sits and waits for tle
sperm to nd it.
It contains yolk (in tle cytoplasm) wlicl prodes a large food ore needed for tle developing
young organism once its fertilised.
It contains lalf tle number of clromosomes, wlicl carry genetic information nom tle motler
tlis will be passed on to tle ospring.
PaIisade ceII for plotosyntlesis
s:
A palisade cell is tall witl a large surface area. Its found on tle top side of a leaf ideal for good
absorpion of carbon diode and liglt botl are needed for plotosyntleses.
Tleyre packed witl clloroplas, wlicl contain tle green pigment clloroplyll, wlicl is needed
for plotosyntlesis.
CiIiated ceII to op lung damage
Ciliated cells line all tle air passages in tle lungs. Mucus is icky and so naps du and baceria.
Tle cilia waf and sweep up tle mucus to tle back of tle tlroat wlere it is swallowed. Tle
baceria are tlen killed by tle acid in tle omacl.
Root hair ceII for absorbtion
Tle long lair cell increases tle surface area of tle root, wlicl lelps absorption of water and
minerals.
It las a very tlin cell wall, wlicl makes it easier for minerals to pass across into tle root itself.
Red bIood ceIIs (erythrocytes) for nansport
Tley do not contain a nucleus, so tlere is more room for tle protein molecule to carry oxygen.
Tleir biconcave slape ges tlem a large surface area for gas exclange.
MuscIe ceIIs for movement
Muscle cells lave protein rands tlat can slide across eacl otler for connacion. Eacl cell las
several nuclei. Tlere are , pes smootl, skeletal and cardiac.
Tissues A tissue is a group of similar cells, working to perform tle same funcion, e.g. muscle
tissue is made nom muscle cells.
Organs Dierent tissues are arranged to form an organ. Tley work togetler to perform a particular
funcion, e.g. tle leart.
Organ Systems A group of organs working togetler form an organ syem, e.g. tle circulatory
syem.
z.z CeII Activities
All cells exclange gases, nunients and otler materials between tlemselves and tleir surroundings.
Diusion is tle nee movement of particles of a subance (atoms, ions or molecules) nom regions
of ligl concennation to regions of lower concennaion. Tle process continues until tle particles
are evenly diributed. Tlis is movement down a concennation gradient.
Diusion is tle usual way in wlicl molecules move into or out of cells.
Concentration gradient refers to tle dierence in concennation between one region and anotler.
Tle greater tle dierence in concennaion, tle eeper tle concennation gradient, and tle faer
tle rate of diusion. Surfaces qlere gas exclange occurs ofen maintain a eep diusion gradient
so tlat idusion occuras rapidly. For example.
s,
across tle linging of tle air sacs (alveoli) in tle lungs of lumans
across tle surface of cells bordering air spaces in tle leaves of plants
Osmosis is a specic pe of diusion. It is tle diusion of water nom a dilute solution to a
more concennated soution tlroul a partially permeable membrane. Cell membranes are partially
permeable membranes, and it is by osmosis tlat water moves into and out of cells.
In osmosis, water diuses nom a ligl water concennation to a low water concennation (see
Figure ).
Cells placed in diilled water will gain water by osmosis. Tlis is because tlere is a lower
concennation of water inside tlan outside. Tle cells are said to be turgid.
Cells placed in a concennated solution will lose water by osmosis. Tlis is because tlere is
a greater concennation of water inside tle cell. Tle cells are said to be accid. In severe
cases tle cell membrane is pulled away nom tle cell wall. Tle cells are tlen said to be
plasmolysed. Eventually tle process may op because tle concennations on botl sides of
tle cell membrane lave equalised (see Figure ,).
Active transport is a clemical process tlat results in a movement of particles in an opposite dir
ecion to tlat expeced by diusion. Subances are taken scross a membrane nom a region of
low concennation to a region of ligler concennation, i.e. again a concennation gradient. As
its name implies, it is an ace process and requires energy supplied by respiration.
S olute,
e.g. sugar
Water
Partially permeable membrane
Direction of water
movement
Dilute solution
(High water concentration)
Concentrated solution
(Low water concentrat ion)
Figure . Tle process of osmosis.
y Enzymes
Enzymes are bioIogicaI cataIysts. Tley speed up tle clemical reacions wlicl go on inside ling
tlings, and are exnemely ecient.
s
Plasmolysed Flaccid Turgid
Vacuole
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turgor_pressure_on_plant_cells_diagram.svg (Public Domain)
Figure ,. A plant cell reacing to dierent pes of turgor pressure.
Enzymes are made inside cells. Once formed, tle enzymes may leave tle cell and do its job outside.
Sucl enzymes are called extraceIIuIar enzymes. Tley include tle digee enzymes wlicl break
down food subances in tle gut.
Otler enzymes work inside tle cell. Tley are called intraceIIuIar enzymes. Tleir job is to speed
up le clemical reacions occurring in cells, and also connol tlem.
An example of a reacion connolled by an enzyme.
maltose(substrate)
maltase(enzyme)
glucose(product)
Tle subance wlicl tle enzyme acs on it called tle substrate in tlis case maltose. Tle new
subance or subances formed as a result of tle reacion are tle products. In tlis case tlere is ju
one produc, glucose. Tle enzyme catalysing tlis particular reacion is maltase. Tlis reacion can
go in eitler direcion it is reversibIe. If tlere is a lot of maltose present compared witl glucose,
tle reacion will go nom lef to riglt. If tlere is a lot of glucose compared to maltose, it will go
nom riglt to lef. Mo metabolic reacions are reversible.
y.r Properties of Enzymes
s. They are aIways proteins
We need to take proteins in, a our food to produce enzymes.
:. They are specic in their action
Eacl enzyme connols one particular reacion, or pe of reacion maltase will only ac on
maltose, and sucrase on sucrose.
,. They can be used muItipIe times
Tley are not altered by tle reacion tlat tley catalyse. However, tley run down eventually and
lave to be replaced.
s,
. They are destroyed by heating
In common witl all proteins, tley are denatured by proteins. Normally tlis lappens at ,

C.
,. They are sensitive to pH
Tleir eeceness depends on tle degree of acidi or alkalini of tle solution wlicl tley are
in. Mo innacellular enzymes work be in neunal conditions.
y.z How Enzymes Work
Substrate entering
active site of enzyme
Enzyme/substrate
complex
Enzyme/products
complex
Products leaving
active site of enzyme
Products
Substrate
Active site
Enzyme changes shape
slightly as substrate binds
Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Induced_fit_diagram.svg (Public Domain)
Figure 6. Tle acion of an enzyme.
Figure 6 slows in a simplied way low enzymes are believed to work. Wlen a subrate molecule
lappenes to impac on tle ace site of an enzyme, tle reacion takes place and tle producs leave,
neeing up tle enzyme for anotler reacion.
Eacl enzymes ace site las a specic slape, into wlicl only one pe of subrate will t. Tlis is
wly tle enzyme is specic in its acion.
Wlen an enzyme is denatured by leat, tle slape of its ace site clanges, so subrates no longer
t in it, and it is not eece.
Anytling wlicl lelps subrates to come into contac witl tle enzyme at a faer rate will increase
tle rate at wlicl tle enzyme can catalyse reacions. Higler temperatures mean tlat molecules
move around mroe quickly a rise in temperature of sc

Ccan double tle rate of reacion.

Some minerals and tamins also increase tle rate of reacion.
Some poisons, sucl as cyanide and arsenic, inlibit enzymes by blocking tle ace site. Some
poisons block ace sites permanently, otlers temporarily. Tlis is also low some peicides work.
y.y Uses for Enzymes
Enzymes can be exnaced nom organisms in a puried form, and tlen used in many scientic,
domeic and indurial processes. A common useage is in bioIogicaI washign powders. Various
proteindigeing (proteases) are added to tle wasling powder, and tley dissolve protein ains.
s6
Biological wasling powders are advantageous because tley work at relately low temperatures. Tlis
means tley are usefulfor wasling delicate fabrics, and can save elecrici. However, some people
are allergic to tlem.
Enzymes are normally exnaced nom microbes, wlicl are grown on a large scale in fermenters.
Some examples of enzyme use.
Proteases are used for tenderising meat, skinning sl, remong lair nom lides, and breaking
down proteins in baby foods.
AmyIases convert arcl to sugar in making syrups, nuit juices, clocolates and otler food producs.
CeIIuIase breaks down cellulose and is used for sofening vegetables, remong tle seed coat nom
cereal grain, and exnacing agar jelly nom seaweed.
Isomerase converts glucose into nucose. Frucose is muclsweeter tlan glucose, tlis makes it
useful in sweets, syrups and slimming foods, as only small amounts are needed to sweeten tle
produc.
CataIase releases oxygen nom lydrogen perode, and is used in making foam rubber nom latex.
y. ImmobiIisng Enzymes
Bioteclnologis lave developed a bener metlod of using enzymes tlan simply ming tle enzyme
witl tle subrate. Tle enzymes are anacledf to an inert surface, usually glass or plaic beads. Tle
beads are tlen brouglt into contac witl tle subrate so tlat tle reacions can take place.
One way of bringing tle beads into contac witl tle subrate is to immerse tlem in a solution
of tle subrate, and tlen wait for tle reacion to be completed before collecing tle produc and
arting again. Tlis is called batch processing.
Tle otler way is to slowly pour a solution of tle subnate tlrougl a column of tle beads, and
tle collec tle produc nom tle bonom. Tle subrate is aced upon progressely as tle solution
nickles down tle column. Tlis is called continous owprocessing, because tle producis colleced
all tle time. it is more ecient tlan batcl processing.
Nutrition & BaIanced Diets
Nunition is tle udy of food and feeding processes. Food is tle material nom wlicl organisms
obtain tle energy and tle raw materials to conruc, maintain and repair tle body.
Plants are autotrophic tley produce tleir own food, and come at tle bonom of tle food clain.
Humans and otler animals are heterotrophic (also known as hoIozoic) tley eat otler plants and
animals, and cannot produce tleir own food.
Humans require a baIanced diet. Tlis is one wlicl supplies tle dierent pes of food in adequate
amounts and tle correc proportions, and prodes tle body witl sucient energy for its needs. A
balanced diet maintains a lealtly and ace life and, wlere necessary, growtl.
Humans use food for.
s;
Energy for body processes (usually obtained nomcarbolydrates and fats sometimes nomprotein
wlen in a ate of arvation).
Building materials, to build tle cells of tle body (proteins, fats, tamins, minerals).
Clemical reacions in tle body (proteins, tamins, minerals, water).
Tlere are seven clemical components of a balanced diet.
Carbohydrates To prode energy.
Sugar Dierent kinds of food contain dierent pes of sugar. glucose or nucose in nuit, lacose
in milk, or sucrose in ordinary table sugar. Tle formula for glucose, tle simple possible
sugar, is C
6
H
s:
O
6
. It is a monosacclaride it is made into clains of polysacclarides. Two
glucose molecules bonded togetler form one maltose molecule.
Starch is found in bread, potatoes and cereals. Starcl is a polysacclaride made of a spiral clain
of glucose molecules, and is used as tle food reserves of plants.
CeIIuIose is a polysacclaride made of a raiglt clain of glucose molecules, and is used to build
plant cell walls.
GIycogen is a polysacclaride, and is used as tle food reserves of animals, ored in tle ler and
muscles.
Fats To prode energy, insulation, and to conruc parts of cells.
AnimaI fats are obtained nom leock, sucl as canle or pigs. Tley are eaten in tle form of
buner, dripping or lard. Tley contain saturated fa acids, wlicl are unlealtly in large
amounts. Fat contains twice as mucl energy per gram as carbolydrates and proteins do,
and tley are solid at room temperature.
PIant fats, or oils, for example ole oil or corn oil, are liquid at room temperature. Tley contain
polyunsaturated fa acids, wlicl are more lealtly tlan satureated fa acids.
Proteins To build muscle, make enzymes and lormones, and conruc parts of cells. It is nor
mally obtained nom tle muscles of animals. Tle disease caused by protein deciency is called
kwashiorkor. Some plants, sucl as soya beans and maize, contain relately large amounts of
protein compared to otler plants, so it is possible to obtain mo of tle necessary amino acids
nom plantbased foods. Proteins are made nom amino acids. of wlicl tlere are :c dierent
pes. An organisms DNA prodes tle template for linking amino acids in dierent orders to
produce proteins (tlere are a large number of possible combinations). Protein contains Ninogen
and Sulplur.
MineraIs are ions of certain elements (i.e. inorganic), wlicl are needed for particular purposes
witlin tle body. For example.
CaIcium is needed for bone formation. Witlout calcium, bones are sof. Calcium deciency is
called rickets.
s
Iron is required for laemoglobin, in blood. Oxygen is nansported around tle body by binding
to laemoglobin. Iron is plentiful in ler and kidneys. Iron deciency results in anaemia.
Vitamins Various biological compounds required by tle body. Some examples.
Vitamin A is neede by tle eyes. Vitamin A deciency is called xerophthaImia and leads to
blindness.
Vitamin C keeps tle lining of tle moutl and gums lealtly. It is found in green vegetables, but
is deroyed by leating. Lack of it causes scurvy.
Vitamin D is needed to enable calcium to larden bones. Lack of it causes rickets.
Water Makes of 6cc% of tle body. Tle bodys clemical reacions take place in it. Humans
need about s line of water every day.
Fibre Stimulates tle smootl passage of food tlrougl tle gut. Mainly made of cellulose, it aids
faeces formation.
Too mucl energyricl food will cause tle indidual to become overweiglt, wlile too linle will
cause tlem to become underweiglt.
Malnunition is tle result of not lang a properly balanced diet. If tle body does not recee tle
correc clemical components in tle riglt proportions, it cannot funcion eciently.
In lumans, as in otler animals, complex organic food can enter body cells onIy if it is r broken
down into smalll soluble molecules. In lumans, tle ages int lis process are.
Ingestion Food is taken into tle moutl.
Digestion Tle breakdown of complex organic foods into small, soluble molecules.
Absorption Tle uptake of soluble food subances into tle body across cell membranes.
AssimiIation Tle use of soluble food subances by cells in tle body.
Egestion Tle removal of undigeed food nom tle body (not to be confused witl excretion or
secretion).
In lumans, tle alimentary canal (gut) is responsible for tle ingeion, digeion, absorption and
egeion of food.
.r Food Tests
Sugar
s. Masl tle food and add water.
:. Add :cm
3
of tle food to a te tube.
s,
,. Add :cm
3
of Benedics solution to tle te tube.
. Slake tle te tube.
,. Place tle te tube in a waterbatl for appromately : minutes. If a precipitate develops, sugar is
present. Tle colour of tle mture ges a rougl indication of low mucl sugar is present. green
is tle lowe concennation, yellow ligler, brown ill ligler, and red tle ligle concennation.
Starch
s. Add , drops of dilute iodine solution to tle food sample.
:. If tle colout clanges to blueblack, arcl is present.
Fat
s. Pour appromately scm
3
of absolute etlanol into a te tube.
:. Add a small amount of tle food sample to tle etlanol.
,. Slake tle te tube.
. Add appromately :cm
3
of water to tle te tube.
,. If tle mture turns cloudy wlite, fat is present.
Protein (Biuret test)
s. Masl tle food and add water.
:. Add :cm
3
of tle food to a te tube.
,. Add a small amount of dilute sodium lydrode solution until tle mure clears.
. Add a few drops of dilute copper sulplate solution.
,. Slake tle te tube.
6. If tle solution turns purple, protein is present.
.z Drugs
A drug is sometling wlicl clanges tle way tle body works. Useful drugs include painkillers and
antibiotics. Harmful drugs can be addice, and larm tle body in some way.
Addicion can be clemical wlen tle body becomes adjued in sucl a way tlat it needs tle drug,
or psyclological wlen tle addiced person feels a conant need for tle drug.
Witldrawal symptoms nom a drug include fever, and nausea.
:c
AIcohoI
Reduces aci of nervous syem.
Removes inlibitions, causes relaxation.
Impairs judgement
Is poisonous to tle ler. Alcolol poisoning causes a coma and deatl.
Digestion & Absorption
Food mu get into tle blood in order to be carried to tle bodiys cells. Only soluble food can
do tlis. Mo food is insoluble, and is broken down into soluble particles tlrougl tle process of
digeion, wlicl occurs in tle digee syem (see Figure ;).
Digee juices break down tle food, arting in tle moutl witl sala (nom tle salary glands).
Tle food is tlen swallowed, and otler juices nomtle ler and pancreas are added. Bile is producewd
in tle ler, and tlen ored in tle gall bladder, before being added to food in tle omacl.
Muscles keep tle walls of tle omacl and small inteine mong, ming up tle food and digee
juices, and keeping blood mng tlrougl tle digee syem.
Wlen tle food las been completely broken down, it is absorbed into tle blood in tle small inteine,
wlicl las a good blood supply and tlin walls, wlicl allows food to pass easily into tle blood tlrougl
tle process of diusion.
Some food cannot be digeed, and is egeed tlrougl tle anus.
s. Food in clewed and med witl sala in tle mot+n. (s minute)
Starch
salivary

amylase
Sugars
:. Tle osorn~ots carries tle clewedup food to tle omacl, using muscular walls wlicl pusl
food witl a wave of connacion (peristaIsis). (scs, seconds)
,. Acid digee juices, ideal for pepsin (an enzyme tlat breaks down proteins), are added in tle
s+om~cn. Tle food and tle digee juices are med. (s6 lours)
Proteins
pepsin
Amino acids
. More alkaline juices nom tle pancreas (to neunalise tle omacl acid) are added in tle sm~rr
i+rs+ir. Tlere is more ming, tlen tle fully digeed food is absorbed into tle blood. (,6
lours)
Starch
pancreatic

amylase
Sugars
Fats
bile
Fat droplets
Fat droplets
lipase
Fatty acids and Glycerol
:s
Descending colon
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Colon
Common
bile duct
Duodenum
Gallbladder
Liver
Oral cavity
Sublingual
Submandibular
Parotid
Salivary Glands
Pharynx
Tongue
R sophagus
Pancreas
Stomach
Pancreatic duct
Ileum
(small intestine)
Anus
Rectum
Appendix
Cecum
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg (Public Domain)
Figure ;. Tle alimentary canal (digee syem).
,. Only undigeed wae material reacles tle r~nor i+rs+ir. Tle water is taken back into tle
body, leang solid wae. (s:: lours)
6. Undigeed food is ored in tle recum, and tlen tle solid wae is egeed tlrougl tle anus as
faeces.
::
.r Teeth
Enamel
Dentine
Pulp
Gum
Cementum
Bone
Blood vessel
Nerve
C
r
o
w
n

R
o
o
t
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tooth_Section.svg (Public Domain)
Figure . A crosssecion of a luman tootl.
An adult teetl las, at mo, ,: teetl. Tlre are four main pes. icisons, c~irs, rnrmor~ns
and mor~n. Incisors are for cuning pieces o food, wlile canines are for griping it. Premolars and
molars are for grinding tle food down until it can be swallowed easily.
Tle outside of a tootl is formed by lard enamel. Beneatl tlis is a layer of lard dentine. In tle
cenne is a sof area called tle pulp ca, wlicl contains small blood vessels and a nerve (see Figure
). Tiny clannels containing extensions of ling cells tun outnom tle pulp ca into tle dentine.
Tlese make tle dentine sensite. Tle enamel and dentine are made lard by tle presence of calcium
plosplate, tle same subance tlat makes bones lard.
Tle outside of tle root is covered by a material called cement. Anacled to tle cement are tougl
bres wlicl run into tle jaw bone. Tlese bres lold tle tootl in its socket, tley allow tle tootl
to move sligltly, and cuslion it nom being jarred wlen it lits sometling lard.
Tooth Decay
Tootl decay is caused by baceria in tle moutl. Tlese baceria form an insible layer called plaque
on tle surface of tle teetl.
Afer a meal, tle baceria feed on any sugar present and turn it into acid. Tle acid eats into tle
:,
teetl. Witlin appromately one lour tle acid is neunalised by tle sala. However, tle decay las
ofen already arted by tlis time.
Decay usually arts between tle teetl and in tle creces on tle crowns. Tle acid eats tlrougl tle
enamel into tle dentine, allowing baceria to get into tle pulp ca. In severe cases tle baceria
may spread to tle base of tle tootl, causing an abscess.
Baceria may also get between tle tootl and tle gum, causing tle gum to bleed. Sometimes tle
bres anacling tle tootl to tle jaw are anacked, in wlicl case tle tootl gets loose and eventually
falls out.
Tlere is rong edence tlat uoride lelps to prevent tootl decay. It rengtlens teetl wlen tley
are forming, and makes tle enamel more resiant to acid.
Wlere tlere is not enougl uoride naturally occuring in public drinking water supplies, it is added
articially. Tlis las led to a large improvement in tle general dental lealtl of tle population.
.z Duodenum
Food leang tle omacl enters tle rtorrtm. Secretions nom tle ler and pancreas are added
(pancreatic juice contains all tlree pes of digee enzymes). Bile is ored in tle gall bladder,
and emulsies fats. Sodium lydrogen carbonate neunalises tle omacl acid.
.y SmaII Intestine (IIeum)
Digeion is completed in tle sm~rr i+rs+ir (or irrtm), wlicl secretes digeove enzymes, and
absorbs food.
Tle small inteine is covered in millions of tiny protusions called virri (see Figure ,). Tley increase
tle surface area, and so increasing tle rate at wlicl tle small inteine can absorb food. Eacl llus
las a tlin surface layer, so tlere is only a slort diance for absorption. Inside is a network of
capillaries to caryy away tle absorbed sugars and amino acids. Tlere is also a laceal, to carry away
tle absorbed fa acids to tle lymlpatic syem. Conneced to tle capillaries is a blood vessel,
wlicl carries tle absorbed foods to tle lepatic portal vein, and tlen on to tle ler.
. Liver
Many cells perform a wide range of funcions in tle ler, in processing tle absorbed foods.
.
.
glucagon

==
==

insulin
Glycogen ores
Glucose Energy a Respiration
.
.

to otler tissue a tle circulation

:
Thin surface layer
Capillaries
Lacteal
Blood vessel
Figure ,. A single luman llus nom tle small inteine.
.
.

Syntlesis of plasma proteins e.g. brinogen

Amino acids Excess are deaminated Urea for excretion
.
.

to otler tissue a tle circulation

.
.

Fat ores
Fa acids Fats for cell membranes
.
.

Energy a respiration
. Large Intestine
Water and salt are absorbed in tle Coro. Undigeed food is ored in tle nrc+tm, along witl
baceria and some dead cells. Tlis forms faeces and is passed tlrougl splincers out of tle anus.
:,
6 Nutrition in PIants
6.r Photosynthesis
Pno+osv+nrsis is tle process by wlicl green plants make glucose and otler organic molecles nom
inorganice molecules, using liglt energy. Tle liglt energy is napped by clloroplyll. Tle overall
process for plotosyntlesis can be summarised as.
Carbon Dioxode + Water
chlorophyll

light energy
Glucose + Oxygen
Glucose is not tle only organic subance made by plotosyntlesis. Otler carbolydrates are also
formed, wlicl can tlen be converted to fats, or, by combining witl minerals, form amino acids and
tamins. Plotosyntlesis is tle source of all organic subances in tle plant.
.
.Carbon dioxide + Water
chlorophyll

light energy
Glucose and other sugars + Oxygen
.
respired or used to
make.
arcl
sucrose
cellulose
proteins
fats
tamins
clloroplyll
.
excreted
or
respired
Products of Photosynthesis Glucose and otler sugars.
Mucl of tle glucose is converted to s+~ncn for temporary orage in tle leaf. At niglt, tle arcl
may be broken down to tle sugar stcnosr and nansported tlrougl tl plloem to otler parts of
tle plant.
In tle leaf, and tlrouglout tle plant, glucose is broken down in nrsrin~+io to release energy.
In growing regions, glucose is converted to crrrtrosr to make cell walls.
:6
In tle leaf, some glucose is combined witl ninate to form ~mio ~cirs. Tlese are later incorpor
ated in to rno+ris to make enzymes and to make rucural parts of cells, sucl as membranes.
If tlere is a slortage of ninate, tle plant is unable to grown properly, and is weak and unlealtly.
In tle leaf and elsewlere, glucose and otler sugars are used to make r~+s for rucures sucl as
cell membranes and to make vi+~mis wlicl lave essential uses for tle plant.
Some glucose is combined witl minerals, especially magnesium, to form cnronornvrr, tle green
pigment used to nap liglt in plotosyntlesis.
Oxygen.
Used in ~rnoric nrsrin~+io tlrouglout tle plant.
Excreted tlrougl omata as a v~s+r o~s.
6.z The Leaf
Cuticle
Upper
epidermis
Palisade
mesophyll
Spongy
mesophyll
Lower
epidermis
Stoma Guard cells
Xylem
Phloem
Vascular
bundle
Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leaf_anatomy.svg (CC-BY-SA-2.5)
Figure sc. A pical leaf.
Eacl leaf is anacled to tle emor brancl by a rr~r s+~rk, Tlis leads to tle vris in tle leaf. Leaves
are covered by a layer of waxy menial called tle ct+icrr, wlicl is normally tlick and waterproof.
It prevents tle leaf nom losing too mucl water in lot weatler.
Immediately under tle cuticle is a layer of cells called tle rrirrnmis. wlicl forms tle skin of
tle leaf. Tle epidermis may be pierced by lots of tiny loles called s+om~+~ (singular s+om~). Tle
omata are mainly on tle lower side of tle leaf. Tley allow gases to diuse in and out of tle leaf,
and water vapour to escape. Eacl oma is anekd bvy a pair of ot~nr crrrs wlicl can open and
close. Tley close in lot, dry weatler to prevent too mucl water evaporating nom tle leaves.
:;
Leaves are generally at, sometimes large, and ofen numerous. Tle result is tlat tley lave a large
surface area for aborbing Carbon diode and ligt. Tle veins lelp to support tle leaf, and lold it
out at, so tlat it can catcl tle mamum amount of liglt. In many plants tle leaves are positioned
in sucl a way tlat tley dont slade eacl otler.
Between tle upper and lower epidermis are ltos of cells wlicl togetler makes up tle mrsornvrr.
Tlese cells contain cnronorr~s+s, and tlis is wlere plotosyntlesis takes place. Tle mesoplyll
towads tle upper side of tle leaf consis of cells slaped like bricks, and arranged neatly side by
side. Tley are called r~ris~rr crrrs. Tle otler mesoplyll cells are rounded and more irregular in
tleir arrangement. Tley are called sroov crrrs.
Between tle mesoplyll cells are ~in sr~crs into wlicl le omata open. Wlen plotosyntlesis is
taking place, carbon diode diuses tlrougl tle open omata into tle air spaces. It tlen diuses
into tle cells.
Plototsyntlessis takes place mainly in tle palisade cells. Tley contain mo of tle clloroplas,
and tley are near tle surface of le leaf tlat gets mo liglt. tle clloroplas are ofen cluered
towards tle tops of tle cells, in tle be position for catcling liglt.
Tle vein is made up of two parts. tle xvrrm towards tle top, and tle rnrorm below. Tle xylem
brings water and mineral salts to tle elaf. Tle plloem takes soluble sugar and otler producs of
plotosyntlesis away nom tle leaf. Togetler tlexylem and plloem are calld v~sctr~n +isstrs.
ChIoropIasts
Clloroplas are lled witl rows of tlin interconneced mrmrn~rs. Millions of cnronornvrr
molecules are laid out on tlese membranes.
Clloroplyll is a complex organic green riomr+ wlicl contains m~orsitm, and it plays a tal role
in plotosyntlesis, by absorbing blue and red liglt, but reecing green liglt.
Stomata
Stomata allow carbon diode and oxygen to diuse in and out of leaves. Tley are also tle main
route by wlicl water vapour excapes nom tle plant. In lot, dry weatler tlere is a risk tlat tle
plant may run slort of water. For tlis reason it is important tlat tle omata slould be able to
open or close according to tle weatler conditions.
Wlen tl eoma opens, tle guard cells take up water nom tle neiglbouring epidermal cells, as a
result tle guard cells swell up and become more turgid. As tley swell up tley bend, so tle gap
between tlem widens (see Figure s:). Tley swell up because tle inner wall of tle guard cells is
tlicker, and less elaic, tlan tle outer wall.
Tle oma closes by tle reverse rocess. Water passes out of tle guard cells, so tley become less
turgid. As a result tle guard cells raiglten, and tle gap between tlem narrows.
Around tle oma are sausageslaped ot~nr crrrs.
:
outer membrane
intermembrane space
inner membrane
stroma
(aqueous fluid)
thylakoid lumen
(inside of thylakoid)
thylakoid membrane
granum
(stack of thylakoids)
thylakoid
(lamella)
starch
ribosome
plastidial DNA
plastoglobule
(drop of lipids)
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chloroplast.svg (CC-BY-SA-(any version) or GNU FDL)
Figure ss. A clloropla. On eacl membrane are many molecules of clloroplyll.
y Transport in AnimaIs
All organisms wlicl are large require a nansport syem, to move subances around tle body.
Singlecelled organisms witl low levels of aci do not require nansport syems.
Humans lave two main nansport syems.
Circulatory syem
Lymplatic syem
y.r The CircuIatory System
SingIe CircuIatory Systems e.g. sl.
.
.Heart
.Gills .Tissues
Blood passes once tlrougl tle leart on its way around tle body.
DoubIe CircuIatory Systems e.g. lumans.
:,
guard cell
vacuole
chloroplast
epidermal cell
stoma almost closed
stoma wide open
The guard cells have taken
in water by osmosis, as
indicated by the arrows.
Figure s:. A single oma.
.
.Heart .Tissues
.Lungs
.s
.deoxygenated blood
.:
.oxygenated blood
.,
.oxygenated blood
.
.deoxygenated blood
Arteries
Aorta takes oxygenated blood nom tle leart to tle body
,c
PuImonary artery takes deoxygenated blood nom tle leart to tle lungs. Tle only artery wlicl
carries deoxygenated blood.
Veins
Superior Vena Cava brings deoxygenated blood nom tle lead and arms back to tle leart
Inferior Vena Cava brings deoxygenated blood nom tle body back to tle leart
PuImonary Vein brings oxygenated blood nom tle lungs back to tle leart. Tle only vein wlicl
carries oxygenated blood.
Diastole
(lling)
Systole
(pumping)
Right and left
ventricles
Antrioventricular
valve
Pulmonary veins
Right and left
Atrium
Pulmonary artery
Aorta
Semilunar
valve
Anterior
vena cava
Posterior
vena cava
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_healthy_pumping_heart_en.svg (Public Domain)
Figure s,. Diagram of a luman leart.
Wlen tle leart is relaxed (ri~s+orr), botl sides ll up witl blood nom tle veins.
Tle ania tlen connac (~+ni~r svs+orr). So blood is forced into tle vennicles tlrougl tle
valves.
A nacion of a second later, tle vennicles connac (vr+nictr~n svs+orr). Tle valves between
tle ania and vennicles close, so blood is squeezed in to tle arteries.
,s
Tle leart relaxes again and lls up witl blood.
Cardiac arrest/MyocardiaI infarction Heart anack
AtheroschIerosis/atheroma/angina Lack of oxygen to elart due to fat buildup in coronary arter
ies, leading to cle pain.
SinoatriaI node Group of cells talt regulate leart beat (pacemaker).
Hypertensive Higl blood pressure
Stroke Atleroscllerosis depres an arteryin tle brain of oxygen.
Lumen
Collagen bres
Thin layer of muscle
and elastic bre
S mooth endothelium
Artery Vein
Capillary
Nucleus of
endothelial cell
S ingle layer of
endothelial cells
Figure s. Human blood vessels. Tle lumen in tle artery is mucl smaller tlan tle lumen in tle
vein, as tle blood is at a mucl ligler pressure.
Composition of the BIood
Plasma is ,c% water. Plasma nansports carbon diode nom tle organs to tle lungs, soluble
producs nom tle small inteine to tle organs, and urea nom tle ler to tle kidneys. Tle
following cells are suspended in it.
,:
Red BIood CeIIs Erythrocytes Red blood celsl are discslaped and biconcave. Tlese cells lave
no nucleus, so tley can carry more oxygen. Red blood cells contain a clemical called n~rmoorori.
Tlis combines witl oxygen to form oxylaemoglobin.
A red blood cells lifespan is about four montls. Afer tlis time it goes to tle spleen, wlicl removes
worn out red blood cells nom circulation.
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Erythrozyten_und_Osmotischer_Druck.svg (Public Domain)
Figure s,. Red blood cells.
White BIood CeIIs Phagocytes & Lymphocytes Tlere are several dierent pes of wlite blood
cells. Tley are all larger tlan red blood cells, and lave a nucleus. Lymplocytes lave a nucleus wlicl
occupies mo of tle cell.
Wlite blood cells protec tle body nom baceria.
Plagocytes can squeeze tlrougl capillary walls, move towards baceria, and inge tlem.
Lymplocytes produce clemicals wlicl deroy baceria, by makign tlem ick togetler.
PIateIets Tlese are nagments of blood cells budded o in tle red blood marrow. Tlese cells lave
a icky surface, and lelp to clot tle blood at wounds, to op bleeding.
BIood CIotting
s. Blood vessel wall is damaged or broken.
:. Tle protein witlin tle blood vessel wall is exposed. Tlis causes platelets to release an enzyme
(tlrombin).
,. Blood plasma carries a soluble protein called rirnioor.
. Enzymes secreted by platelets cause soluble brinogen to turn into insoluble rirni.
,,
,. Fibrin forms long tlreads wlicl precipitate out of tle blood.
6. Tle brin tlreads tangle togetler and nap red and wlite blood vessels in tle clot.
;. Tle clot dries and lardens, forming a scab.
Tissue FIuid Formation
s. Arteriole brings blood into tle capillary bed
:. Tle arteriole dides into a network of small capillaries
,. Fluid leaks out of tle capillaries, especially at tle beginning of tle capillary bed, and batles tle
body cells.
. Tle uid is called +isstr rrtir. It carries glucose and oxygen nom tle blood to tle cells.
,. Tissue uid containing CO
:
and urea leaks back into tle cappillaries at tle venous end of tle
capillary bed.
6. Venule carries blood back to a vein.
y.z The Lymphatic System
Lympl nodes contain wlite blood cells, and ac as naps for baceria and foreign particles. Tissue
uid containing foreign and wae materials drain into tle lymplatic syem, pass tlrougl a lympl
node, and reenter tle blood circulation.
The Immune System
All cells lave protein molecules on tleir surface membranes called ~+iors (See Figure s6).
Figure s6. Antigens on a cell.
Lymplocytes (see Figure s;) produce ~+irorirs. Tlese
are clemicals wlicl reac to foreign antigens and deroy
tle foreign cells. Lymplocytes recognise antigens on tle
surface of body cells and do not produce antibodies again
tlem.
Figure s;. A lymplocyte.
If foreign cells, e.g. baceria, enter tle body, lymplocytes recog
nise tlese as foreign due to tleir dierent antigens. Tle lympl
ocytes will tlen release antibodies to deroy tle baceria.
Tlere are tlousands of lymplocytes wlicl eacl produce a dif
ferent antibody. Tlus, tlousands of dierent patlogens can be
deroyed. Lymplocytes also produce memory cells, wlicl re
main in tle lympl nodes. Tlese memory cells can produce antobodie very quickly if tle same
foreign antigen enters tle body again. Tlese antibodies deroy tle baceria before tley cause a
large infecion tle body is immune to tlat species of bacerium.
,
TranspIants
If a patient needs to lave an organ nansplanted into tleir body, dcors mu ensure tlat tle antigens
on tle donor organ are very similar to tle patients antigens. Otlerwise, tlere is a clance tlat tle
patients lympl nodes will produce antibodies again tle organ, rejecing it.
Brotlers and siers lave similar DNA and are ofen used as donors. Patients are kept in erile
conditions afer tle operation, and are on drugs to suppress tleir immune syem for tle re of
tleir life immunosuppresse drugs).
k Transport in PIants
Plants need nansport syems to.
Move water nom tle soil to tle leaves for use in plotosyntlesis.
Move plotosyntletic producs nom tle leaves to otler parts of tle plant e.g. nuit amd growing
parts of tle plant.
XyIem vesseIs nansport water nomtle roots to tle leaves. Xylemvessels are long, continuous tubes
it is dead tissue containing rioi. Lignin makes tle xylem vessels rong, and is deposited
unevenly, wlicl leads to pits in tle walls tlrougl wlicl water can enter and leave tle tubes.
PhIoem tubes (sieve tubes) are ling tissue. At tle end of eacl cell making up tle tube, tle cell
wall is perforated to allow easy movement of sucrose. Tle movement of sucrose nom tle leaves
to wlere it is needed is called nanslocation. Plloem cells contain few organelles. Tle majori
of acities are performed by a companion cell wlicl prodes energy to tle plloem cell.
Root hair ceIIs are found on young roots. Tley increase tle surface area of tle root for absorption
of water an mineral ions. Tley la for appromately one day.
k.r Osmosis
Water moves by osmosis across tle root.
Osmosis is tle net diusion of water molecules nom a region of ligl water potential to a region of
low water potential tlrougl a partially permeable membrane (down a water potential gradient).
Water potential of a subance is a measure of low mucl water tlere is int it, and low easily tle water
molecules can move around. Subances witl a lot of water lave a ligl water potential. Subances
witl a linle water lave a low water potential. Water moves nom areas of ligl water potential to
areas of low water potential.
,,
k.z Transpiration
Water does not move by osmosis in tle xylem. Tle xylem is dead tissue, and tlere are no cell
membranes. Water moves up tle xylem because of nanspiration.
Transpiration is tle loss of water vapour nom a leaf tlrougl tle omata.
,% of water tlat is absorbed is lo in nanspiration.
Tle remaining :% is used in plotosyntlesis.
As water leaves tle xylem vessels it reduces tle water pressure at tle top of tle xylemm, so water
moves upwards towards a lower pressure. Transpiration produces a tension (pull).
Water molecules are icky, tley ick to eacl otler (conrsio), and tlis lelps water to be pulled
up tle xylem. Transpiration is aided by tlis colesion.
Factors Aecting Transpiration
Wind speed Wind removes water vapour nom around tle oma, so it increases tle water potential
gradient (tle water potential of tle atmosplere around tle toma becomes more negate) (see
Figure :c).
higher wind speed, higher transpiration
Humidity Tle ligler tle lumidi, tle lower tle water potential gradient, so less water evaporates
nom tle leaves.
higher humidity, Iower transpiration
Light intensity During sunliglt, omata open to allow CO
:
in for use in plotosyntlesis.
higher Iight intensity, higher transpiration
Temperature One a lot day, water evaporates more quickly nom tle leaf
higher temperature, higher transpiration
If tle plant loses too mucl water, it loses turgor pressure in tle cells and may wilt tle omata
will close at tlis point.
Water suppIy If tlere is not enougl water, tle plant will clsoe its omata to conserve water.
Iower water suppIy, Iower transiration
Leaf surface area A greater leaf surface area means more omata for water to siuse out of.
higher surface area, higher transpiration
Stomata Water is mainly lotlrougl omata tle more omata tlere are, tle more nanspiration
tlere is. Mo omata are located on tle underside of tle leaf.
more stomata, higher transpiration
Air spaces More air spaces in tle spongy mesoplyll of a leaf mean tlere is mroe space for water to
collec.
mroe air spaces, higher transpiration
,6
k.y Xerophytes
Xeroplytes are plants talt are specially adapted to le in exneme conditions. Some examples of
adaptations.
Thick cuticIe ops unconnolled evaporation tlrougl leaf cells.
SmaII Ieaf surface area less surface area for evaporation, e.g. conifer needles, cacus spines
Low stomata density smaller surface area for diusion
Sunken stomata maintains lumid air around omata, e.g. marram grass, caci
StomataI hairs (trichores) maintains lumid air around omata, e.g. marram grass, coucl grass
RoIIed Ieaves maintains lumid air around omata, e.g. marram grass
Extensive roots mamise water uptake, e.g. caci
k. Movement of Photosynthetic Products
Plotosyntlesis occurs in tle leaves. It produces glucose leaves are a sotncr. Glucose is converted
into sucrose for nansport around tle plant. Sucrose is a disacclaride. it is less reace tlan glucose,
and does not get used up as easily as glucose.
Sucrose enters tle plloem tubes, and is taken to wlerever it is needed, e.g. growign sloots, devel
oping nuits, roots (anywlere wlere respiration is lappening).
Tle places wlere sucrose is taken to are called siks. movement of organic subances is called
+n~sroc~+io (also applies to amino acids, lipids etc.).
Once at tle sink sucrose may be converted to arcl for orage (e.g. potatoes), or it may be converted
to otler sugars (e.g. nucose in nuits). In tlis way very ligl concenterations of sugars can be built
up witlout aecing tle water potential of cells. Sucrose can also be converted back to glucose for
respiration.
k. Systemic Pesticides
Syemic peicides are absorbed into tle plant and nansported tlrouglout tle plant in tle plloem.
Tle targeted organism (e.g. an insec) feeds on tle plant and eats tle peicide and dies.
Syemic peicides are mucl more eece tlan contacpeicides, but long termeecs on lumans
are unknown, and consumers may not want to eat producs neated witl tlem.
Respiration & Gaseous Exchange
Every cell in every ling organism needs energy. Energy is obtained nom food by tle process of
respiration. Tlere are two pes of respiration.
,;
.r Aerobic Respiration
Tle breakdown of glucose using oxygen to release energy used by cells (, mol Adenosine Tri
plosplate (ATP)).
Energy (in tle form of ATP) is used in muscle connacion, ace nansport, ~~roric reacions
(building up subances), c~+~roric reacions (deroying subances). Anabolic and catabolic re
acions are togetler known as mr+~roric reacions. Some energy is released as leat.
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + energy
C
6
H
12
O
6
+6 O
2
6 CO
2
+ 6 H
2
O + 38 mol ATP
CO
:
and H
:
O are byproducs of respiration.
.z Anaerobic Respiration
Tle breakdown of glucose witlout oxygen to release energy used by cells. Less energy is produced
(: mol ATP).
Yeast
Yea is a singlecelled fungus wlicl can respire anaerobically.
Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxode + energy
C
6
H
12
O
6
2 C
2
H
5
OH + 2 CO
2
+ 2 mol ATP
.y CaIorimeters
Dierent foods contain dierent amoutns of energy. Fats contain about twice as mucl energy as
carbolydrates and proteins. Tle amount of energy in food can be measured using a calorimeter.
. The Lungs
Tle alveoli are adapted for ecient gas exclange.
Large surface area Increased by tle alveoli. ,,c,ccc,ccc alveoli ;cm
2
.
Thin epitheIium A Two cell layer separates tle air in tle alveoli nom tle blood in tle capillaries
only a slort diance forgases to diuse.
Moist Gases dissolve in solution before diusion more ecent eusion. Prevents delydration of
cells.
,
BIood suppIy Agood blood supply to and nomtle lungs by a capillary network keeps concennation
gradients dierent by remong oxygenated blood nom tle lungs and bringing deoxygenated
blood to tle lungs.
Increase in Breathing Rate
ncreased respiration causes an increase in tle producion of CO
:
. CO
:
dissolves in water to form
carbonic acid.
CO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
CO
3
H
+
+ HCO

3
H
+
ions lower tle pH of tle blood, and are taken up by oxylaemoglobin, wlicl tlen releases
oxygen.
Increased CO
:
is deteced by clemoreceptors located in tle carotid arteries, aorta, and medulla in
tle brain.
Clemoreceptors send impulses to tle medulla. Tle medulla tlen sends impulses to tle intercoal
muscles and tle diaplragm, causing tlem to connac more nequently (increased ventilation).
Cigarette Smoke
Tlere are tlree major clemicals in cigarene smoke.
Nicotine An addice drug
Higler leart rate
Higler blood rate
Tar Paralyses tle cilia on ciliated cells
Makes goblet cells overproduce mucus
Too mucl mucus
Smokers cougl to remove tle mucus
Tlis can damage tle alveoli walls, wlicl can lead to emplysema (surface area of alveoli
reduced, so less oxygen can be absorbed)
Is a carcinogen (benzene)
Carbon monoxide binds irreversably witl laemoglobin, tlerefore tle oxygen carrying capaci of
tle blood is greatly reduced. Smokers lave 10% of tleir laemoglobin bound to CO tlis
forms Carbaminolaemoglobin.
Otler smokingrelated diseases.
Chronic bronchitis Smoke irritates tle broncli and bronclioles, damages tle mucus membranes,
and narrows tle tubes. It reduces tle cilia acion, so mucus cannot be removed, wlicl leads to
bacerial infecions. It is more dicult for O
:
to diuse into tle blood.
,,
ro Excretion & Homeostasis
ro.r Excretion
Excretion is tle removal nom tle body of wae producs of metabolism (wlicl may be toc) and
subances wlicl are in excess of requirements, e.g. CO
:
and urea. CO
:
is removed a tle lungs.
Urea is removed a tle kidneys.
RhenaI artery Brings oxygenated blood full of urea to tle kidneys.
RhenaI vein Takes deoxygenated blood wlicl is nee nom urea back towards tle leart a tle Vena
Cava.
Kidney Removes unwanted (and excess) subances nom tle blood, turns tlem into urine, and
passes tle urine on to tle bladder. It does tlis by ltering tle blood. sccccm
3
of blood is
ltered by tle kidneys every minute.
Ureter Tubes wlicl connec tle kidneys to tle bladder.
BIadder A muscular bag wlicl can ore urine. Can ore up to about cccm
3
before tle need to
urinate (micuration) becomes compelling.
Sphincter Muscle wlicl, wlen it connacs, urine is prevented nom leang tle body, and wlen it
relaxes, urine can leave tle body.
Urethra Tube wlicl carries urien nom body.
ro.z Homeostasis
Homeoasis is tle maintenance of a conant internal enronment. Examples.
Body temperature
Blood pH
Blood pressure
Blood glucose concennation
Blood water concennation
Tle meclanism by wlicl lomeoasis is maintained is by using negate feedback syems, wlicl
maintain abili in tle body.
c
.
.NORM
.
Body detecs clange and a correce
meclanism is put in place.
.NORM
.
Body detecs clange and a correce
meclanism is put in place.
.Rise above
Norm
.
Decrease
below
Norm
.Return to
Norm
.Return to
Norm
.
.s+imtrts (i.e. a clange)
.deteced by a nrcrr+on
.coordinated by a coonri~+on
.a clange occurs in an rrrrc+on
.wlicl causes a nrsrosr
Sweating water evaporates, takes leat nom tle surface of tle skin
VasodiIation causes more blood to navel to capillaries near skin surface
leat is radiated away nom tle body
skin appears usled, because tlere is more blood owing tlrougl tle surface capillaries
Raised hairs naps air (wlicl insulates) next to skin surface
Vasoconstriction reduces blood ow to surface capillaries
skin is pale, because tlere is lardly any blood owing tlrougl surface capillaries
s
ro.y The Pancreas
Tle pancreas is botl an rxocnir gland and an rrocnir gland.
Exocrine gIand a gland tlat secretes externally tlrougl a duc tle pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice, produced in Acinar cells, into tle pancreatic duc.
Endocrine gIand a gland tlat secretes lormones direcly into tle bloodream tle pancreas
secretes tle lormones insulin and glucagon, nom tle Islets of Langerlans, into tle bloodream.
rr Reproduction
rr.r AsexuaI Reproduction
One parent
Ospring is genetically indentical
Does not involve gametes
New diploid cells are produced direcly by mitosis (by otler diploid cells)
Bacteria
Baceria reproduce by binary ssion.
.
Funghi
:
antibodies
DNA
bacterium
body cell
nucleus
lymphocyte
antibodies can
bind to the
bacterial
antigens, and
destroy the
bacterium
antibodies do
not bind to body
cell antigens,
and body cell is
not destroyed
Figure s. A lymplocyte indenti[ing a bacerium.
.
.
.nucleus
.cell membrane
.cytoplasm
.cell wall
Figure s,. A root lair cell
.
.oma
.leaf underside
.
boundary layer
(water vapour)
Figure :c. Water vapour buildup around a oma.
,
crucible
substrate
thermometer
water
oxygen
Figure :s. A simple calorimeter used to measure tle energy value of a respiratory subrate.
Trachea
Cardiac notch
Bronchioles
Tertiary bronchi
Secondary bronchi
Primary bronchi
Larynx
Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diagrama_de_los_pulmones.svg (GNU FDL)
Figure ::. Tle lungs.

Connective tissue
Alveolar sacs
Alveolar duct
Mucous gland
Mucosal lining
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary artery
Atrium
Alveoli
Capillary beds
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alveolus_diagram.svg (Public Domain)
Figure :,. Some alveoli.
Inhalation
Exhalation
Source. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Expiration_diagram.svg (Public Domain)
Figure :. Tle acion of breatling.
,
ci l i ated cel l
col umnar
epi thel i al
cel l s
gobl et
cel l
basement
membrane
ci l i a beati ng
mucus rel eased from
gobl et cel l
Figure :,. Part of tle lining of tle respiratory passages.
6
bl adder
ur eter
ki dney
r henal
ar ter y
r henal
vei n
sphi ncter
ur ethr a
adrenal glands
(secrete adrenalin)
Figure :6. Tle excretory syem.
;
1. Protein is taken
to alimentary canal.
2. Protein is digested
to amino acids.
3. Amino acids are
absorbed into blood,
and taken to liver in
hepatic portal vein.
4. Amino acids that are
needed are released int o
circulation.
5 . Amino acids which
are not needed are
deaminated to ammonia
or a carbohydrate.
6. Ammonia is
converted to urea.
7. Urea is carried to
kidney, where it is
filtered from the blood.
Figure :;. Urea producion.
C C
OH
O
R
H
N
H
H
Figure :. Tle Snucure of an amino acid. R can and for anytling. Tle NH
,
part of tle
molecule (ammonia) is toc, and is converted into urea. Deamination is tle removal of tle ninogen
containing part of tle amino acid.

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