Handbook of Me Chan 00 Nord

HANDBOOK
of
MECHANICAL DESIGN
'7S~
/
HANDBOOK
of
MECHANICAL DESIGN
BY
GEORGE
F.
NORDENHOLT
of Product Engineering
Editor of Product Engineering
JOSEPH KERR
Managing Editor
AND
JOHN SASSO
Associate Editor of Product Engineering
First Edition
Third Impression
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, NEW YORK AND LONDON

1942
Inc.
HANDBOOK OP MECHANICAL DESIGN

CksPYRIGHT, 1942, BY THE
McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. This book, or
parts thereof,
may not
be reproduced
in any form without permission of

the publishers.
THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK,
PA.
PREFACE
Many engineering departments, perhaps most, compile and keep up to date a manual which may be called the standards book, reference book, engineering department standards, or which may be given some other name. Also, many design In such books will be found a vast fund engineers build their own book or manual. of engineering data and many methods of design procedure not found in existing
handbooks.
Product Engineering was launched as a pubhcation to serve the design was obvious to the editors that a great service could be rendered to the profession by gathering and publishing data, information, and design procedures such Thus, the first number of as are contained in engineering department manuals. Product Engineering in January, 1930, contained a reference-book sheet for design Soon calculations, a feature which has been continued in practically every number. afterward, there was added to Product Engineering's editorial content another regular
engineers,
it
When
feature, a two-page spread illustrating standard constructions, possible variations
by
which to achieve a desired result, and similar design standards covering constructions, drives, and controls. It was soon found impossible to meet all the requests for additional copies of reference-book sheets and design standards. The demand continued to increase and numerous readers suggested that the material be compiled into book form and pubIt was in answer to this demand that the authors compiled this book. lished. Other than the major portion of the chapter on materials and a few other pages that have been added to round out the treatment of certain subjects, all the material in this book appeared in past numbers of Product Engineering, although some of it has been condensed or re-edited. Very little of the material in this book can be found in the conventional handbooks, for this Handbook of Mechanical Design contains practically no explanations of theoretical design. It confines itself to practical design methods and procedures that have been in use in engineering design departments. The authors wiU welcome suggestions from users of this book and especially desire to be notified of any errors. We wish to make special acknowledgment of the material on typical designs appearing in Chapters IV and VI, by Fred Firnhaber, now of Landis Tool Company; the nomograms by Carl P. Nachod, vice-president of the Nachod & U. S. Signal Co.;
the standard procedure in the design of springs
Diesel Engine
belt drives
by W. M.
Griffith of Atlas Imperial
Company; the spring charts by F. Franz; the methods for calculating and other nomograms by Emory N. Kemler, now associate professor of mechanical engineering at Purdue University; the nomograms for engineering calculations by M. G. Van Voorhis, now on the editorial staff of Product Engineering; and to S. A. Kilpatrick and 0. J. Schaefer for their brilliant series of articles, which have
vi
PREFACE
slightlj^ condensed form, on the design of formed thin-sheet aluminumAcknowledgment is also made here of data on properties of materials contributed by the Alimiinum Company of America, United States Steel Corporation, and the American Foundrymen's Association. Other engineers whose contributions to Product Engineering have been incorporated in this book are H. M. Brayton, 0. E. Brown, E. Cowan, C. Donaldson, R. G. N. Evans, C. H. Leis, A. D. McKenzie, G. A. Schwartz, A. M. Wasbauer, B. B. Ramey,
been included in
alloy sections.
Harper, H. M. Richardson, G. A. Ruehmling, T. H. Nelson, E. Touceda, Rigby, R. S. Elberty, Jr., and G. Smiley.
J.
W.
W.
S.
George
F.
Nordenholt,
Joseph Kerr,
John Sasso.
New
York,
April, 1942.
CONTENTS
Pa.qe
Preface
CHAPTER
Charts and Tables for General Arithmetical Calculations

Arc length versus Central Angle. Chordal Height and Length of Chord. Length of Material for Bends. Volumes in Tanks, Horizontal Round. Volumes in Tanks, Vertical Round. Volume, Circular Segments. Weight, and Cost. Weights of Cylindrical Pieces. Chart of Unit and Total Weights. Chart of Weights and Volumes. Moment of Inertia of Prisms; Flywheels; Gears and Armatures. Radii of Gyration. Transferring Moments of Inertia to Parallel Axis. WR^ of Symmetrical bodies. Centrifugal Force. Mean Cooling Temperature. Solution of Forces in Toggle Joint. Linear Motion. Rotary Motion. Ohm's Equations. Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits.
CHAPTER
Materials
II
33
Cast Irons. Alloy Cast Irons. Effect of Nickel and Chromium on Cast Iron. Malleable Iron Castings. Cast Carbon Steels. High Alloy Cast Steels. Low Alloy Cast Steels. CorroIron-nickel-chromium Alloys. AlumiProperties of Stainless Steel. sion and Heat-resistant Cast Steels. num Base Alloys. Magnesium Base Alloys. Insulating Materials. Plastic Materials. Phenolic
Selection of Materials.
Laminated Molded Materials.
Steels for
Automotive Parts.
CHAPTER
Beams and Structures
III
71
Sections. Compression Members. Angles in Compression. Shear Resisting Webs. Diagonal Tension Webs. Hollow Box Sections Subjected to Torsion. Chart for Determining Bending Moments. Deflection of Girders. Variously Loaded Beams. Stresses in Cantilever Beams. Tensile Strength of Round Wires. Rectangular Stress Calculations for
Thin Aluminum Sheet

Stiffeners
Shear Members.
Vertical
for
Moments
of Inertia.
CHAPTER
Latches, Locks and Fastenings
IV
95
Locking Devices. Retaining and Locking Detents. Wire Locks and Snap Rings. Taper- Pin Applications. Hinges and Pivots. Clamping Shoes and Plugs. Lock Bolts and Indexing Mechanisms. Machine Clamps. Door and Cover Fastenings. Bolt Diameter, Load, and Stress.
CHAPTER V
Springs
Designs of Helical Springs.
Stresses
121
Spring Wire Specifications. Design Stresses. Torsional Moduli. Allowable Based on Endurance Limits. Natural Frequency. Formulas for Helical Springs. Permissible Manufacturing Tolerances. Form for Design Calculations. Standard Drawings for Springs. Table of Wire Gages and Diameters, with Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers. Inspection and Testing of
Springs.
Loads and Lengths.
Graphical Solution of Helical Spring Formulas. Helical Spring Charts for Specified Ratio of Designs of Tension Spring Ends. Graphical Designs of Flat Cantilever Springs. Graphical Designs of Semielliptic Laminated Springs.
59376
viil
CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER
VI
151
Power Transmission Elements and Mechanisms

Flexible Couplings.
Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending.
Shaft Diameters for Lateral Deflection. Shaft Diameters A.S.M.E. Code. Two-bearing Shafts of Uniform Strength. Stress in Rotating Disk. Velocity Chart for Gears and Pulleys. Flat-belt Length and
Flat-belt Speed-Horsepower Charts. Belt Horsepower Charts. Flat-belt Horsepower and V-belt Horsepower Charts. V-belt Lengths. Short-center Belt Drives. Chart for Calculating Needle Bearings. Thrust Bearing Friction Moments. Bronze Bearing Alloys. Shaft Seals. Gibs and Guides. Roller-Bearing Seals. Sleeve-bearing Seals. Safety Gears. Shifting Mechanisms. Cam Designs. Variable-speed Devices. Transport Mechanisms. Automatic Feed Hoppers. Glueapplying Mechanisms.
Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection.
Pulley Diameter.
Charts.
Flat
CHAPTER
VII
Drwes and Controls

WR^. Analysis of Motor Load. Selection of Motor Type. Inquiry 'Form for Electric Motors. Winding Connection Diagrams for Multispeed Motors. Electric Control Methods. Electrically Operated Values. Automatic Timers. Trigger Switch Mountings. Thermostatic Mechanisms. Automatic Stops.
Significance of
207
CHAPTER
Design Data on Production Methods
Fusion
Welding.
Resistance
VIII
251
Flame Hardening. Centrifugal Casting. Flame Cutting. Powdered Metal Pressings.
Permanent Mold Casting.
Welding. Die Casting.
Furnace Brazing.
Forging.
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHAPTER
I
CHARTS AND TABLES

For General Arithmetical Calculations
The
charts and
nomograms
in this chapter include only those pertaining to
general arithmetical calculations, as hsted below.

for use in the design of specific
Nomograms,
charts,
machine elements or structures
will
and tables be found in the
chapters devoted to the design of those elements or structures.

Len^jth
Page
Moment
2 3
of Inertia, Radius of Gyration,
and
WRPage
Arc Length vs. Central Angle Chordal Height and Length of Chord Length of Material for Bends
Prisms
Flywheels, Gears, and Armatures
16
17
17
18
Radii of Gyration Transferring to Parallel Axis
Area
Circular Segments
WR8
of
Symmetrical Bodies
Force
19
Centrifugal
26 27
Forces in Toggle Joint
Volume
Tanks, Horizontal Round Tanks, Vertical Round Volume, Weight, and Cost
Force, Velocity,
and Acceleration
28
9
10
11
Linear Motion
Rotary Motion
Heat and Temperature
29
Weight
Mean
12 14
Cooling Temperature
Electrical
30
CyUndrical Pieces Unit and Total Weight
Solution of
Ohm's Equations.
31
Weight and Volume
15
Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits
32

ARC LENGTH VERSUS CENTRAL ANGLE
(Angle of Bend, Length, and Radius)
Draw
a straight hne through the two

6-in. radius
known
points.
The answer
will
be found
at the intersection of this line with the third scale.
Example: For a
and 45-deg. bend, length
of arc is 4.7 in.
CHARTS AND TABLES

CHORDAL HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF CHORD
^vill be found a straight line through the two known points. The answer at the intersection of this line with the third scale. height h of Example: Length of chord is 3 in., and radius of circle is 4 in. The
Draw
the chord
is
0.29
in.

LENGTH OF MATERIAL FOR
90 -DEG.
BENDS
As shown in Fig. 1, when a sheet or flat bar is bent, the position of the neutral plane with respect to the outer and For a sharp corner, inner surfaces will depend on the ratio of the radius of bend to the thickness of the bar or sheet. As the radius of the bend is the neutral plane will lie one-third the distance from the inner to the outer surface. This increased, the neutral plane shifts until it reaches a position midway between the inner and outer surfaces. factor should be taken into consideration when calculating the developed length of material required for formed pieces. The table on the following pages gives the developed length of the material in the 90-deg. bend. The following formulas were used to calculate the quantities given in the table, the radius of the bend being measured as the distance
from the center of curvature to the inner surface of the bend. For a sharp corner and for any radius of bend up to T, the thickness 1 a 90-deg. bend will be
.
of the sheet, the developed length
for
L =
2.
1.5708
(-D
L
for a 90-deg.
For any radius of bend greater than 2T, the length
bend
will
be
L =
3.
1..5708
(r + ^^
R=
Inside radius
For any radius of bend between IT and 2T, the
T= Stock thickness
-M h-
value of L as given in the table was found by interpolation The developed length L of the material in any bend other than 90 deg. can be obtained from the following
formulas:
1.
Neutral
line
1t-5*>2
irl
For a sharp corner or a radius up to T: T
L =
2.
0.0175 (li
of
+ t) X
2T
degrees of bend
E
R=Torless
Sharp corner
R=iTto2T
Fig.
1.
R= 2T or more
For a radius
or more:
L =
0.0175
5(S+|)
degrees of bend
in Fig.
2, if fii
-|-
For double bends as shown
Ss
is
greater than B:
X = V2BiR, +Ri- B/2) With Ri, Ri, and B known: flo - B fl, ""^ ^ = rT+rT L = 0.0175(S, + R2)A where A is in degrees and L is the developed
-t-
length.
If
Ri
Ri
is less
than B, as in Fig.
{Ri
3,
Y =B
cosec
of
+
is
fl2)(cosec
A
cot
cotan A)
The value
X when B
greater than Ri
Ri
will
be
7S2)
X =B
The
total developed length
-h {Ri
(cosec
A -
cotan A)
required for the material in the straight section plus that in the two arcs will be
L = Y
To
various
0.0175(^1 4- R2)A
'
simplify the calculations, the table on this page gives the equations for X, Y, and the developed length for common angles of bend. The table on following pages gives L for values of R and T for 90-deg. bends.
EQUATIONS FOR
Angle A,
deg.
X, Y,
AND DEVELOPED LENGTHS
CHARTS AND TABLES

DEVELOPED LENGTH IN INCHES OF MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR
90-DEG.
BEND

90-DEG.
BEND
{Continued)
CHARTS AND TABLES

90-DEG.
BEND
(Continued)

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS
-50
-7000
-40
5,000
F-2
-
3,000
-30
-
2,000
1^
1
1,000
-20
500
0.9
rO.8
A=
0.01745 Rârc cos

is
-~
300
- (R-H)Vh('2R-H)
-200
-0.7
0.5
Note: The ang/e
expressed in degrees
~
100
10
0.5
E-30
-7
i-20
0.4"
o
c
<.
=-5
10
-5
-0.3
=-3
'-2
-0.25
-2
-0.2
hO.5
-0.3 -0.2
-0.15
^0.1
h 0.05
0.1
0.03
=-0.02
Dra'w a straight
line
through the two kno'wn points.
The answer
0.40
in.
will
be found
at the intersection of this line with the third scale.
Example: For a
sq. in.
10-in. radius
and
4.0 in.,
H/R =
Area
A =
46
CHARTS AND TABLES
VOLUMES
F-30
IN
HORIZONTAL ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT ENDS
/Turning
line
Notes: Shift decimal point on volume

scale two' points for a one-point
sliift
on
diameter scale; one point for a one-point shift on length scale.
= 0.9 ft. H/D = 0.15. Join 0.15 on Example: Tank is 6 ft. in diameter and 15 ft.' long. scale with 6 on diameter scale. From point of intersection with turning line, draw line to 15 ft. on the length scale. The volume scale shows 300 gal. If D had been 0.6 ft., 0.09 ft., and length the same, the answer would be 3.00 gal.
H/D
10

VOLUMES
10
-9
IN VERTICAL
ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT BOTTOMS

f-io
r^'OOO
^9
r4,000
-8
r- 3,000
'-7
-2,000
r6
- 1,000
800
-6
^5
^600
-5
r80
f-60
-2
40
30
Draw a straight line through the two known

points.
The answer
will
be found at the
-20
intersection of this line with the third scale.
r-10
In reading the answer on the volume scale, decimal point on volume scale two places for one-place shift on diameter scale, and one place for one-place shift on height scale. Example: Diameter of tank is 4 ft. Depth of liquid is 2.5 ft. Volume as read is 230 gal. If diameter of tank is 0.4 ft. and depth 2.5 ft.,
shift
^6
volume
is
2.3 gal.
CHARTS AND TABLES

VOLUME, WEIGHT, AND COST CHART
11
12
CHARTS AND TABLES

WEIGHTS OF CYLINDRICAL
Diam-
13
(Continued)
PIECES,
POUNDS PER INCH OF LENGTH
14

UNIT AND TOTAL WEIGHTS
Draw a straight line througli the two known The answer will be points. found at the intersection of
this line
with the third scale. Example: Given 7 pieces
per
pound
or 0.143
lb.
per
piece; 15 pieces weigh 2.15 lb.
1
1
CHARTS AND TABLES

WEIGHT AND VOLUME
Q09Z Aluminum
15
0.065
Magnesium
Mercury
0.5 i
0.50
-|-Q05 Fiber
0.40
Monel mefai Copper Mckel \\ Pfios. bronze

1
I
Cl
\
0.35
Brass
0.3/
Steel 0.285
Cast iron Roiled zinc
0.06
>,
K,^,
1
^'^'^
- -
0-253
y^^
--0,05
0.22-1
0.20
1.7
Q030
0.025
017
1.5
0.15
H-
0.020
1.2
0.015
012
0.010
QIO
-I
a straight line through the two known points. at the intersection of this line with the third scale. Exam-pie: 4 cu. in. of aluminum weighs 0.37 lb.
Draw
The answer
will
be found
16
MOMENT OF
INERTIA OF A PRISM ABOUT THE AXIS
aa
CHARTS AND TABLES

RADII OF GYRATION FOR ROTATING BODIES
Solid
17
cylinder
about
its
own
axis
Hollow
cylinder
about
ii2
7-2i
-j-
r'^.
its
own
axis
Rectan-
KC-1
gular
prism about
axis
R^
=
12
through
center
Rectanl-c-1
gular
ri
l^c-M
prism about
axis at
fl2
4b^
+ c'
12
one end
Rectangular
prism about
outside
R'
462
-I-
c2 -f
12bd
12
12d-
18

CHART FOR TRANSFERRING MOMENT OF INERTIA
7
7o
WX'-
X- Distance Be+ween the Parallel Axes0.5

0.75
1
1.2
I
I
I
1.4
I

1.6
I
1.7
I
1.8
I
1.9
I
2
I
2.1
1
2.2
I
in
I
Inches
2.4
2.3
2\5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
CHARTS AND TABLES

WR^ OF SYMMETRICAL BODIES
elemental shapes.
19
For computing WR'^ of rotating masses of weight per unit volume p, by resolving the body into See page 208 for effect of WR^ on electric motor selection.
Note: p in pounds per cubic incli and dimensions in inches give WR'^ in Ib.-in. squared.
1.
Weights per Unit Volume
of Materials.
Material
Cast iron
Cast-iron castings of heavy section
Steel
i.e.,
Weight, Lb. per Cu. In.

260 250 0.283 0.319 0.410 0.318
. .
flywheel rims
Bronze
Lead Copper
2.
Cylinder, about Axis Lengthwise through the Center of Gravity.
\o\Mme = '^L{D\- D\) 4

(a)
For any material:

WR-'
~ pL{D\ - DS)
= L{D\ - DS)
39.2
where p
(6)
is
the weight per unit volume.

iron:
For cast
WR'(c)
For cast iron (heavy sections)
LjDS - PS) ^^ _ ~ 40.75

(d)
For
steel
LjDh - D\) WR^ =

36.0
3.
Cylinder, about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through Center of Gravity.
Volume
(a)
L{D\ - D\)
For any material:
^g
(6)
For
steel:
*^""-""
4.50
^yj
4. Solid Cylinder, Rotated about an Axis Paredlel to a Line that Passes through the Center of Gravity and Is Perpendicular to the Center Line.
If
11
V r
^
Volume = ^
(a)
D'-L
For any material:
(b)
+
'
For
steel:
WR "'"
4.50 Vl2
16
20
5.

Rod
of Rectangular or Elliptical Section,
Rotated about an Axis Perpendicular
to
and Passing through the Center Line.

For rectangular cross sections:
K, = }U;
For
elliptical cross sections:
K, =
IT
Volume = KâbL
(a)
For any material
WR
(b)
'x'-x'
= pahLU
^ + T,{n + L)
elliptical section (p
+
=
K,a '}
0.260)
For a cast-iron rod of
wm
6.
4:90
[y +
''^^^^
+ ^) +
leJ
Elliptical Cylinder,
about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of
Gravity.
Volume =
(a)
abL
For any material:

16
(b)
For
steel:
abL /a-
+
16
b'-
OOV
7.
Cylinder with Frustum of a Cone
Removed
Volume =
2(Di 8(Di
>.,)
WR\_a =
irpL
D2)
8.
Frustum
of a
Cone with a CyUnder Removed.
Volume =
2(Z)i
ttL
D2)
{D\
\{D\ -D\)\
WP2 wa,_, =
'^
8(i)i
D2)
^ iD\
4
CHARTS AND TABLES

9.
21
Solid
Frustum
of a Cone.
Volume V uiumt; =
12
TTpL
160
- D,) {D\ - D\) (Di - D2)

(Di
10.
Chamfer Cut from Rectangular Prism Having One End Turned about a
Distance to center of gravity, where
Center.
A =
(A'
1
R2/R1 and
B =
C/2Ri
f^
hC
-H
ii2S5 volume X {1
>2
A)
- 3A +
\
2)
/ log, log.
- A -A + ^[1 ^(^1
jj
+ Af(^^-2^ +
^
l)
+ J^^(3A^-4A^+l) 672 A
jR\B
(1
Volume
?^{<-A)
+
1
2A
1)
B^ |-
log,
-a-A)
(4^^ ^-n 224 A
^
(2A^ TnT-. 40 A
- 3A +
1)
^-^
5A*
1)
WR\^.
gg^^ |(A^ _ 4A +
q
3)
B^-{A'
- 2A +
1)
^10
11.
log,^-
(1
-A) + ^f^(2A'-3A^ +
l)
Complete Torus.
J
Volume
lî^Vs
22)^2
= "^-^
(D'
3r^)
12.
Outside Part of a Torus.
Volume =
g-
27rr
I- -9 a 1
Z)2
Mî2=
Trpr-
(5^+4.)+,.=(|z>+Ar);
22
13. Inside

Part of a Torus.
T
-g
Volume =
2irr
D i
WR\^, =
TTpr^
\2
-A'):
14.
Circular
Segment about an Axis through Center

Gravity
axis
of Circle.
a = 2 Area =
sin
i2= a
;^^ deg.
ZK
'^
12
X area
-^ 4r""
-i!
c
i^-
114.59
(a)
Any
material
FE^_. = pT
(5)
229:2
"
6 r^"^
2 / 2
V^
For
steel:
WP2
229:2
V^' ~ Y;
V^
15. Circular
Segment about Any Axis

WR%.-.'
Parallel to an Axis through the Center of
the Circles.
(Refer to 14 for Figure.)
= WR\_.
weight
{r'
r^)
16,
Rectangular Prism about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of
Gravity.
Volume =
-W
WLT
^"^ +
AT
L
(a)
For any material:
WR\_. = pWLT
y
(h)
^'
[
if)
For
steel:
-j-x
^^^-- =
3:534
1-^2 +
CHARTS AND TABLES

17. Isosceles
23
Triangular Prism, Rotated about an Axis through Its Vertex.
Volume =
f-
CUT
2
axis
pCHT
\2
12/
18. Isosceles
Triangular Prism, Rotated about
Any Axis
Parallel to
an Axis
through the Vertex.
Volume =
WK.._^.
CHT
\2
12
9^+V
19. Prism with Square Cross Section and Cylinder Removed, along Axis through Center of Gravity of Square.
Volume = L {h- -
'^)
D')
WR\^, =
"^
{l.miH'
20.
Gravity Axis Is
Any Body about an Axis Known.
Parallel to the Gravity Axis,
When
WR"^ about the
-y
-en '^/A
>'*-/i
WR\^, = WR\_,
weight
r^
^Pc
'-<^//e/,
o*/s
21. WR'' of a Piston, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the Crankshaft Center Line.
'^^^
where
r = L =
^''^'
Q
Wj,
i)
=
weight of complete piston, rings, and pin
crank radius
center-to-center length of connecting
rod
24
22.

WR^
of a
Connecting Rod, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the
Crankshaft Center Line.
WR^ =
where
r'
Fi
(- + + Tf4J
8L2-
= L =
r
crank radius
center-to-center length of connecting
W2 =
Wi =
rod weight of the lower or rotating part of the rod = [Wr(L Li)]/L
Wr = Li =
weight of the upper or reciprocating part of the rod = WrLi/L W2, the weight of the complete rod Wi
distance from the center line of the crank-
pin to the center of gravity of the con-
necting rod
23.
Mass Geared
is
to a Shaft.
The
equivalent
flyvi^heel effect
at the shaft in
question
WR^ = hîWR'Y
where h
= _
gear ratio
r.p.m. of
(WR"^)'
flywheel effect of the
body
in question
mass geared to shaft
about
its
own
axis of rotation
r.p.m. of shaft
24.
Mass Geared
to
Main
Shaft and Connected by a Flexible Shaft.

of the
The
effect
,^2)'
r>*-j^~ Driven
gear
.
mass
(TTî?-)'
at the position of the driving

is
C^^^^j '""^^
gear on the main shaft

TI7P2 VV
'^^^
^Mainshaff
K _
^
^KWR'^y
("TFTP'VP
"
^^n r..nr Driving gear
9.775C
where h
= _ ""
gear ratio
r.p.m. of driven gear
natural torsional frequency of the shafting
system, in vibrations per
sec.
r.p.m. of driving gear
C =
torsional
shaft, in
{WR^y =
flywheel effect of geared-on mass
connecting pound-inches per radian

rigidity
of
flexible
25. Belted Drives.
The equivalent
-^1
flywheel effect of the driven

is
mass at the
driving shaft
/HS
V4
Driven
puiiey
\
T\^
r.p.m. of shaft
its
WR^ =
^'^'^'
"
9.775C
Vi^ Driving ^y
pulley
where h
= Rx/R
r.p.m. of pulley belted to shaft
~ [WR-y =
/ =
C = RÂE/L A = cross-sectional area of E = modulus of elasticity

body
belt, in sq. in.
of belt material in
flywheel effect of the driven
tension, in lb. per sq. in.
about
own
axis of rotation
natural
torsional
frequency of the
sec.
R = L =
radius of driven pulley, in

of the pulley, in in.
in.
is
length of tight part of belt which
clear
system, in vibrations per
CHARTS AND TABLES

26. Effect of the FlexibiUty of
25
Flywheel Spokes on
WR^
of
Rim.The
effective
WR^
of the rim is
^
WR' =
iWR')'
m
where (WR^)' /
{WRyp
9.775(7
= =
flywheel effect of the rim
^ _
where g
12Eka^bR (
natural torsional frequency of

the system of which the fly-
wheel
is
a member,
in vibra-
= number of spokes E = bending modulus of

spoke material
k
elasticity of the
tions per sec.
C =
torque required to move the rim through one radian relative

to the
and h rectangular section spokes

7r/64 for elliptical,
}^2 for
hub
of elliptical section:
All dimensions are in inches.
For cast-iron spokes
E =
C =
15
ga'bR 0.1132L2
X lO*^ lb. XIO'/L
per sq.
.
in.
(i+!-0 radians
little
Ib.-in.
Note: It is found by comparative calculations that with spokes of moderate taper very assuming the spoke to be straight and using cross section at mid-point for area calculation.
error
is
involved in
TYPICAL EXAMPLE
The
flywheel
shown below
is
used in a
Part
of fly
Diesel engine installation.

to determine effective
of
It is required
Formula
10[(52)^
IFie=
wheel
WR- for calculation

anticipated natis
(o)
2f
(43)^]
one of the natural frequencies of tor-
40.75
(b)
955,300
sional vibration.
The
26
2.375[(43)-
(39) <]
ural
frequency of the system
56.4
(r)
vibrations per sec.
16a neglecting / ir^ L^ \
12
(rf)
56
ie)
26 19
if)
Section A-A
Note: Since the beads at the ends of the spokes comprise but a small part of the flywheel WR', very little error will result in assuming them to be of rectangular cross section. Also, because of the effect of the clamping bolts, the outer hub will be considered a square equal to the diameter. The spokes will be assumed straight and of mid-point cross section.
26

CHART FOR DETERMINING CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
F =
0.000341 Mî^n^
F7
'-
10,000
r-8iOOO
6,000
-4,000
3,000
2,000
10
15
20
30
40
50 60
80
100
R= Radius of Gyration
in Ft.
CHARTS AND TABLES

FORCES IN TOGGLE JOINT WITH EQUAL ARMS P ^ S^
F
4/i
27
10,000
-:
-:
8,000
6,000 5,000
H
-:
4,000
II i|iiii|i
ii
iii|ii
i|iii
I I
i |
'
i"| " l""

i '
" " ""|""

|
|
'
' ' '
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.6
0.8
10
in in.
Example: Use mutually perpendicular lines drawn on tracing cloth or celluloid. In the example given for S = 10 in. and h = 1 in., a force F of 10 lb. exerts pressures P
of 25 lb. each.
28

ACCELERATED LINEAR MOTION
2S
T3
V
2S
6 7
V
10
32.16F
W
20
I
= G
30
I
8 i9
40
50
60
I
80
I
100
I ,
120 140
r
,
I,...i,..,l,..,
ft per sec. per sec.
^100
WLb.
= F = (S = T = F W G =
*
.
turning point
velocity at time T, in
ft.
per sec.
ft.
distance passed thi-ough, in
time during which force

accelerating force, in
lb.
acts, in sec.
weight of moving body, in

constant acceleration, in
lb.
ft.
per sec.
CHARTS AND TABLES

ROTARY MOTION P ^ S ^ 2irRn V
F T
12
'
'
29
60
I I
'l|llll|llll|
l|IMP|l
o O
tX3
CO
o o O O O
U-
o d
4-
30

MEAN COOLING TEMPERATURE
e;-l
CHARTS AND TABLES

SOLUTION OF OHM'S EQUATIONS
Volts
31
100
Ohms 1 1000
500
50
100
Draw
a straight line through the two

of the
known
points.
be found at the intersections of this line with the other two scales. Use boldface scales or lightface scales according to
will
The values
two unknowns
10
100
position of decimal point.
aoi'0.1
32

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS
J_+ + ... + + R2 Ri
Ri Rz
For convenience, list the resistances of the different parallel circuits in descending order Locate Ri on the diagonal scale and connect it with ^2 on the horiof magnitude. total resistance is found at the intersection with the Total Resistance The scale. zontal For more than two parallel circuits, project horizontally from the intersecon the Total Resistance diagonal to the diagonal Resistance Ri, draw a line to i? 3 on the horizontal scale, and the answer will again be found at the Repeat successively for intersection with the Total Resistance diagonal.
diagonal.
tion point
additional resistances Rt, Ri, etc.
The light dashed

Ri =
30, Rti
lines indicate the
procedure for finding the total
resistance of five parallel circuits, Ri =100, R^
60,
Rs =
is 8.0.
40,
25.
The answer
as given
by the chart
Conversely, the resistances of individual parallel

cuits to give a desired total resistance can
cir-
be determined
from
this chart.
|ll
llll
|
ll
|ll
Ol
M|llll|l
ll l[
lll l|ll ll|I
UI|
lll
lpl
l|
ll
lll|ll
l|nil
|l
ll
|N
I|l
lll|MII|lll
100
110
10
20
30
40
60 50 Resisi'ances,
70
80
90
120
R2,R3,R4""
CHAPTER
II
MATERIALS
Page
Page
Selection of Materials
34 35 36 38
39
Properties of Stainless Steel
Cast Irons
Alloy Cast Irons
Effect of Nickel
and Chromium on Cast Iron
Malleable Iron Castings
Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys Wrought Brasses and Bronzes Corrosion-resisting Metals and Alloys Aluminum Base Alloys Magnesium Base Alloys
Insulating Materials
Plastic Materials
Cast Carbon Steels
40 42
44 46
High Alloy Cast
Steels
Low
Alloy Cast Steels
Phenolic Laminated Molded Materials

Steels for
Corrosion and Heat-resistant Cast Steels ....
Automotive Parts
50 52 54 58 60 64 65 66 68 70
33
34

SELECTION OF MATERIALS
The
universal problem in engineering design
is
the selection of the materials from which the

It
is
various parts of the device, machine, or product are to be made.
also the first
problem because
the material selected will govern the allowable stresses, the types of construction that might be
adopted, the manufacturing methods employed, the assembly operations, the finishes that might be
applied, and, of greatest importance, the cost
and
sales appeal of the product.
In
many
designs,
the commercial success or failure will be determined definitely

materials might be used.
by the materials
selected.
In practically every design, the physical and other properties required
But the
relative
importance of the different properties

is
ably for different types of design.
The
unit strength of the material
determine which vary considerpractically always a factor

will will
though often a minor one. For constructions subjected to only a steady tension, the yield point on the
or the yield strength of the material,
i.e.,
stress-strain curve can withstand with a specified elongation, But for a compression-loaded column, both the tensile strength and will be the first consideration. For vibratory or repeated stresses, the endurance limit of the elastic modulus must be considered. the material becomes the governing strength consideration, whereas for low-temperature service and shock loads the impact values are of great importance. And, of course, there is also to be considered the compressive strength or the shear strength, according to the type of stresses to which the mem-
the unit tension
it
ber will be subjected. In addition to the unit strength considerations, any one or a group of almost innumerable other properties must be considered. If, as in most machine tools, it is important to have little or no
damping capacity, such as cast iron, might be considered Hardness, wear resistance, porosity, and ductility are some of the other properties that may be of major importance. In addition to physical properties; corrosion resistance, heat conductivity, electrical conductivity, dielectric strength, frictional properties, and many others may enter into the problem. There is no formula or equation by which the most suitable material from the standpoint of properties can be selected. Nor is il always advisable to use the material that has the highest values Invariably the final selection must be a compromise largely because two for the properties desired. other important factors enter into the problem, namely, the workability of the material and its cost.
vibration, a material with a high vibration
first.
have been selected, each of which possesses the desired properties to a satisfactory degree, the next step toward the final selection is the determination of the manufacturing methods that might be employed. Aluminum, zinc, and many of the nonIron, steel, aluminum, and some ferrous alloys naturally suggest die-casting, stamping, and forging.
a
of different materials
When
number
other metals offer great possibilities

all
bj^
virtue of their weldability.
Casting
is
suitable for almost
metals and alloys. Plastics are mostly molded; some are sheet-laminated or are in the form of To mention only a few other manufacturing processes, we have impact sheets; a few are extruded.
extrusion, die extrusion,
drawn shapes and rolled shapes, and roll-formed sheet sections. has been determined what types of construction might be used, the design must be analyzed with reference to such things as the use of inserts, consolidating different parts into one
After
it
standard purchased parts, and similar possibilities. hand with the types of construction that might be employed are the costs of machining, Included in this category may be pimchgrinding, and other operations, which will vary greatly. ing, hand reaming, riveting, buffing, and polishing. Not until all the factors discussed above have been studied closely and analyzed should any
piece, use of
Hand
in
consideration be given to the cost per
pound
of the material.
cts.
that aluminum at 30
per
lb.
cts.
per
lb.
or zinc at 10
per
lb. is
A complete analysis may often reveal cheaper to use than gray iron at 5 cts.
A complete analysis of all the items to be considered in the selection of materials and the associated problems of types of constructions and workability considerations would require volumes and even then would obscure the problem rather than clarify it. In the final analysis, nothing can be
substituted for clear engineering thinking based on broad experience and knowledge.
MATERIALS
CAST IRONS
GRAY IRON
Per Cent
Chemical Composition
Graphitic carbon
35
by Weight
2
-3
Combined carbon
Iron
Silicon
0.8 max. 93.7 -94.3
0.25-0.3
:
Manganese. Sulphur Phosphorus
0.5 - 1 0.07- 0.12 0. 10- 1.05

Lb. per Sq. In. 21,000- 42,000 36,000- 60,000 70,000-200,000 15,000,000
Average Physical Properties

Tensile strength
Shear strength Compressive strength
Modulus
of elasticity
is
Gray
iron ordinarily
easily machinable.
WHITE IRON
Per Cent
Graphitic carbon
by Weight
Trace 3 30 94.93 0.60 52 0.15 0. 50
. .
Combined carbon
Iron......
Silicon
Manganese
Sulphur Phosphorus
Average Physical Properties

Tensile strength
Lb.
per Sq. In. 20,000-70,000

20 ,000 ,000
Modulus
of elasticity
is difficult
White iron
to machine.
When
not heat-treated, white iron has great
resistance to wear bj^ abrasion.
MOTTLED IRON
Per Cent
Graphitic carbon
by Weight
50 80 95.07 0.92 36
1 1
.
.
Combined carbon
Iron
Silicon
Manganese
Sulphur Phosphorus
0. 13 0.
22
Mottled iron is a mixture of gray iron and white iron. ChUled cast iron are those parts of castings which after pouring are cooled quickly by chills in order to retain the carbon in the iron carbide form found in white iron, whereas other parts of the casting cool slowly to form gray iron.
36

ALLOY CAST IRONS
To
sion resistance,
obtain exceptional properties such as high tensile strength, hardness, wear resistance, corroand heat resistance, many alloys of cast iron with other elements have been developed.
The
effect of various alloying additions are indicated in the
accompanying
table.
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ADDITIONS ON CAST IRON

Addition
MATERIALS
EFFECT OF ALLOYS ON CAST IRON
280
ro
37
38

EFFECT OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM ON CAST IRON
Addition of Nickel. 1. Increases strength and elasticity especially the sUicon content.
2.
when composition
of the iron
is
adjusted,
Refines the grain and reduces porosity.

Increases hardness.
3. 4.
Eliminates hard spots and thus improves machinability when nickel additions amount to to 4 per cent depending upon the sUicon content and section
thickness.
5.
6. 7. 8.
Decreases the amount of sihcon needed to keep castings gray and machinable. Increases wearing quahties.
Improves impact resistance. Improves heat and corrosion
resistance.
9. Raises electrical resistance.
Addition of Chromium.
1.
Improves
tensile strength.
2.
3.
Refines the grain.

Increases hardness.
Produces hard spots when used alone or in excessive

chill,
amounts.
4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
Increases chilling power, depth of

Increases heat resistance.
Increases wear resistance. Increases corrosion resistance.
and the combined carbon.
Decreases machinability. Addition of Nickel and Chromium Together.

1.
By using two or three

chromium
is
parts of nickel to one of chromium, the chilling action of
restrained
and the
beneficial effects of
2.
Increases strength and hardness.
chromium are retained. Amounts needed to obtain maximum
and also hardness and strength, in castings of various section thickness are shown in the accompanying table. Applications for Nickel and Nickel -chromium Cast Iron. Cylinders, cams, gears, hardware, bushings, machine frames, liners, and plates.
machining
qualities,
NICKEL AND CHROMIUM IN CAST IRON FOR MAXIMUM MACHINABILITY

Sections
}/i-}>4 in.
thick
MATERIALS
MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS
AVERAGE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Tensile strength,
lb.
39
per sq. in
lb.
Yield point in tension, Elongation in 2 in
per sq. in
54 ,000 36 ,000 18 per cent

19 per cent
Reduction in area
(see note 1)
Modulus
of elasticity in tension, lb. per sq. in
25,000,000
note 3)
Compressive strength (see note 2) Ultimate shearing strength, lb. per

Yield point in shear,
lb.
sq. in. (see
48,000
23 ,000
per sq. in per sq. in
Modulus Modulus
of elasticity in shear, lb. per sq. in

lb.
12,500,000
24 ,000
Yield point in torsion,

Brinell hardness
of rupture in torsion, lb. per sq. in.
number
ft. -lb.
Charpy impact
value,
(see note 4)
58,000 100-140 16.5
Wedge
lb.
impact (see note 4) Fatigue endurance limit (no definite data, probably about 25,000 to 26,000
test for
per sq.
in.)
Effect of temperature (see note 5)
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Specific gravity
7 15-7 45
. .
Shrinkage allowance, in. per ft Coefficient of thermal expansion per deg.

Specific heat, c.g.s. units
M~^l6
0000066
122
0.
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Resistivity,
microhms per
cc
28-37
Magnetization properties (see note 6) Magnetic hysteresis (see note 6)

Notes on Malleable Iron Castings
1.
Reduction of
restricted locally.
Area.^The elongation usually is spread quite evenly over the entire gage length, instead of being This may be construed to mean that cohesion is more uniform in malleable iron than in other
ferrous metals.
2.
Compressive Strength.
In ductile ferrous metals, the yield point

much more
in compression so closely
approximates that in
tension that testing for the latter, being
easily determined, avoids the necessity of testing for the former.
Also, it is impractical to determine the compressive strength of such products, because once the yield point has been passed the specimen flattens out, yielding no well-marked fracture. In determining shear by the "direct method," approximate results only can be 3. Shear and Torsion Tests. secured because a certain amount of distortion caused by the combined effect of compression and bending during the Consequently, shearing properties are better studied from torsion tests. The number of test can not be avoided. twists per foot of length will furnish an estimate of the toughness of the material, and their distribution yields some indication of the variation in hardness which tends to cause an uneven localization of the twists, there being less
distortion at planes of greater hardness.

4. The wedge test will furnish a more accurate idea of what can be expected of castings that are to be subjected to shock and occasional overload in service than will a notched bar test, wherein the stresses are concentrated at the root
of the notch.
5.
Effect of Temperature. will start to revert
If
malleable iron
is
heated to a temperature in excess of
its critical
range, the temper

all of it
carbon
6.
reverted.
back to the combined form, and if heated to around 1600F. practically Malleable iron can be heated to around 800F. without loss in tensile properties.
wOl be
Magnetization Properties.
When high permeability
is
temper carbon, whereas combined carbon or and permeability and low hysteresis loss.
free cemenite should be absent.
required in iron, the carbctn should be in the form of Malleable iron possesses high induction
40
HANDBOOK
Chemical composition
OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
CAST CARBON STEELS
Mechanical properties
Carbon,
per
ManSili-
ReSul-
ganese,
con,
phur,
per cent
Phosphorus
per cent
Tensile
strength,
lb.
ElonYield
point, lb.
ducarea,
gation, tion of
Impact
Hardness
per
per
per
numbers"
Treatment
of steel**
cent
per
per sq. in.
cent
sq. in.
cent
per cent
0.11
0.73
0.27
0.027
0.028
26,000 24.000 35,000 35,000
0.11
0.40
33.0 13.2 28.2 29.5 31.0 34.0 28.5 34.0

14.0 26.5
36.0 30.0 53.0 59.5 54.0 52.5 40.2 49.0

18.6 31.6
3.7' 2.1
15.0' 13.7'
126B 119B 116B 126B
Annealed As cast
in
commercial furnace
(6), (6),
1475^. (800C.)
1650F. (900C.) 1825F. (995-0.)
furnace cooled furnace cooled furnace cooled
(6).
0.15 0.17 0.18
0.81
0.67 0.83
0.20 0.23 0.30
62,000 64,000 73.000
Annealed
3.7''
35,000
1650F. (900C.)
(5).
furnace cooled
Annealed
15'
0.20- 0.70- 0.250.35 0.25 0.80
Under
0.03
Under
0.03
67,000 70,000 70,000 71,500 74 500

,
34,000 37,000
36 500 46 500
,
,
As
cast
36' 16/ 24/
leoO-F. (870''C.), furnace cooled
0.031
0.028
48,000
42,000 44,000
33.0 34.0 32.0 36.5 39.0
51.2 58.0
55.1
26/
01
137B 139B 143B
As
cast
(1), air
1650F. (900C.) 16S0r. (900C.)
(1),
cooled furnace cooled
0.19
0.03
62,000 63 500
,
59.8 67.0
leSOT.
(900''C.) (1). furnace cooled

(1), air
64'
1700F. (930C.) 1600F. C870''C.) 1200F. (650<'C.)
cooled cooled
cooled
(1). air (1), air
0.22 0.22 0.22 0.24
0.70 0.68 0.67 0.78
0.32 0.28 0.34 0.28
0.030 0.030 0.029
0.024 0.025 0.024
71,000 72,000 73,500 71,000
37.000 43.000 43,500
33.0 32.5 33.0 28.0 22.0 30.5
53.5 52.4 49.7 47.8
149B 149B 156B
1650F. (gOO-C.) 1650-1^. (OOO-C.) 1650F. (900C.)
(3), air
cooled cooled
(3), air
(3), air
cooled 1650F. (900C.), furnace cooled
67,000 77,000
77,000
0.25
27,000 44,000 43,000
33.0 51.0
20.1/ 32.6/
119B 136B 136B
As received lOSOT. (900C.)
(1),
air
cooled;
1525''F.
32.0/
0.68
0.32
34.0/
(830'C.) (1), air cooled air cooled; 1525F. 1650F. (900C.) (1), (830C.) (1), air cooled; 600F. (315C.)
(1), air
cooled
(900C.)
(1), (1),
133B
1650F.
(830<'C.)
(1), air
air
cooled;
1525''F.
air
cooled;
1000F.
(540C.)
cooled
0.26 0.27
0.84 0.71
0.37
0.41
75,000 72,000
0.034 0.034 0.032 0.032
33.0 32.9
54.2 57.6
.Annealed, furnace cooled
35. 5
1650F.
(900C.)
water
(3), air (3), air (3), air
quenched;
cooled
cooled
1300F.
(705C.), furnace cooled
0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28
0.72 0.75 0.69 0.65
0.32 0.31 0.26 0.27
0.027 0.029 0.027 0.027
82,500 74,500 76,000 74 000

,
44.500 40 000 41,500 43,000

,
28.0 35.0 28.0 28.0
47.7 45.7 44.8 42.0
163B 153B 156B
16oOF. COOO-C.) 1650r. (gOO-C.) 1650F. (900C.)
cooled
furnace (840''C.) 1550F. (7), lOOO-F. (540C.) air cooled

37.5' 45.5'
cooled
to
68,000
0.28
42,000
43 500
,
33.3
51.1
1650F. (900C.)
(1),
69,000
37.8
63.3
1700F. (930C.) 1600F. (870C.) 1200F. (650C.)
furnace cooled cooled (1). air cooled (1), air cooled

(1), air
75,000 76,000 84 000

,
36,000 42,000 57,000

68,000 79,000
19.5 25.5 30.0
29.0 31.5 65.0 57.0
156B 143B 160B 192B
As cast Annealed
1650F. (900C.) water quenched, 1300F. (705C.), air cooled 1650F. (900C.), water quenched, 1100F. (595''C.) air cooled 1650F. (900C.), water quenched,
900F. (480C.), air cooled 1650F. (900C.), water quenched, 700F. (370C.), air cooled 1650F. (900C.), water quenched, oOOF. (260C.), air cooled
drawn drawn
drawn
drawn
drawn
95,000
0.79
108,000 119,000 130,000
24.0
19.0
46.0
33.0
18.0
220B 238B 250B
90,000
100,000
14.0
9.0
MATERIALS
CAST CARBON STEELS
Chemical composition
41
(Conlinued)
42

HIGH ALLOY CAST STEELS
Manganese
1.
Steel.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Contains 10 to 14 per cent manganese with less than 1.5 per cent carbon. Extremely hard, strong, and tough, with high resistance to wear. Usually cast to form, but can be forged at a yellow heat. Difficult to machine, can be partly softened by quenching from about 1830F. Hardness is restored by heating to about 1380F. and coohng slowly in air.
Nickel Steel.
1.
2. 3.
Contains ordinarily 0.52 to 3 per cent nickel with 0.15 to 0.60 per cent carbon. Has high elastic limit and tensUe strength. Corrosion resistance increases mth the nickel content.
Steel.
Chrome
1.
Contains usually 0.5 to 3.5 per cent of chromium with 0.2 to 0.6 per cent
carbon.
2. 3.
Has high
elastic limit, tensile strength,
Up
to
per cent of
chromium has
httle effect
and hardness. on steel.
With
per cent car-
4.
5. 6.
bon and 2 per cent chromium, great toughness is attained. Low-carbon chrome steels can be forged with as high as 12 per cent chromium present, but the alloy becomes brittle as the carbon increases. Chrome steel attains great hardness when quenched in water.
Steels with
about 15 per cent chromium are relatively corrosion
resistant.
Vanadium
1.
Steel.
2.
3.
Small percentages of vanadium combined with chromium and manganese in an alloy that has high tensUe strength and elastic hmit. Vanadium makes nickel steel more homogeneous and decreases the fragility; it is seldom used with more than 8 per cent nickel. Additions of 0.15 to 0.25 per cent vanadium to chrome steel counterbalances the extreme hardness of chromium and produces an alloy with better machinsteel result in
ing properties.
Tungsten
1.
Steel.
2.
3.
4.
5.
very hard and brittle, difficult to forge, and cannot be welded when the tungsten exceeds 2 per cent. Can be worked at a red heat, but is usually cast in the form of tools and ground to the desired form. Addition of tungsten to steel produces a close and uniform structure. High-carbon tungsten steel retains high magnetism. Steel alloys with 5 to 8 per cent tungsten are self-hardening.
Is
MATERIALS
Molybdenum
1.
43
Steel.
Effect of
2.
molybdenum on steel is between that of tungsten and chromium. Molybdenum in chrome steel improves the forging qualities.
High-speed Steels.
1
.
Derive their properties from selected combinations of the several metals listed
above.
Cobalt, uranium, titanium, and silver are also used in high-speed steels. typical high-speed steel analysis is iron, 68.79 per cent; carbon, 0.51; manganese, 0.26; silicon, 0.14; phosphorus, 0.02; sulphur, 0.04; chromium, 7.08; tungsten, 22.68; and molybdenum, 0.48 per cent.
2.
3.
44

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46

PROPERTIES OF CORROSION- AND HEAT-
MATERIALS
RESISTANT CAST STEELS
CoeflBcient of
47
thermal expansion
48

PROPERTIES OF CORROSION- AND HEAT-
MATERIALS
RESISTANT CAST STEELS
(Continued)
49
50

PROPERTIES OF
AUoy
Typical chemical composition
U.S.S.
STAINLESS STEEL
U.S.S. stabihzed 18-8
U.S.S. 18-8
Type 302*
08/20 1 .25 max. 0.03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 18.0/20.0 8.0/10.0
.
Type 304
0.08 max. 2.00 max. 0.03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 18.0/20.0 8.0/10.0
Type 321
0.10 max. 2.00 max. 0.03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 17.0/20.0 7.0/10.0 4 X C min.
Type 347
10 max.
Carbon Manganese Phosphorus

Sulphur
Silicon
Chroniium
Nickel
2.00 max. 0.03 max. 0.03 max. .75 max. 17.0/20.0 8.0/12.0
10
Titanium
Columbium
Physical properties
Density. lb. per cu. in Specific electrical resistance at 68r.:
X C
0.286
70 (cold worked, 70-82) 27.6 (cold worked. 27 6-32 3) 6.4
.
.
0.286
70 (cold worked, 70-82) 27 6 (cold worked, 27 6-32 3) 6.4
.
.
0.285
71
0.285
71
Microhms per Microhms per

Low-carbon
Structure
cc
cu. in
28
6.5 2550-2590
Austenitic
steel
=
F
1.00
Melting range, deg.
2550-2590
Austenitic
2550-2590
Austenitic
2550-2590
Austenitic
Magnetic permeability; As annealed

After 10 per cent reduction of area. Specific heat: B.t.u./deg. F./lb., at 32-212F Low-carbon steel = 1.00 (0-100C.).. Thermal conductivity:
.
. .
= =
1
1
003
10
0.
1.
003
10
^
ji
= =
003 1.10
1
.
n
It
= =
003 1.10
1
.
0.12
1.1
0.12
1.1 112
0.12
1.1 112
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at212r Low-carbon steel = 1.00, at 100C. B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at 932F Coefficient of thermal expansion: 10 (32-212F.) Per deg. F. 10 (32-932F.) Per deg. F.
.
113
0.
113
33
0.
0.32
153
0.32
153
150
9. 10.
150
9.6
10.2
9.3
10.3
9.3 10.3
Mechanical properties at room temperatures

\
Annealed
Cold
worked
Annealed
Cold
worked
Annealed
Cold
worked
Annealed
Cold
worked
Tensile strength, 10^ lb. per sq. in Yield point, 10' lb. per sq. in Modulus of elasticity. 10^ lb. per sq. in Elongation in 2 in., per cent Reduction of area, per cent Charpy impact strength, ft. -lb Izod impact strength, ft. -lb Endurance Umit (fatigue), 10 lb. per sq.
80- 95 35- 45
29
55- 60 55- 65
105-300t 60-250 29- 26 50- 2 65- 30
80- 95 35- 45 29 55- 60 55- 65 75-110

35
105-300t 60-250 29- 26 50- 2 65- 30
80- 95 35- 45
29
50- 55 55- 65 77
45 135-185
105-300t 60-250 29- 26 50- 2 65- 30
80- 95 35- 45 29 50- 55 55- 65 77
105-300t 60-250 29- 26 50- 2 65- 30

90- 95 170-460
in.
number Rockwell hardness number

Brinell hardness
75-110 35 135-185
90- 95 170-460
138-185
90- 95 170-460
90- 95
_.
B75-B90
C5-C47
B75-B90
C5-C47
B75-B90
170^60 C5-C47
45 135-185
B75-B90
C5-C47
Stress causing 1 per cent elongation (creep) in 10,000 hr.: At 1000F., lb. per sq. in At 1200F., lb. per sq. in At 1350F., lb. per sq. in At 1500F.. lb. per sq. in. Scaling temperature, deg. F. (approx.) Initial forging temperature, deg. F
Finishing temperature, deg.

.A.nneaUng treatment.
\
f
17,000 7.000 3.000 850 1,650 2.200 Not under 1600-1700 1900-2000F.
17,000 7.000 3,000 850 1,650 2,200 Not under 1600-1700 1900-2000F.
and quench
and quench
17,000 7.000 3.000 850 1,650 2,200 Not under 1600-1700 1900-2000F. and quench
17,000 7,000 3,000 850 1.650 2.200 Not under 1600-1700 1900-2000F.
i
and quench
i
Excellent Cold forming, drawing, stamping Fair tough Machinability Very good, anneal Welding (arc. gas. resistance, atomic hydro. after welding for maxigeK) corrosion
Good
Fair tough Very good, anneal heavier than J-s in.
for
Good
Fair tough Very good, not
Good
Very
[Fair tough good,; not
necessary to anneal
necessary to anneal
mum
resistance
maximum corrosion resistance
Precautions (see notes)
(A)
U)
molybdenum
(B)
(B)
* U.S.S. 18-8 free machining. Type 303. same as 302 except S or Se 0.07 min. or t Commercial grades, thin gages of sheet and strip
i-i
0.60 max.
i-i
Hard Hard Hard
= = =
Full hard
125.000 150.000 175.000 185.000
lb.
lb.
lb. lb.
per per per per
sq. sq. sq. sq.
in. in. in. in.
MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF
Alloy
U.S.S. 18-8
51
(Continued)
U.S.S. 17
U.S.S. 27
U.S.S.
STAINLESS STEEL
Mo
U.S.S. 25-12
U.S.S. 12
Typical chemical composition
Type 316
0. 10
.
Type 309
0.20 max. 2.00 max. 0.03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 22.0/26.0 12.0/14.0
Type
0. 15
.
410J;
Type 430
0.12 max. 0.75 max. 0.03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 14.0/18.0
Type 446
max. 1.00 max. 0.03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 23.0/30.0
0..35
Carbon Manganese.
Phosphorus. Sulphur
Silicon
.
max.
2 00 max.
Chromium.
Nickel
Molybdenum
Physical properties
per cu. in Density, Specific electrical resistance at 6S''F.: Microhms per cc Microhms per cu. in Low-carbon steel = 1.00
lb.
0.03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 16.0/18.0 14.0 max. 2.00/3.00
max. 0.75 max. 03 max. 0.03 max. 0.75 max. 10.0/14.0
0.291
0.283
78 30.7
7.1
0.276
57
2.273
59
0.270
67
72.3 28.5
Melting range, deg. F

Structure
2500-2550
Austenitic n
.
2530-2570
Austenitic
1^ *i
22.4 5.2 2750-2790

Martensitic
23.2 5.4 2710-2750

Ferritic
26.4
6.1
2710-2750
Ferritic
Magnetic permeabihty: As annealed

After 10 per cent reduction of area. Specific heat:
B.t.u./deg. F./lb. at 32-212F Low-carbon steel = 1.00 (0-100C.) Thermal conductivity:
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at 212F steel = 1.00, at 100C. B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at932F Coefficient of thermal expansion: 10= (32-212F.) Per deg. F. 10= (32-932''F.) Per deg. F.
= 1.003-
= 1.003
fi
1.10
1.003
Ferromagnetic Ferromagnetic
0.11
1.0
0.11 1.0
145
0.12
1.1 108 0.31 145
0.12
1.1
0.11
i.d
173
Low-carbon
87-116 25-0 34
.
0.50
199
169 0.49
181
0.42
169
125
X X
8.4 9.6
8.3 9.6
6.1 7.2
6.0 6.7
5.9 6.3
Mechanical properties at room temperatures
Annealed
QuenchCold Cold Annealed worked worked Annealed ed and Annealed
drawn
Cold worked
Cold Annealed worked
Tensile strength, 10^ lb. per sq. in Yield point, 10^ lb. per sq. in Modulus of elasticity, 10= lb. per sq. in. Elongation in 2 in., per cent Reduction of area, per cent Charpy impact strength, ft.-lb Izod impact strength, ft.-lb Endurance Umit (fatigue), 10=* lb. per sq.
Brinell hardness
80- 95 105-300t 35- 45 60-250 29- 26 29 50- 55 50- 2 55- 65 65- 30 70-110 90- 95 43 135-185 170^60
90-110 40- 60
29
35- 50 45- 60
110-270 65-230 29- 26 25- 2 55- 20
65- 85 35- 45 28 35- 25 65- 60

100- 60
100-200 60-180
70- 90 40- 55
29
100-180 65- 30
29
75- 95 45- 60
29
25- 10 65- 25
1005
30- 20 55- 40
8- 25
50 145-185
25- 2 40- 20
30- 20 50- 40
85-175 55-155 29 25- 2 55- 25
number
_.
.
.
53 150-185
170-375
135-165
293-390
185-270
50 140-185
150-250
Rockwell hardness number
B75-B90 C5-C40 B80-B90 C5-C40 B75-B85 C30-C40 B80-B90 B90-B105 B80- 90

25,000 18,000 8,000 3,000
1650
C0-C25
Stress causing 1 per cent elongation (creep) in 10,000 hr.: At 1000F., lb. per sq. in At 1200F., lb. per sq. in At 1350F.. lb. per sq. in At 1500F., lb. per sq. in Scahng temperature, deg. F. (approxi-
17,000 11,000 3,400 850
13,000 2,300 1,400

1300 2100
8,500 2,100 1,200

1550 2000
1,600 400
mate)
Initial forging
temperature, deg.
2200
2100 2150
2100 2000
Finishing temperature, deg.
Not under
1600-1700 1950-2050F.
Not under
1600-1700 1950-2050F.
Not over 1450

Furnace cool from 15501100F. or air
cool from 1300-1400F.
Not over 1400

Air cool from
Not over
1400-1450
Anneahng treatment.
Rapid cool from

1650-1550F.
and quench
and quench
1500-1400'F.
Cold forming, dra\ving, stamping Machinabihty Welding (arc, gas, resistance, atomic hydrogen)
Good
for
Good
for
Fair tough Fair tough Very good, anneal Very good, anneal
Fair Fair Fair
Good
Fair Fair
Poor
Fair Fair
maximum
maximum
corrosion resistance
corrosion resistance
(-4)
Welding hardens Anneal to restore

ductiUty
(C)
Welds
are brittle when cold

to anneal
Welds
when
are brittle cold
Shght response
(fl)
Shght response
to anneal
(-D)
Precautions (see notes)
(A)
X U.S.S. 12 free machining, Type 416, same as 410 except S or Se 0.07 min. or molybdenum 0.60 max. {A) Preheat slowly to 1600F.. then heat rapidly to the forging or annealing temperature. Exposure to temperatures between 800 to 1600F. produces marked susceptibihty to intergranular corrosion. If the metal is unattached, this can be cured by repeating the anneahng treatment. {B) For maximum corrosion resistance in high temperature ser\dce, use following stress reheving operations heat 2 hr. at 1550F..
air cool.
(C) Preheat slowly to 1450F., then heat rapidly to 2100F. for forging. Full corrosion resistance is developed only in the heat-treated condition. (Temper below 1000F.) (D) In forging, preheat slowly to 1450F. Excessive grain growth takes place above 2000F. Expert welding is required to avoid excessive grain growth. Prolonged exposure at 850 to 950r. produces cold brittleness. To prevent this, heat to 1650 to 1550F. before cooling, and quench. Stainless steels cannot be forge hammer welded.
52

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF IRON-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
Group
classification, typical
composition of each type, per cent
MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF IRON-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
53
54
MATERIALS
55
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58

CORROSION-RESISTING
Metal or
alloy
MATERIALS
METALS AND ALLOYS
59
60
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DEÎUN
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64

CAST AND
A.S.T.M.
WROUGHT MAGNESIUM -BASE ALLOYS
MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATERIALS
Properties
65
Hard rubber
Vulcanized fiber
Laminated phenolic
Power
factor, at radio frequencies
0.01-0.03
2.7-4.0
0.05
5
0.03-0.07
4.5-6
Dielectric constant,
at radio fre-
quencies
Dielectric
in.
strength (specimen l-s Step by step test at thick.
25C.)
Tensile strength Water absorption, per cent in 24 hr.
Specific gravity
500-1,000 volts per mil 3,000-5,000 lb. per sq. in.
25-250 volts per mil

9.000-16,000
lb.
per sq.
in.
150-600 volts per mil 6,000-20,000 lb. per sq. in.
0.02 1.2-1.5
60-80
20-60 1.2-1.4
25
0.3-2.5 1.3-1.4
20-30
Coefficient of linear expansion, per

deg.
10^6
10-G
10-
Effect of aging
Deteriorates slowly unless well vulcanized and protected from

light
Improves
Improves
Effect of heat
Softens
at
50 to 65*C.
Melts
at 200C.
Will not melt; not readily inflammable, but chars and becomes brittle at high temperature.
Not
readily inflammable.
Tem-
Burns at about 340C.

Effect of sunlight.
peratures from BO-ISO^C. tend to renew chemical reactions, resulting in shrinkage and loss
in weight
Discolors and disintegrates after
No
effect
No
visible effect
Sulphate films a few months. formed on surface reduce surface resistivity
Effect of ultraviolet light.
A
No
few hours exposure
is
in its
No
data
Lowers surface
resistivity
effects
equivalent to many months exposure to sunlight

effect
Effect of moist air.
Absorbs water freely but without permanent injury; while saturated it becomes soft and flexible and swells; warps and twists
effect is that resulting
Absorbs shght amount
of water,
reducing dielectric properties
Effect of steam.
The only
upon drying Same as above, except

is
absorptirfm
from^ the high temperature
more rapid
Best grades not affected beyond slight absorption of moisture after a few days in steam the cheaper grades will swell appresuperheated ciably and split steam tends to warp and blister all grades
;
Solvents.
Affected by most organic solvents and mineral oils; unaffected by

alkalies,
Organic solvents have no permanent effect; oils are sUghtly absorbed; affected
alkalies
Not
affected
oils,
by
or
most
organic
solvents,
weak
acids; at-
weak
acids,
and certain
by
acids and
tacked by alkahes and strong

acids
Metallic inserts.
concentrated acids Hard rubber is rapidly deteriorated by contact with iron or copper, the metals themselves Inserts should also corroding. be coated with tin, paper, unvulcanized rubber, or other mutually protecting medium^
No
effect
No
effect
Machining quahties
Admits
of a high-polish but machines less accurately than would be supposed, because of its great
Admits
of
fine
finish;
may Admits
resiliency.
has tendency to warp, can be molded but not acIt
be sawed, punched, embossed, stamped, planed, bent, tapped
drilled,
of a good pohsh; can be sawed, punched, drilled, stamped,
turned,
turned,
bossed,
planed,
milled,
knurled,
emeither
tapped
curately to size
with or against the grain, though not so easily as hard rubber and vulcanized fiber
66
MATERIALS
Q S
67
68
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHENOLIC LAMINATED MOLDED MATERIALS
MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF PHENOLIC LAMINATED MOLDED MATERIALS
69
70
CHAPTER
III
BEAMS AND STRUCTURES

Paqe Page
Stress
Calculations
for
Thin
Aluminum
72 72 75 75
Hollow Girders
80 85
. .
Sheet Sections
Box
Sections Subjected to Torsion
Compression Members Angles in Compression Shear Members

Vertical
Stiff eners
Chart for Determining Bending Moments.

Deflection of Variously
Stresses in Cantilever
90
91
Loaded Beams
for
Shear
Resisting
Webs
Diagonal Tension
77
Beams Tensile Strength of Round Wires Rectangular Moments of Inertia
92 93 94
Webs
77
71
72
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN,

Stress Calculations for Thin
Aluminum Sheet Sections

J. Schaefer, of
A condensation of the article by the same title by S. A. Kilpatrick and 0. Company, in Product Engineering, February, March, April, and May, 1936.
The Glenn L. Martin
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
By the method presented here, compression members made of formed ahiminum sheet for shapes as shown in the table below can be calculated for any length of member and any thickness
pf sheet.
L =
P
t
length of the column, in

radius of gyration
in.
ultimate compressive stress of material,

generally taken as yield point
thickness of the sheet, in
in.
^ =
= C =
modulus
of elasticity
= K =
shape factor at given L/p

shape factor for short columns at about
10,500,000 for 24
coefficient for
ST aluminum
restraint,
end Rankine formula
as in the
L/p = 20
allowable stress, in
lb.
P/A =
per sq.
in.
failing stress
load at failure divided
by the
section area
'
r^ l+B
/
(1)
In the preceding equation,
'
(2)
For compact
sections, tubing, corrugated sheet,
and the simplest
sections, use
^
I
/(I
+B
B) + B^
factor Ko, given in the
First, calculate a
from the equation.
Apply the shape
table, to the following equation
K
Then,
= 7C
("A"'
(3)
J
tanh
external dimensions.
If
(7
tanh {Kt)
tangent
(4)
= hyperbohc
A",
is
Note: In general, for sections having a high shape factor,

the shape factor thus calculated
less
than
the shape factor, will be inversely proportional to the 10, as would obtain if the external dimensions of
were doubled, the value calculated should be squared and the value of I- should be used in place of I in Eq. (4). ample fixity along one edge as represented by the wood block or as obtainable by closely spaced stiffeners, the section should be calculated as a simple angle.
shape
1
If
section such as shape 3 does not have
As an example of the use of the table, a column of section similar to shape 2, shown in the table, is to be designed to be made of 24 ST aluminum sheet 0.051 in. thick and the length of the column is such that L/p is 50. The straight edges of the column are
restrained.
From
Ko =
12.
the table, for a short column of this section, for L/p less than 25, we get The yield point of the material by test, or from figures given by material
is
manufacturer,
restraint
50,000,
and
E =
10,500,000 for 24 ST.
The
coefficient of
end
is 1.

SHAPE FACTORS FOR FORMED ALUMINUM COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Shape
Material
73
Test
End
condition
a, lb.
at test
test
per
Test, yield
point, lb.
aluminum
i/p
sq. in., at
L/p
per sq. in.
K-/5-
\.- 0.025- 0.080
24ST
Flat
48.000
pitch
0.25
0.052
"Âh
,TJ
<25
Flat
59 800
.
iO.J75"
L=575
Rivets spaced at i"in double
R=4i'
"^
<
,
row
Wood block (not bearing at ends]

24ST
<25
Flat
50,000
50,000
U-lf-A 1 Y '2
Woodblock
(not bearing
at ends) ^
(][)
L=/0
0064 fo 0128
\KKIVt Rivets
at
=;
'pitcfi,
^^^Qg^red
<N
,
45,000
/
46 000
,
R (inside)
> )
J 1
24ST
<25 on 5a
and 56
C^'-r-
Flat on 5a and 56
(a)
(6)
(c)
14.3
(a)
(6)
(c)
22.6
15.4 (at
15)
14.3 22.6
14.5
(a)
(6)
(c)
nc
S^
From
ÎCO
15 to
Knife on 5c
52,000 52,000 55,000
(a)
(6)
(c)
50,000 50,000 50,000
70 on 5c
L/p =
(at
0)
L/p =
(avg.)
aandb
5b
<^
"0.0/6
o/i
X
i^-^to'
5c
5a, b
Rivet at 2 "pitch
on
and c
W
~
H
P
~ ~ Stiorf blocks, g
gaps
Sect
74

SHAPE FACTORS FOR FORMED ALUMINUM COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Shape
Material Test
(Continued)
per
End
condition
a, lb.
Test, yield
point, lb.
it at test
aluminum
L/p
Ko
sq. in., at
test
L/p
per sq.
in.
17ST
Flat
43.000
40 000
,
-J
k1'^ r
'
r*r*i
K"H
V 5"/'
17ST
27-35
Flat
23 at L/p bb
19.0
at
30,000
44,000
L/p = 55
-Azr^'
Vs- c//'am. liqhtening " hole, pifch
2f
Afeffective)=A
tiD4 jphole
A= Area wiihout
D= Diam.
hole; P=pi+ch
17 ST
35.4
Flat
34,500
41,000
H"-t
/
''
^ holes
rivets,
P=/'
17ST
Length = 24 in.
Flat
2%/W
29.6*/"'
32,000
About
40,000
I Flat shee/ simply [supported on edges
-\ W
_i
Bu reou
of S+ds. tesfs
Ko
K X 33 f
aMoTooo
V:32,000

Calculate
75
in
Eq.
(2)
above, with
<r
C =
Eq.
1.
Use
this value of
(3),
B to calculate
in
(1),
from which a = 22,700
lb.
per sq.
in.
From Eq.
K
From Eq.
(4),
12
/50;000\ y2
\22, 700/
17.8
= =
22,700 tanh (17.8 22,700
0.051)
lb.
0.72
16,200
per sq.
in.
ANGLES IN COMPRESSION
For angles, the following table gives the value
L/p
of a for different values of
L/p
76
Limitations of the equations 1. Valid only for panels subjected to pure shear load. 2. If /s exceeds the shear yield point of the material, shear yield point should be taken as the critical stress. For 24 ST,' the shear yield point is 24,000 lb. per sq. in.
approximately. 3. The equation does not give dependable results for sheets less than about
0.032
I
in. thick.
njrr
-;
1
8
7
--,^^
4
3 2
^

Therefore, since the appUed unit shearing stress of 10,900
lb.
77
per sq.
in. is less
than
the critical buckling stress of 11,250 lb. per sq. in., the
shear load without buckling.
web
will carry
the 4,000-lb.
VERTICAL STIFFENERS FOR SHEAR-RESISTING WEBS

An
approximate formula
for
computing the required moment
of inertia of the
stiffener is
^
For 24 ST aluminum,
2.29d
(VhY
becomes
E =
Lt
10,500,000, this equation
2.29d ( Yh t \3i6, \3i6,500,000.

h
where d
t
= =
distance between
stiff eners
distance between centroids of upper and lower chords
thickness of stiffener
is to make the stiffener by the above equation.
Note: Best practice
thickness equal to that of the
web and then compute the required
moment
of inertia
DIAGONAL TENSION WEBS

a web should be designed as a shear resisting web and when it is to be designed to carry the shear load in diagonal tension, calculate 'SJV/h, where V is the applied shear, in pounds, and h is the depth of the beam, in inches.
Usually,
if
To determine when
this ratio
is less
member.
which
is
If this ratio is
ratio is 7, or nearly so,
than 7, the web should be designed as a diagonal tension more than 7, a shear resisting web should be used. If the both types of web members should be investigated to determine
the more economical.

tension stress St in a tension field
The diagonal
web
is
ht sin
2a
where h distance between centroids
of
upper and lower chords
For a = 45
deg.,
Ot
Theoretical
material.
2V
ht
is
maximum
allowable St
equal to ultimate tensile strength of the

is
An
allowable St equal to about 0.7 ultimate tensile strength
recom-
mended
for calculations.
Vertical Stiffeners
Compression load P' in the
stiffeners
can be determined from
P'= -(:^^)tana
78

For a
4,5
deg.,
tan a
1,
P'
= - Vb
h
Because the web
in diagonal tension tends to hold the stiff eners straight, prevent
w
0.9
bowing as a column, the stiff eners need not be designed for the full column length, but only to the equivalent column length as given by
the curve in Fig.
stiffener is the
7.
0,8
The
design of a vertical
07
0.6
c E
0.5
same as for any pin-ended compression member. Stiffeners must not be spaced farther apart than one-half the depth of the beam.
Chord Load
0.4
o
.iÔ.3
At any point distant
A^
from the applied

is
load (Fig. 8), the total chord load

Ql

For 24 ST, allowable
stress
79
lb.
would be 0.7
62,000
43,000
per sq.
in.
To
calculate lower chord:
,M_
h
where
V
2
M
/i
= =
10,000
35
20

V =
1
10,000
Maximum
A/r
^ 1. compression in lower chord
lO'OOO
;^^:r
35
10,000 -=
22,500
,,
lb.
is
Area
of compression chord is 0.719 sq. in.
Hence compressive
lb.
stress
developed
-r
^'
= 31,300
per sq.
in.
Maximum allowable stress, as calculated for compression member = 45,000, yield point of material, used in order to calculate crippling = K 10.8 (assumed) = 0.125 in. p =
0t
stress
-r A
<r
tanh Kt
= =
safe.
45,000 tanh (10.8 39,300 lb. per sq.

is
X
in.
0.125)
Hence, as this
greater than the 31,300
lb.
per sq.
in., stress
developed, the chord
is
To
calculate
upper chord:
, .
Maximum
tension
= =
d= -r
M
-
-^
V =
10,000
35
lb.
10,000
-^
17,500
in.
5,000
12,500
Tension chord area
0.237 sq.
P ^ A
12,500
237
^^^r.^,^ 52,700 lb. per sq. m.
Assuming 15 per cent reduction
in area
on account
of rivets,
and
be
for
an ultimate
tensile strength of 62,000 lb. per sq. in., the allowable stress will
0.85
62,000
52,700
lb.
per sq.
in.
which
chord
is
not less than (and happens to be equal to) the actual
stress.
Hence tension
is safe.
Stiffeners
Compression load by equation given above
is
a = 45
tan a
80

Stiffener load P' is therefore
P'
10,000
20
2,5001b.
Stiffener area
= 0.173 sq. in. P ^ ~ -2,500 = 14,450
lb.
per sq.
in.
0.173
d h
0.25
From
the curve for equivalent column length (Fig. 7) for d/h
0.25, equivalent
length will be 0.39 X 20 = 7.8 in. Radius of gyration of stiffener
0.443
17.6
L
p
(7
7.8
0.443
K
t
= = = = = =
45,000 10 (assumed)
0.051
(T
in.
p = -T A
tanh Kt
45,000 tanh (10
0.051)
45,000 X 0.45 21,200 (approx.)
DESIGN OF HOLLOW GIRDERS

Symmetrical Pure Monocoque Sections
Guy
L. Bryan, Jr., of
The derivations of the equations for unsymmetrical sections for semimonocoque structures were developed by The Glenn L. Martin Company.
In a monocoque structure, such as shown in Fig. 10, consisting of corrugated sheet sections for upper and lower chord sections and thin sheets for the web side skin, the maximum bending moment stresses can be approximated closely by the Transverse
frame
Neutral
formula
Jb
_My
f X
-*
(7)
where
tnrizontal
M
y
7x
^ reference
Fig.
10.
Symmetrical
= applied bending moment = distance from neutral axis to fibers in question = moment of inertia of the cross section about
neutral axis.
the
semi-
monocoque structure
consisting of
corrugated-sheet chord sections, thin web side skin, and transverse frames.
In calculations for this type of section, the thin side skin is neglected in all computations because it is incapable of resisting much compression. The sheet simply dimples. Also, the error resulting from ignoring the strength contributed by the portion of the side sheet in
tension
is
negligible.

To
1.
81
determine the location of the neutral
axis,
proceed in the conventional man-
ner, as follows
Divide the corrugated sheet chord sections, upper and lower, into convenient short lengths L as indicated. L must be short enough so that the moment of inertia of the section of length L, about its own neutral axis, will be small compared with its moment of inertia about the neutral axis of the whole section of the structure. 2. Determine the areas A of the unit sections of length L, and locate the centroids
or centers of gravity of these sections.
3. 4.
Choose any convenient horizontal reference line. Determine the distance R from the centroids to the
Tabulate in adjacent columns the areas and tabulate the products AR.
all
arbitrarily chosen hori-
zontal reference hne.

5.
with their corresponding R, and
calculate
6. 7.
Add
the
AR
values.
Divide the summation of

calculate 7^, the
AR
values
by A, and the
result wdll
be D, which, as
indicated in the figure, locates the neutral axis.
To
moment
of inertia, proceed as follows:
1. Determine and tabulate the y values, i.e., the distances from the centroid of each short length element to the neutral axis. It is necessary to do this only for the elements lying to one side of the axis of symmetrj-. 2. Tabulate in the adjacent column the square of each y value. 3. Multiply each elemental area A by the square of its centroid distance y. 4. Add the Ay'^ values. 5. Multiply this summation by two if the elemental areas on only one side of the axis of symmetry have been tabulated. 6. The result 21,Ay'^ will be the moment of inertia I^ of the section about the
XX axis.
This method
is
applicable only
when
the section
is
symmetrical and the bending
moment
is
normal to the neutral
axis.
Unsymmetrical Pure Monocoque Sections
An
Fig. 11.
example
of
The
fiber
an unsymmetrical box beam is shown in the accompanying stress at any point on the beam cross section can be expressed bj'
the equation
.
^''
{MyH - MJy)y
+ {MM + M,L)x 7j;îp
...
^^^
.
XX and YY are any convenient set of rectangular axes passing through the centroid of the section,
which
is
located
by using the same method
as described above for
the symmetrical section.

Ix
and
ly are calculated
by the same method

about the
as used for the symmetrical section,
Ix being the
moment
of inertia
XX axis and ly the moment of inertia about

moment
perpendicular to the
the
YY
M^ My
axis.
is is
the component of the bending
XX axis.
the component of
moment
perpendicular to
FF
axis.
82

M^
may
axis,
and My are obtained by resolving the applied bending moment, which be at any angle to the XX axis, into its components about the XX axis and YY
respectively.
H is the summation of the product of each elemental area times both of its coordiH = XAxy, the values of x and y being the distances from the centroid of the elemental areas to the YY axis and XX axis, respectively. Distances above the XX axis and distances to the right of the YY axis are positive. Distances below the XX axis and distances to the left of the YY axis are negative. Hence XX and YY are principal axes, H is equal to zero.
nates,
i.e.,
if
-^--0.05/--A
-.
j
Corrugofiom\
9
10
Horizon -tal
reference
12
13
14
'\I5
-0. 032 "smoofh sheet Unsymmetrical box beam.
^'-Verfica/ reference
Fig.
11.-
the preceding equation, the normal stress /^ at any point in the cross secand YY are the principal When is equal to zero, i.e., tion can be calculated.
From
XX
axes,
M,y
Further,
if
MyX
(9)
equal to zero and the section is synometrical about one axis, at axis, least, and the applied bending moment makes an angle of 90 deg. with the and the reference axis is in the plane of the resulting bending moment.
is
XX
My h =
(10)
As an example of the most general case of an unsymmetrical section such as shown in the figure and with the apphed bending moment at an angle to the neutral axis, assume that/b had been calculated from Eq. (8) and had been found to be
/
-1,0862/
85x
(11)
For the elemental or elementary area 4

X
y
in. Fig. 8,
= -54.43 + 38.27 = -16.16 = 31.63 - 6.81 = 24.82 = 25.57 measured to extreme fiber
/,
of corrugation
from which
= -1,086 X 25.57 - 85 X = -27,770 - 1,370
16.16
= 29,140
lb.
per sq.
in.
compression

Allowable Stresses for Chord Sections
83
For chord sections consisting of corrugated sheets, determine allowable stresses The column length of the corrugations as for columns as explained on pages 72-75. transverse frames of the semimonocoque conthe between distance taken as the is The coefficient of end restraint C is taken equal to one in the usual construction.
struction.
If
the corrugations are covered with thin sheet, a value of
C =
1.5 is used.
Smooth Skin with Reinforcing
Stringers
foregoing equations cannot be used for calculating a semimonocoque strucApplication of the equation f^ = My/h would ture with fore-and-aft stringers. imply that the sheet and stringers were stressed the same. This is true only to the
The
point of loading where the sheet begins to buckle.
Beyond that
Y-r-
load, the sheet con-
b=8J5
84

(X
45,000
1.368
1.368
61,500
1
0.3682
504
41,000
K =
13 (assumed)
?Ji-
SsT
= =
41,000 tanh 13.6
0.040
allowable
20,200
lb.
per sq.
in. stiff ener

Allowable
85
j =
^^
^'^^0
^^-
= 8.35^?0.032 =
This sheet value
will
P^' ^^-
^^-
not be realized unless the rivets are spaced closely enough between rivets. A rivet pitch not greater than forty times the sheet thickness is suggested as a safe limit. Neutral axis and moment of inertia of the section are calculated in the usual manner except that a reduced area is used for the portion of the curved sheet which is under compression.
so that the sheet cannot buclde
r^nc
i^nective area
where
= A .. X -r^
A
sheet allowable
v^
stmener allowable
d
r-r
D
f
D =
distance from
neutral axis to
ex-
distance from centroid of the portion of

sheet to neutral axis.
treme
fiber of section
or
Use
\ \i
K calculates greater than one.

.
shifts to shghtly
Because a sheet on the compression side is only partly effective, the neutral axis below the center of the circular section (Fig. 12) The error resulting
is
therefrom
negligible.
in. -lb. in
For a bending moment of 3,300,000

compression in the
fibers is
the preceding example, the
maximum
, jb
= -3,300,000X45.9 = ^^gQ
on onn 20,200
ii
lb.
per sq. m.
This
is
equal to the allowable
P/A
calculated above hence

;
it is
satisfactory.
BOX SECTIONS SUBJECTED TO TORSION

used.
Closed tubular or box sections are the most For a single-cell thin- walled box,
efficient
and hence most generally
f-
2-3i
(12)
where /s
= T =
shearing stress, in
lb.
per sq.
in. in. lb.
A =
t
inclosed cross-sectional area in box, in sq. in.
applied torsional moment, in
thickness of skin or covering
where
8 = G =
deflection in radians per in. of length
J =
1
torsion constant of the section ds

t
torsional
modulus
of elasticity, gen-
erally taken as
OAE
for
aluminum
_ 1 t' J ~ iA- J
alloy
86

For the section
in Fig. 14,
ds
Si
El
Si
ti
So
ts
S2
J
for 6 the value of
t
(13)
t
14
as tension field members, in the preceding equation used should be five-eighths the actual thickness, which will give a reasonably accurate value for 6, the angular deflection. In the preceding equation for stress fs the torsional moment is assumed to be applied so as to be distributed uniformly around the perimeter, an ideal condition which is approached by placing bulkheads or ribs at aU points of application of load so as to transfer
When the sides of the box act
external loads directly to the walls of the box.
For a multiceU section such as the wing

section in Fig. 15 wherein sheets of different
thicknesses are used, and
if
the trailing edge
h
Fig.
14.
S2
Single-cell
thin-walled
box
section.
Fig. 15. Unsymmetrical box beam wherein sheets of different thicknesses are used.
portion which resists only a small part of the torque
is
neglected,
(14)
lb.
T = 2{AJn
where
hi
+
=
^2/12)
shear factor, in
of
lb.
per
in. of
portion
..4i
/12
shear force, in
front spar
per
in. of
yl 2
portion of per-
perimeter bounding area
but
imeter, bounding area
but not including
not including front spar web
web
i.e.,
Note that the portion

shear per inch of which
is
of the perimeter S4 is omitted,
the front spar web, the
given by
/13
hi
hi
ii, ^0,
Shear per inch of the three sides of thickness

hi
and
^.3
is
= ^[h^{Ai
A.^)
AM
+
A\b2
K
wliere 63
= h{Ai
A.y
+
62
A'2bi
st/ti
s-^/U
Shear per inch for leading edge covering

ho
-Abs{Ai + 2K
A,) +Aobi]
wherein
7
bi
01 Si
7-
+r U + T
Sj i
;,

The shearing stress /
or in
87
any part
of the
box
h
is
shear per inch divided
by
thickness,
fs
t
When any of the sides buckle to form diagonal tension assumed to make an angle of 45 deg., the tensUe stress St is
2/1
fields,
the wrinkles being
Torsional deflection in 6 radians per

e
in. of
length
is
T GJ
(15)
where J is the torsion constant of the section corresponding to the moment of inertia I as commonly used in the formulas for beams under flexure. The equations for 6 and
for the shear loads per inch are strictly true only for shear resisting panels.
If sides
buckle to form diagonal tension
the values of t used in the equations for bi, fe,, should be multiplied by H. That is, use Ht instead of t. But for the stress calculations for fs and St, always use for t, the However, if allowable buckling actual thickness.
fields,
and
&3
stress of tension field sides is high
compared with
For reasonable
actual stress, the use of an effective thickness

te
= Ht
wiU not be accurate.

torsional
accuracy, proceed as follows:
Assume that the

buckling
torsional
stresses
in. -lb.
is
moment
causing
50,000
is
in. -lb.
and the
in. -lb.
total applied
moment
and
120,000
Calculate aU
deflections
under a load of 50,000
as in a shear resisting section.
Then
calcu-
Fig.
16.
Front
and
rear
spars
are
late stresses
in.-lb. for
and
deflections under a load of 70,000

field.
the section as a tension

deflections.
Add
the
designed to resist all the bending, whereas the box is designed on the assumption that it resists all the torsion.
stresses
and the
In a design as in Fig. 16, the front and rear spars are designed to resist all bending whereas the box is assumed to resist all torsional moments. To accomphsh this, the proportion of the total bending moment resisted by each spar is proportional to the
ratios of the
moments
of inertia of the respective spars, to the total
moment
of inertia.,
or
Mpi =
Mi
where Mpi and Mri
MEph + ErIr MEJb = Eplp + ErIr

Eplf
Ef and Er = modulus
If
of the spars
(16)
(17)
of elasticity of material
M = total applied bending moment

=
bending moments in front and
rear spars
and Ir
= moment
of inertia of front
and
rear spars
88
If

the front and rear spars are of the same material, Er = Ep, and cancel out. In Fig. 16, E.A. is the center of resistance to bending, and in the figure
a
^F ~r
j^
(18)
J^R
The
point E.A.
the elastic axis.
and the locus of these points is called The torsional moment apphed to the wdng is the load times the disis
called the elastic center,
tance of the center of gravity of the load to the elastic axis, i.e. Pic a) in Fig. 16. This will be the torsion that will be assumed resisted entirely by the box. For two spars acting in bending and interconnected only by pin-ended ribs, the
load
P in Fig.
16 wdll be divided proportionally between the two spars, as foUows:
P..=^^
^2 =
The
root bending
(19)
y
P^-rL
(20)
moments wUl be
Mf, =
Muo_
(21) (22)
= PrX
to torsion
This proportioning of the loads applies also when the spars offer but little resistance and the ribs are rigidly connected. If the spars have high torsional rigidity or if a box as in Fig. 13 is formed, the distribution approaches that given by Eqs. (16)
and
(17) for
Mr^ and
Af,.i. is
If all torsion
about E.A.
interaction between spars.
If
The amount
of interaction is
resisted by the box in torsional shear, there is complete no torsion is resisted by the box, the interaction is zero. obtained from
C,
= 1^*
Bo
(23)
where
L =
Bo
total length of
uniform cross
stiffness
= GJ when =
IfIr/{If
spars
spars have relatively
little
section of box
resistance to torsion
total
of
of
torsional
Ao
h),
if
is
same
for
both
two spars plus box
Generally for a stressed skin box, ratio C, is such that the moment would divide as The difference in Eqs. (16) and (17), for all points along the span except the root. between the moment obtained by the two methods is
= Mp, - Mfi MeR = Mr, - Mr,

M,.p
(24) (25)
For any degree

spar
is
of interaction
Cr between
spars, the final
bending moment in each

(26) (27)
M, = M,, Mr = Mr, -
Cr{Mf2 - Mf,) Cr{Mr, - Mr,)

Cr approximates 0.70 at wing root
for a trapezoidally loaded
89
box wing,
for which,
(28) (29)
Mf = M =
On
0.7Mf, 0.7Mi
+ 0.3^^2 + 0.3ilffl2
the assumption that Cr increases hnearly from 0.70 at the root to 1.00 at 20 per cent of the half span of the wing, Eqs. (16) and (17) apply from the wing tip to
80 per cent of the

(27)
way
wiU apply,
mth
inboard, and from this point inward to the root, Eqs. (26) and C^ varying from 1.0 at the 80 per cent distance to 0.7 at the root.
Allowable Stresses
These must be based on the combined shear stress and direct compressive stress. In the accompanying Fig. 17, /, and/,, are the allowable compressive stress and allow-
1.0
.9
08
2 Q6
0.4
0.2
4-
S -0.Z
-0.4
J
"
-Q6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
Fig. 17.
The combined
stresse.s for axial
and shear loads are obtained through the use of this curve plotted from the equation 1 (fca/fc) = (fsa/fsV-
able shear stress, each acting alone.
stress oif.a is acting together with a compressive or tensUe stress, fâ will be the allowable tensile or compressive stress. Similarly, fâ will be the allowable shear stress when a compressive stress of fâ is present. By means of the curve in Fig. 17, the allowable /,<, andf.a are readily obtained This applies for curved sheet, flat sheet, or tubes and may be used for for any ratio. combined bending and torsion or shear combined with axial tension or compression.
When shear
90
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN CHART FOR DETERMINING BENDING MOMENTS

Various Conditions of Loading
-12
'^
I
Y"^ >i ^
Uniform
Load of
load. Fixed
ends -20 ends
center, fixed
i>>""ii^/i//i,/,,M
100,00090,00080,000 70,00060,000
-
Uniform load, supp. and fixed ends
Example Cantilever beam

with concentrated load P= 2,000 lb.
-30
d^
'"
Y"""'"'"'^'''^
III
Uniform load,supported ends
^ 6----B=22Z^2&^
''"r
Load increasing to one end

Load increasing to center
Load
at center, supp. and fixed
atend.L=50in. C=l
ends
-40 -50 -60
-80
- 100
50,000
40,000-
4.
7-
T
C
'
'-
P^-2 -^
7~l
^
Load at center, supported ends Load increasing to

fixed end
30,000
20,000
,-rrr7777Z^
200
300
^--
kL-iz
i
2rL-H
T
j^Q
svrr.metrical and equal loads

load, one fixed
i,,/iij,,j,iii...ii.^
Uniform
end
loads
rj
P 2
Turning scale
400
-500
Two symmetrical and cquol
10,000
9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000

5,000
-| Concentroted
load at free en^
4,000
3,000
-
2,000
-n

DEFLECTION OF VARIOUSLY LOADED BEAMS
0.360
-
91
E= 27,000,000
(steel). For other material, multiply the answer determined on chart by ratio,
iConc. load
a+ free end
50
E for steel
E for given material 40

increasinq uniformly fo free end
-
35
30
20,000 -|
15,000Uniformly dislributed
'
loc
|llllllllll
25
D(max)
0.1-
wr
Xl2
Cone, load at end
20
0.090.080.07Increosing uniformly to fixed
end
15
-I
/D
0.06-
3conc. loods equolly spaced

0.05-
Uniformly disfribu+ed load
0.04^
0.001
0002
Concen+rofed Ipod of center
0004 Increasing uniformly to center

dJ
0.006
^^^^D
Uniformly distributed lood D
Increosing uniformly to one end
QOI0.009-
Decreasing uniformly to center

,D
0.0081.5
Q0070.006-
Concentrated load at cenif r
0005-
Uniformly distributed load D

I
0.9-
0.004-
Concentrated load at center
0.8
0.7-
0003
Uniformly distributed load
0.6-
00025-
0.5-
92

STRESSES IN CANTILEVER BEAMS
0.07
0.05

TENSILE STRENGTH OF ROUND WIRES
0.10-
93
-200
0.09-
300
-400
500
- 600
700
80.0
900
1,000
-1,100
-150
0.02-
- 1,200
The doffed Ifne shows fhafa wire 0.072" diamefer made of mo ferial having an ulfimafe sfrengfh of 160, 000 lb. per sq. in. breaks of 7331b. Nofe fhaf fhe corresponding scales A and k^ or B 0770'
1300
-200
1,400
0.01-
94
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN RECTANGULAR MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND SECTION MODULI
CHAPTER
IV
LATCHES, LOCKS,
AND FASTENINGS
Typical methods of temporarily retaining, locking, or fastening one movable machine part with reference to another, including detents, snap rings, wire locks, and taper pins. Designs of indexing mechanisms, machine clamping methods and 23 examples of door and cover fastenings, all taken from actual designs, are included. A chart for computing bolt stress is given at the end of the chapter.
Page
Page
Locking Devices Retaining and Locking Detents Wire Locks and Snap Rings Taper-Pin Applications Hinges and Pivots
96
100 103 104 105
Clamping Shoes and Plugs Lock Bolts and Indexing Mechanisms Machine Clamps Door and Cover Fastenings Bolt Diameter, Load, and Stress
109
Ill
115
116
119
95
96
LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS

I
97
Tapered nui splif for locking
Special faced nuf requires ^ revo/ufion for locking
Formed
flat
li^fej
Fig. 33
sfock
V///J
Threaded rod posiHoned by two opposite nufs

Fig. 34.
Fig. 35
Projections
on washers of various
:
shapes /oc/< in hole
and against bolt
m
~WM
\^'" Lead or soff

Ip-. -'
I
brass washer
forms
lock^
oil
1
Fig. 36.
_lii'x'L!il
_<
I
against leakage
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
Key machined
from flat stock,

^
m rod
Spring actuated
Spun-over
hole retains spring lock
cup
washer
Loose pin
Fig. 39.
Fig. 40.
plunger
Fig. 41.
Fig. 42.
Internal V groove
Lower I
I
face of nut milled
with
six
grooves
Pins with beveled <.
Two-piece ring fitting against s ha fr shoulder is retained in external

recess
ends
-i
Six
locking positions'
In
one revolution
'Hump on washer (washer spring-loaded)
Cone-pointed screw actuafes pins

Fig. 44.
\\
Fig. 43.
Fig. 45.
Retainer for
anchor pin
Extension
spring
,
1
:h
slots;
Threaded collar has milled is retained by cotter pin^
Flat spring.
Plunger^
Fig. 46.
Fig. 47.
Fig. 48.
98

Sliding rod^
Fla-i spring
Hex.nui
JZkL
Flaf spring' with formed iiump
Locaiing
plunger, spring- loaded

Fig. 49. Fig. 50.
Fig. 51.
--'
{_
"'
^Drilled hole in
<-V
V^
tSnap ring
-Counfer-
nuf
or half-round
bored
hole
Headless screw refainer^

Fig. 52.
Formed
wire wifh pin

Fig. 53.
end
Fig. 54.
Flaf spring wifh rounded
Wedge,
head refains pin
---
'
Clamped
Clomped projecfion-p
Toper pin
'Hollow head fillisfer screw engages groove in wedge

Fig. 55.
Fig. 56.
Fig. 57.
Fig. 58.
be held singh' or in multiple with one- or two-piece formed plugs and clamped either with screw or nut and washer. Clamping plugs may be reamed in place for accurate contact with round
raajf
Fig. 59. Figs. 59-62.
Round bars
Fig. 60.
Fig. 61.
Fig. 62.
Fig. 63.
Soft
flexible
wire that
withstands twisting
cient retention of or drilled screws.
offers
an
effi-
either
slotted
This
shows a
in
pieces.
method used extensively

mobile rear-axle design.
auto-

^^ leodeg.
99
furn opens
va/ve
Tooihed wedges
Si-eel
wedge
Board
drop
Fig. 66.
in
hammer
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65.
/Special wedge- headed / screw cfamps shafts
Screw
y plug
-'
Spring-backed
'Shaff locked agains'f'
endwise mol'/on
Fig. 67. Fig. 68.
Serraled head on screw
100

RETAINING AND LOCKING DETENTS
Knurled
Fig.
75. In
this design, the
riving Fig. 69. plunger, shown in engagement at A, is pulled out and given a 90-deg. slipping into turn, pin the shallow groove as shown at B, both members
A
fngoped
posiljon
Fig. 72. The plunger is pinned to the knurled handle, which is pulled out and twisted, the screw A dropping into the locked position at in the
plunger is retained by staking or spinning over the hole

at A.
bayonet
slot.
being thus disengaged.
fWVWHTJ^
ss[
of the plunger B bearing against the hand lever A is concaved and prevented from turning by the dog-point setscrew engaging the splined slot. Friction is the only thing that holds the adjustable
Fig.
76.The end
pin in the attached to the plunger rides on the end of the handle when in the disengaged position and drops into the hole Y to allow engagement.
Fig.
collar
70.The
Fig. 73. In this design, the pin A engaging in the slot prevents This the plunger from turning. detent is used as a temporary gear lock which is engaged for loosening a drawback rod through the gear.
hand
lever
in position.
Fig.
77.
spring-backed steel
effi-
Fig. 71. A long and a slotted pin driven into the casting give two
S'hort
plunger positions.
An adjustable gear-case Fig. 74. If the door is pushed cover lock. shut, it is automatically latched, whereas pulling out the knurled knob A disengages the latch.
ball
makes an inexpensive but
cient detent, the grooves in the rod having a long, easy riding angle.
For economy, rejected or undersized balls can be purchased from

manufacturers.
101
Another form, in Fig. 78. which the grooves are cut all around the rod, which is then free to turn to any position.
Fig. 82.
ball,
Instead
of
a
is
a hollow plunger
accommodates the spring. The

used
which
end
is
hemispherical.
At A is shown the usual 120-deg. Fig. 83. conical spot made with a drill. At B is shown a 90-deg. spot which gives a more positive seat, one which will not permit the plunger to disengage as readily and which is preferable when considerable vibration is encountered.
84. Fig. The plunger is turned down slightly smaller than the inside diameter of the
Fig. 79. Fig. 80. Figs. 79 and 80. A double-locking device for gear-shift j'oke rods is shown in Fig. 79. At A, the neutral position is shown with ball free in the hole. At B, the lower rod is shifted; ball is forced upward, the upper rod being retained in a neutral
spring which gets its other bearing against the threaded plug, the hole in the plug guiding the stem of the plunger.
Fig. 85. Instead of a hole, a slot is milled across the rod. Since the plunger is conical, it is obvious that only line contact is obtained.
The lower rod must also be in neutral position before the upper rod can be moved. A similar design is shown in Fig. 80, wherein a rod with hemispherical ends is used in place of
position.
ball
X.
Fig. 81. Without using a spring of any kind, three gear-shifting rods are locked by a large steel ball. At A, the neutral position
At B, the lower rod has been shifted, forcing the ball upward, thereby locking the other two rods. The dashed circle shows the position of the ball when
is
shown.
the right-hand rod has been shifted.
Fig. 86. The spring tension may be increased or decreased as desired by the long hollow threaded plug, which is then locked in position b^- means of In this design, the rod is flattened the check nut. and the locating holes, which are truncated cones in shape, are machined into the flat surface.
102
Fig. 87. The round plunger is flat milled to a 90-deg. included angle and prevented from turning by pin A engaging milled slots in the threaded plug. In the end view shown at B, it can be seen that, if the spring tension is to be adjusted, at least a half turn must be given so that the flattened point will coincide with the slot in the rod.
Fig. 88. When the plunger diameter and the wall thickness are sufficiently large,
keyway
can be milled into the plunger for engaging a pin, which prevents it from rotating.
The plunger is milled Fig. 89. square with round corners and the hole is partly broached; this does awaj' with the necessity of a key. The point is flat milled.
Sometimes the plunger can Fig. 90. be milled with a flat which bears against a pin, as shown in the end view to the right thus the plunger is prevented from turning in the hole. This design is par;
Fig. 91.
Here
its
is
plunger
with
shown a square-headed body turned round to
F I G. 92. Probably one of the simplest yet

most
highly efficient forms of detent is merely a flat spring bent to a 90-deg. included angle and seating in V's milled in the
rod.
accommodate the spring

acts as a key.
in an eccentric hole, thereby giving a support to the pin A, which
ticular!}' suitable for solid-type plungers.
With a long spring and a fairlj' Fig. 93. short phmger, a common flat-head wire nail can be used to support the spring against buckling. The spring also fits closely into the plunger hole to gain support, and the plunger is flanged at its upper end to prevent its slipping through the hole.
Fig. 94. This design is similar to Fig. 88. When confined to a small diameter, a smaller spring is placed within the larger. By using a ,?i6 in. outside diameter outer spring, 25 per cent spring tension can be gained by the addition of the inner spring. The larger one has a sliding fit in the plunger and screw plug holes. Two guide pins, the heads fittings closely into the larger spring, keep the inner spring central and free from buckling.
103
WIRE LOCKS AND SNAP RINGS

Re mo val^
fool
_
"Close
--Kifi
wound spring,
'
Wi're lock
(exaggera led)
successive coils cut off fo suif
J^~~Lap should have

în. for each jg in.
wire lock diameler
is
smaller Ihon
D, Fig
diameler
96
-Spring lock of -In. wire
on^-in. diarn.
pin
Fig. 100.
, L
ubricafor
~Wire lock holds fell and also wire screen in place
Fig. 101.
Fig. 102.
Wire lock,
Close-wound spring from which infernal lock n'ngs can be cuf
Wire lock
Shouldbe
^ In. larger
ihon diarn.
D,Fig. 96
^~2 in. for each dif'
ference befween
wire lock diom. and diarn. D,
Fig. 96
Fig. 103.
Fig. 104.
Fig. 105.
Recfangular^
snap ring
'Machined
--Wire lock holds sheef-
Groove moch_
Inedin ouler race
'Recfangular snap rings
mefal sfamp''ng
made from
recfangular
spring sfock
Fig. 107.
in place
Fig. 106.
104

TAPER-PIN APPLICATIONS
Fig. 109. Fig. 109.
The conventional way of applying a taper
Fig. 110.
Fig. 111.
pin,
Fig. 112.
friction to hold the pin in place.
which depends upon
In gear boxes and other sealed mechanisms where it would be injurious for a pin to work loose, positive locking means must be provided. Fig. 110. The large end of the pin comes just below the surface of the external member it is holding and is staked as shown in the plan view. These little swellings, or burrs, straighten out or shear off it it is necessary to remove
It should be noted that cast iron does not stake readily as it not flow. Fig. 111. A small cotter pin retains but does not prevent loosening of the taper pin. Fig. 112. With this design, the taper pin is pulled tight with the hex nut which bears against a flat on the external member, although this flat is not necessary. Some engineers prefer to use a lock washer under the nut, in which case both the nut and the external member should not be Hardened. Thus the lock washer can get a grip.
is
the pin, but usually will score the surface of the pin.
brittle
and
will
P^lp^
y/////////////////A
Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 113. In this design, the screw stud is expanded and locked by the use of a taper pin. The stud as shown in the end view. The taper pin rests in the bottom of the hole, and the stud is screwed in until
is
slitted
it
can be
turned no farther. Fig. 114. This shows a twofold purpose. the sUdable inner member.
The
sa wed-off taper pin acts as a holding device
and as a key guide to
Here the pin flattened and used as a wedge. This method accurate work, but, the hole reamed too large or wears too much, the next larger taper pin maj' be used. Figs. 116, 117, and When a taper pin to be used a blind one of the three methods shown here can
Fig. 115.
is
is
Fig. 115.
Fig. 116.
Fig. 117.
Fig. 118.
off
calls for
if
118.
is
in
hole,
be used. To facilitate loosening the pin, a square may be milled at the large end as in Fig. 116. It is well to cj'anide this squared end. Figure 117 shows a special form with a square head, the flat of which is equal to the large diameter. This type should be hardened all over and ground on the body. In Fig. 118, the pin is threaded and jacked out by a hex nut against a washer. The top end should be cyanided so it will not be pounded over during assembly. A fine thread should be used so as not to weaken the pin by too small a root diameter. For appearances, the washer and nut are left on, but this does not render it foolproof. This form is used as a dowel pin where the held member must be located accurately.
105
HINGES AND PIVOTS FOR COVERS AND FLEXIBLE JOINTS

"^^^
Fig.
119. Com-
mon
cover hinge with pin tiglit in the cover and loose in the hinge lugs.
Fig. 120. With the end peened, the pin can be
121. a Fig. plain pin with two

cotters can be used in place of a
Fig.
double
with
tightly
lugs.
122. a tapered
pin
in
fiitting
hole in cover lugs
made a
all lugs.
loose
fit
in
peened
rivet.
outer
Fig.
123. Sheet-metal cover bent around the hinge pin.
Fig.
124.
A tapered pin makes hinge adjustable.
Fig. 125.
Combination straight and taper-pin hinge.
t;,
'
\\\
HI
''I
f1
106
10/
Fig.
steel
149.
Common
Fig.
150.
hinge applied to a machine-tool cover.
integrally,
Cover lugs cast and pivot pins fas-
tened in loose piece for greater

span.
Fig. 151. Wlien swinging member A is to be removable, the bearing is cut as in the left view.
Swinging rod reFig. 152. Both tained by pinned collar A. lugs are integral with the casting.
Fig.
153.
Fig.
gle or
154. Togpawl
joint.
Pivot bearing as
used on an adjustable vise .iaw.
Angle A should be 30 to 45 deg. to

retain the
member.
Fig. 155. Radial and axial play are taken up by the hardened and ground bushings
tapered to an included angle of 22^0 deg., sufficient to prevent sticking.
Fig. 156. Needle-bearing pivot for either rotation or oscillation, with three hardened and ground washers for separating the
roUei-s.
Fig. 157. Three liall joints used in a gear-shift mechanism. Hole A is in shifting rod; B is the pivoting center, which is retained by the inserted locating plug
at C.
158. Socket joint hemispherical rod ends held in place by screw bushings.
Fig.
witli
Fig. justing
159. Self-adsocket
joint.
The sheet -metal

spring cover is held in place by two screws.
108
Fig.
160. Sheet-
Fig.
metal ball-socket
housing with cover fastened by spot
Avelding.
sphere
is
161. The flattened held by the center

are used to
tion
Fig. 162. pivot
Combinajoint
Fig.
joint,
and
stud. Felt seals retain the grease.
end-thrust bearing, the ball being retained by the washer spun over the fixed screw.
being
163. Universal the smaller pin retained by wire
snap
ring.
Fig.
164,
Rocker-arm
bearing
Fig,
165.
Arm
joint
of
Fig. 166.
Arm
joint designed
ball bear-
as used
on an airplane.
pantograph machine, with center stud clamped without end play, stud head and bushing end forming the ball race.
for accuracy.
Upper
ing takes all thrust caused by weight, and the spindle is pinned to the stationary member. The bearing has a light press fit.
109
CLAMPING SHOES AND PLUGS
Plug may mar the Fig. 167. shaft to the extent that disassembling might be impossible. The smooth surfaces of the hole are scored.
Fig. 168. The 60-deg. point does not always line up with the bottom of the thread.
Fig.
169. a
fiat filed
or milled
on the shaft is an improvement. But the cup point of the screw bites
into the flat, and, once a ring is made into the flat, it is hard to get clear of it when the held member
must be moved
to either side.
Fig. 170.
further im-
Fig. 171.
tion
fit
A variation
press
Fig.
172.
Here
the
provement is a brass plug making a loose fit with the

inside
of the preceding construcis
obtained by
diameter
of
the
making the plug a

in the screw.
side in contact with the shaft makes a full fit, achieved by inserting a
Fig. 173. This is simito the construction shown in Fig. 172, a tap being used instead of a
lar
threaded hole.
reamer into the hub bore

constantly feeding the clamping screw while the reamer is turning.
reamer.
and
174. When a Fig. longer clamping surface is desired, a slot similar to a key way is cut into .the retaining member.
This construction facilitates Fig. 175. the removal of the plug but can be used only when the diameter of the clamping screw is large enough. Freedom of the internal fillister head screw permits the plug to assume its natural position against the shaft.
Fig. 176. This shows another method of removing a plug, by first removing the clamping screw and then inserting a small screw to fit the tapped hole.
Fig. 179. Fig. 178. Fig. 177. Figs. 177-179. In these modifications of the clamping plug, the shoe is assembled after the clamping screw is screwed through the hole. In Figs. 177 and 179, the shoe is retained by spinning or riveting, whereas in Fig. 178 a In each case, the pin through the hub of the shoe engages the circular half-round groove near the end of the screw. shoe bears against the shoulder of the screw.
no
111
LOCK BOLTS AND INDEXING MECHANISMS
,' Conica/ lock

l-op
bol-f
and boifom of
conical end m!l/ed off I'o a//ow for wear
r:^':'~V\
:
^' Rofaiing
member
ZA ^Machined
^
Fig. 186.
-keyed
of bolf
lo prevenf rofafion
hole
Fig. 187.
Operaiing spring pushes ogoinsl pin

Screw- backed brass shoe j
Sides ofsloh
1
clamps bolf
ground, boflom relieved^ open
end chamfered
Brackel acts as guide for cone(-4-
ing
ended bolf and as refainer for opera fing spring

Fig. 188. Fig. 189.
Conical- ended lock bolf,
-\'%rSlof
\j
/
Bayonel
siof
Pin
^.
~M / keeps bolf oaf

j
^w
Pin keeps bolf oaf of
'Slol
o f engagemenf
engagemenf by dropping
info slof
Fig. 190.
ES
^^
when bolf is fumed
90deg.
-Lock bolf
Fig. 191.
Lock boli
Disengaging pin-.
Locking piece,
- - Flaf ground piece acfs as a \ lock boll by engaging slof
Pivol
Pivoi-'{
|:|ri1
/g
fo
clearance allows spring push bolf firmly inio
lock- bolf plafe slof
Spring keeps bolf
engaged
Cam
Fig. 192.
acl'uafes
Fig. 193.
gear segmeni
112
/ Flo'f

reioining plaie
/!
^^^>
S^-.iT"
Recianqulor lock boli milled ouf
cenlrally looccom~
^'Lock boll wilh rack machined
'Pinion manually
modafe acluaflng
spring
In this design the rectangular lock bolt is Fig. 194. milled out centrally to accommodate actuating spring. A pin is provided tor hand actuation when desired.
aclua led by wrench or handle A rack is machined in the lock bolt. Fig. 195. Pinion meshing with rack is manxiaUy actuated with wrench or handle.
When indexing starts, the lock Fig. 196. bolt is released and rides on the periphery At point A, it starts to sUde of the plate. down the inclined slot. At B is shown the shearing or wearing action that takes place. In case the plate has overrun or indexed past its position as at C, the spring behind the lock bolt is required to turn the plate, together with the whole rotating mass attached to it, backward, resulting in wear on the side opposite
to that
Fig. 197. More accurate form of lock bolt, which is claimed by many to be the correct method for this type of design. The inclined surface gets the wear as it seats the the bolt, whereas the straight or radial side positions the bolt accuPositions A, B, C, and rately. correspond to those in Fig. 196, and indicate that the corners and Y
shown at B. At Z>, complete engagement is shown. Rounded corners as at X and Y should be provided. There should be
plenty of clearance as at E to allow for wear is because of the small angle of the slot. At shown an improved form of gear. It assures clearance and provides for grinding of the, angular surfaces if necessary. If the lock-bolt spring is not strong enough to seat the bolt by rotating the plate, vibration will usually complete the seating, causing chatter at the cutting tool or spindle and wear on the bolt and slot. In this type of bolt, the angular sides are alike, hence the direction may be opposite from that
should be rounded. At is shown how the groove is ground. Other notations are the same as given in
Fig. 196.
Milled
Pin pre venis

ro la I ion
Fig. 198.
shown.
,-DîJ.
n selfinq of boll
'Tapered gibs perrnii accurole in bolh side
Fig. 199.

Spn'nq-bocked bolf
113
A^
Hand-opera ied
/ re/ease cam
.'
^^
^B
^Locking ring
(a)
(b)
^^^â<
Locking ring
Each locking ring has series of five

projeciions or bolls
which engage one anolher Each boll
and space machÊngaging lug held

Y/xro'
'^y
V//V///,
in correal relation ^ cam by sehcrew which engages keyway in boll Fig. 200. Fig. 201.
ined accurately lo occupy J6 deg. of circle
Taper pin
Side wa//s
in lock- boll plales are
of grooves LJ ~V/ Taper pin hardened,
Section X~X
q- ^ Hardened
and
ground cylindrical lock boll
'Lever fhaf ocfuafes lock boll
Fig. 202.
Roller'^
Boll
114

Hand- operated
, / /
cam
sloi- in
Projecfion Jnfegral niin cam engages ^

bolf
Boli
Bolf disengaged
Bolt
Bolt
Bolt
engaged
engaged
Tension spring keeps bo/rin
disengaged
^qo
Pivof center locafion
engagement
Fig. 205.
Swinging
loci;
boll
Lug
jê lease
Cam
"t^-" Lock boll
ZA^Handoperoled
lever
Xy- Lock-boll'
plole
Cenlering lugs-'
Plan
Fig. 207. By using a lock-bolt plate larger than the work, the indexing error is diminished. The swinging lock bolt is released automatically by the spring plunger, which has a predetermined movement, when the hand-operated lever is moved to the left, as shown by the arrow marked Release, and the cam contacts the rounded top surface of the lock bolt. The ratchet is keyed with the lock-bolt plate to the spindle. As the lock bolt is released and the lever is The lever is then pulled rotated 30 deg. counterclockwise, the pawl engages the ne.xt tooth in the ratchet wheel at X. in the direction of the arrow marked Index, the cam moving the lock bolt downward into the next opening in the lock-bolt plate. The plan view of the bolt shows the two centering lugs between which the lock bolt is additionally
supported.
L ock-
boll plale
keyed lo spindle
Spring-backed lock
boll,
,-- Groove J
---Xfe/K
'Indexing
handle
-Pin
Pin
-Prong
Locked
^
^Groove F
Plale
~
Third prong
Lock- boll plate
Prong
Lock-boll operaling plale freefo
'Lock boll
rolale
Fig. 209. Fig. 208. The handle is mounted on the plate and is independent of the lock-bolt plate. As the handle is pulled to the left, the prong pushes against the pin driven into the spring-backed lock bolt, thereby disengaging the bolt. At the same time, the second prong contacts the plate at Z. Both plates then move simultaneously, releasing the lock bolt, which rides on the periphery of the lock-bolt plate, and the bolt falls into the next slot. The handle is then pushed back again, clockwise, contacting the plate at R, upon which a third prong pushes against the pin-seating lock bolt in a locked position. Fig. 209. The plate is indexed through a half revolution in one direction and then back again in the opposite direc-
Fig. 208.
The lock-bolt operating plate is free to rotate on the spindle. When the indexing handle is pushed counterclockwise, as shown at the right, groove F in the plate forces the lock bolt out of engagement. The pin driven into the plate engages the slot in the plate, thereby lining up groove / with slot K. Upon further movement in a counterclockwise direction, the roller on the bolt may slide into groove / and the bolt may enter slot K. The dashed line in both views show the positions when indexing in the opposite directions.
tion.
The lock-bolt plate is keyed to the spindle.
115
MACHINE CLAMPS
Fig.
210.
Fig.
211.
Clamping
dovetail.
Fig. 212.
Spindle clamping
bolt.
Clamping with bolt and bushing.
by spring
Fig. 213. Clamping sliding table with plate and

bolt.
Fig. 214. Clamping a spindle with a split bracket.
Fig.
split
215.
Sleeve
for
Fig. 216.
Example
clamping,
of
wedge
Fig.
217.
Clamping
at
ends
with a
split bracket.
clamping.
'
Fig. 218.
Clamping with an
eccentric.
Fig. 219.
Clamping a swiveling column.
116

DOOR AND COVER FASTENINGS
Finger grooves
Knob
"Casi-iron
rise
com has o spiral of aboufîn.jof file circum ference of Ig in. oufsic/e diamefer of cam. Direction
of spiral shouidiie such fhaf wifh door hinged on left, knob is fumed ro leff for opening door, anci when hinged on fhe right knob is turned right to open door
Lever-type
lock.
When placed
in vertical position, the weight of lever fends fo lock bolt more securely. Tapered
brocket furnishes binding action
Suitable for heavy doors such OS on motors, chain, or

belt
housings
Fig. 222.
Fig. 220.
,
Knurled
Tapered face ^
'Knob
xl;.jx
Adjustable cam, with threaded hole, the spiral being obtained by tapering one face. Nut locks the cam in place
Fig. 221.
Alternate'' handle, a steel castinq

Fig. 223
Plain knob
Lugs hold 'spring i.

control
%^
Pressed steel flanged cap with

flat lea f spring fastener. A 90-de'i. twist loosens cover Suitable for closing inspection or adjustment
openings
Fig. 224.- -Snap-type fastener using a flat formed
spring.
Fig. 225.
Snap-type
fastener using
Fig. 226.
round wire spring.

'
117
Cover
Aliernaie consfruc-tion requiring /<ey io
guide plunger
^
I
"J
Openings larger ihon)
head or rivet or sere w/
Fig. 227.
plunger type of automatic door lock, for light duty.
Spring-backed
Screv/ lype cover fasfening
Fig.
228. Spring-backed
Fig. 229.
plunger engaging a cast lug on case, suitable for light duty.
To
lafch ided
'dowel pins
add wear resislonce, and screw cyan-
Cover located by^
may be
lifted off
when latch is opened
'A
two
coil spring
may be substituted
tor the shoulder
Fig. 230.
Fig. 231.
Simple cleaning-hole
cover.
Fig.
232.Shouldered stud
fastening.
'
'
Knob must be unscrewed until
the corners
A-A clear
Stud bent 30deg., with knob for
locking
i
swing bolt and openend slot.
Fig. Simple
a chip cleaning hole cover

Fig. 233.
234.
Fig.
235. Tee-bolt type

fastening.
of
118
^^^^^
Finger
liff
m.
Exfended finger grip
Weic/h-f ofex.-
iending lug A running full wic/fh of cover

keeps if in place
Flush iop
Fig. 236.
^KlU
^
Fig. 237. A simple cover held by gravity and requiring no machine work.
Stove-plate-type cover held by gravity.
Fig.
38.Pivoted
hole cover.
oil-
[lis;
Weigh f of knob keeps hook in place

Vertical cover Fig. 239. swung on a screw.
L
Fig. 241.
Fig. 240.
Plain gravity
latch.
Bevel-
16
^8
0.005"
clearance
Co ver is slipped over stud and drops on body of The sfuds, being held by gravify
Fig. 242.
Positive type
of gravity lock.

-I
119
BOLT DIAMETER, LOAD, AND STRESS U.S. STANDARD 60-DEG.V THREAD
Tolâl
Tension Load on BoH"
in
Pounds
(L)
CHAPTER V
SPRINGS
Page
Page
Design of Helical Springs

Spring Wire Specifications
122 128 130
Table of Wire Gages and Diameters, with Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers 138
Inspection and Testing of Springs
Design Stresses
Torsional Moduli
139
Graphical
Solution
of
Helical
Spring
140
Allowable Stresses Based on Endurance

Limits
131
Formulas
Helical Spring Charts for Specified Ratio
Natural Frequenc3r
132
133
.
.
Formulas for Helical Springs

Permissible Manufacturing Tolerances
134
136
Form
for
Design Calculations
Standard Drawings for Springs
137
of Loads and Lengths 141 Designs of Tension Spring Ends 144 Flat Cantilever Springs, Graphical Design of 145 Semielliptic Laminated Springs, Graphical Design of 148
121
122

Design of Helical Springs
Condensation of
the
standard specifications and design procedure adopted by the Atlas Imperial Diesel Engine
Company
as set forth by
W. M.
Griffith,
product engineer of that company, in
March and April 1937, Product
Engineering.
CLASSES OF SPRING SERVICE

Class
Rapid, continuous deflection over a uniform stress range from zero to a maximum or from an intermediate stress to maximum as in engine valve springs.
I.
Class
II.
Rapid
deflections over a variable stress range that
intermediate, intermediate to
intermittent operation
Class III.
Statically
stress range
as in springs for engine governors.
maximum,
or zero to
may be from zero to maximumbut with only
maximum
loaded at maximum stress or infrequent deflections with from zero to intermediate, intermediate to maximum, or zero to but with only infrequent operation as springs for relief valves.
PURCHASE SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPRING WIRE

The minimum
physical properties given in these specifications are 95 per cent of
the average values determined by tests. Thus the specified are well within commercial limits.
minimmn
physical properties here
SWEDISH STEEL SPRING WIRE SPECIFICATIONS

Generally used for Class I extension or compression springs and Class II and Class III extension springs, in wire diameters from 0.1055 in. up to 0.262 in. This
material can be used for springs of larger or smaller wire diameter, but generally
music wire
is
used for the smaUer wire diameters and carbon steel for the larger wires.
1.
Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be of Swedish manufacture according to approved practice by the acid open-hearth or electric-furnace process.
2.
0.60-0.70 0.45-0.65 0.15-0.25
Phosphorus Sulphur
0.025 max. 0.025 max.
Carbon Manganese
Silicon
3.
Physical Properties
Minimum
strength,
lb.
tensile
Alinimum
in.
torsional
per sq.
strength,
lb.
per sq.
in.
Range
of wire diameter, in.
Ultimate
0.1055 and under. 0.1205-0.1350...
Elastic
limit
Ultimate
Elastic
limit
0.1483-0.1920... 0.2070-0.2625... 0.2812-0.3437... 0.3625-0.4375... 0.4615-0.5625 ..

.
212,000 202,000 187,000 175,000 164,000 155,000 146,000

Elongation in 10
in.,
154,000 146,000 136,000 126,000 119,000 112,000 106,000

5 per cent
184,000 175,000 163,000 151,000 142,000 135,000 127,000
112,000 106,000 99,000 92,000 86,000 82,000 77,000
Reduction of area, 48 per cent minimum.
minimum.
SPRINGS
:
123
Twist Test Samples taken from any part of the bundle of wire must withstand twisting seven revolutions forward and seven reverse, at a twisting speed not to exceed
25 r.p.m., for the number of times as given in the following table, and the ultimate break must be clean and square.
Length of wire between

Diameter
cycles
of wire, in
. .
grips, 10 in.
0.1055
23
0.1205
20
0.1250
20
0.1350
18
0.1483
17
0.1563
16
0.1620
15
0.1770
14
Minimum
twisting
Length
Diameter
cycles
of wire
between
0.1875
20
grips, 15 in.
of wire, in
0.1920
19
0.2070
18
0.2188
17
0.2253
16
0.2437
15
0.2500
15
0.2625
14
Minimum
twisting

Diameter
of wire, in
grips,
20
in.
0.2813
18
0.2830
17
0.3065
16
0.3125
16
0.3310
15
0.3438
14
0.3625
14
Minimum
twisting cycles

Diarneter of wire,
in.
grips,
30
in.
0.3750 0.3938 0.4063 0.4305 0.4375 0.4615 0.4688 0.4900 0.500 0.5313 0.5625
20
19
Minimum
cycles
twisting 18
17 17 16
16
15
15
14
13
4.
Surface Conditions
Upon etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose surface defects, no hairline cracks, seams, pits, gouges, die marks, or other imperfections shall be revealed. Decarburization must be held to a minimum.
5.
Limits of Variations in Diameter
Wire diameter 0.162 in. and less plus or minus 0.0015 in. Wire diameter 0.1770 in. and over plus or minus 0.002 in.
6.
Inspection, Rejections,
and Replacements
If
AU
fails
springs will be rigidly inspected at the plant as received.
more than a
total of 10 per cent of the springs

detail drawing, the entire lot will
on any one purchase order are made of steel that to comply with the preceding specifications, or with the specifications on the
be rejected. All springs rejected at the plant wHl be held at the seller's risk for a reasonable length of time, subject to his instructions, and shall be replaced by the seller without further cost to the purchaser.
124

CARBON-STEEL SPRING WIRE SPECIFICATIONS
and also for in., advancing
Generally used for springs of wire diameter greater than 0.262 square or rectangular wire ranging from M2 X }i2 in. up to X
in.
by M2
in.,
and
for sizes larger than

1.
HX
/4 in.,
advancing by
He
in.
Steel Manufacture
practice
This steel is to be open-hearth process.
made according to approved
by the
electric-furnace or
2.
0.60-0.70 0.45-0.65
Sulphur Phosphorus
Carbon Manganese
0.025 max. 0.025 max.
3.
Physical Properties
Minimum
Range
tensile
Minimum
torsional
strength, lb. per sq. in.
strength, lb. per sq. in.
Ultimate
0.1055 and under. 0.1205-0.1350....
0.1483-0.1920.... 0.2070-0.2625..,.
Elastic limit
Ultimate
Elastic limit
0.2813-0.3438....
0.3625-0.4375.
. .
0.4615-0.5625....
Reduction
of area
202,000 191,000 178,000 165,000 156,000 147,000 139,000

48 per cent minimum.
4.
Elongation in 10
in.,
132,000 125,000 117,000 108,000 102,000 97,000 91,000

5 per cent
165,000 157,000 145,000 136,000 127,000 121,000 114,000
108,000 103,000 95,000 89,000 84,000 79,000 74,000
minimum.
Surface Conditions
etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose surface defects, no seams, hairline or otherwise, pits, gouges, die marks, or other imperDecarburization must be held to a minimum. fections shall be revealed.
5.
Upon
Limits of Variation in Diameter
Wire diameter 0.1762 in. and less Wire diameter 0.177 in. and over
6.
plus or minus 0.0015 plus or minus 0.002
in.
in.
Inspection, Rejections,
and Replacements
If more than a All springs will be rigidly inspected at the plants as received. total of 10 per cent of the springs on any one purchase order are made of steel that
fails to
comply with the above
specifications, or
drawing, the entire lot will be rejected. at the seller's risk for a reasonable length of time, subject to his instructions, and shall be replaced by the seller without further cost to the purchaser.
with the specifications on the detail All springs rejected at the plants wUl be held
SPRINGS
125
S.A.E. 6150
CHROME-VANADIUM-STEEL SPRING WIRE,
SPECIFICATIONS
Generally used for same range of sizes of spring wire as covered by carbon-steel spring wire, and where the higher physicals of the chrome-vanadium-steel wire make
its
use specially desirable or necessary.

1.
Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be made according to approved practice by the electric-furnace or open-hearth process.
2.
0.45-0.55 0.50-0.90 0.80-1.10 0.15 min.
3.
Carbon Manganese
Chromium Vanadium
Sulphur Phosphorus Sihcon
0.5 max. 0.04 ma.\. 0.15-0.30
Physical Properties
Range
126

MUSIC -WIRE SPRING STEEL SPECIFICATIONS
Generally used for Class I compression springs in wire sizes up to and including wire diameter. Springs made of this wire should not be finished.
1.
0. 105 in.
Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be of Swedish manufacture according to approved practice by the acid open-hearth or electric-furnace process.
2.
0.60-1.00 0.25-0.50 0. 10-0.20
Sulphur Phosphorus
Carbon Manganese
Silicon
.
0.25 max. 0.25 max.
3.
Physical Properties
Range
SPRINGS
127
81
PHOSPHOR BRONZE SPRING WIRE S.A.E.

Used only
corrosion
for small springs, especially
is essential.
where resistance to moisture or other
Can be used in Class I, Class II, or Class III service. DiamSquare or rectangular mateeters are specified in Brown and Sharpe gage numbers. rial may be used from a minimum size of M2 X M2 in. to a maximum of M X Yi in., advancing by M2 in.
1.
4.00-6.00 0.03-0.40 20
.
Tin Phosphorus
Zinc,
..
..
Iron,
Lead,
max max
0.10
0. 10
max
Copper
remainder
2.
Tensile Strength
Minimum
Range of Wire
Diameter,
In.
Tensile Strength, Lb. per Sq. In.

130,000 120,000 110,000 100,000
Up
to 0.0625
0.0625-0.1250 0.1250-0.2500 0.2500-0.3750

3.
Bend Test
flat
The wire should be capable

on
itself
of being bent through an angle of 180 deg. without fracture on the outside of the bent portion.
4.
back
Appearance
in shape,
The wire
and
free
shall be uniform in quality and temper, cylindrical from injurious defects.

5.
and smooth
Dimensional Tolerances
following:
The wire shaU not vary from the specified diameter by more than the Sizes over 0.050 in., by plus or minus 1 per cent Sizes 0.050 to 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.0005 in. Sizes under 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.00025 in.
BRASS SPRING WIRE,
S.A.E. 80
This material may be used for the same types and classes of springs for which phosphor bronze is suitable. It is available in two grades, as given below, Grade A for use where the requirements are especially severe and Grade B for use under ordinary conditions. Grade B will be furnished unless otherwise specified.
128

2.
Physical Properties
This wire shall have a tensile strength of at least 100,000 lb. per sq. in. but should be capable of being bent through an angle of 180 deg. around a ware of the same diameter without breaking.
3.
Appearance
The wire
and
free
shall
be uniform in quaUty and temper, cyhndrical in shape, and smooth

defects.
from injurious
4.
Dimensional Tolerances
The wire
not vary from the specified diameter by more than the following: by plus or minus 1 per cent Sizes 0.050 to 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.0005 in. Sizes under 0.025 in. by plus or minus 0.00025 in.
shall
Sizes over 0.050 in.,
DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Class I springs,
i.e.,
springs subjected to rapid continuous deflections over a uni-
from zero to maximum or from an intermediate stress to maximum, as in engine valve springs, must be designed on the basis of the endurance hmit of the material. Class II and Class III springs, respectively, springs that operate only intermittently or springs that are statically loaded are designed on the basis of the
form
stress range static strength of the material.
with decreased wire diameter, as shown in Figs. 243 to 247, a larger permissible stress can be used for the smaller wires. The following table gives the maximum permissible working
Because the
static strength of wire of a given material increases
stresses for springs for Class II
and Class
III service.
MAXIMUM
SPRINGS
250
129
Chemical analysis
Carbon Manganese
Silicon
O65-Q70
0.45-0,65 Q 15- 0.25
'^^
Phosphorous Sulphur
Q025max.'
Q025n-iax,
150
^//',
100
50
01
0.2
03
Fig.
243.
Swedish
Diam.of Wire
0.4 in Inches
05
of
06
03 02 Diam.of Wire
Fig. 244.
04
in
Inches
Relation steel wire. diameter to physical properties.
wire
Relation Carbon-steel wire, S.A.E. 1065. of wire diameter to physical properties.
02
03
in
0.4
0.1
0.2
in
0.3
niam. of Wire
Inches
Chrome-vanadium-steel wire, S.A.E. 6150. Fig. 245. Relation of wire diameter to physical properties.
Diom. of Wire
Inches
Fig. 246. Music wire, S.A.E. Relation of wire diameter 1095. to physical properties.
130
0.2
0.3
in
0.4
Diam. of Wire
Inches
Fig. 247.
Phosphor bronze
index,
wire, S.A.E. 81.
Relation of wire diameter to physical properties.
WAHL CORRECTION FACTOR

As the spring
the
i.e.,
the ratio of coU diameter to wire diameter, decreases,
developed becomes increasingly greater than that as calculated by the conventional formulas. To compensate for this in the design calculations, the Wahl correction factor must be applied. The accompanying chart (Fig. 248)
stress
2.0
maximum
1.9
>-
1.8
fel.7
-*-
i 16
I O
3
1.5
-13
iL2
II
1.0
SPRINGS
131
10
20
30
40
in
Fig.
249.
Allowable
Lower S/ress
80 90 50 60 70 Thousands of Lb.perSq.ln.
Swedish
no
100
torsional stress steel wire.
range
for
50
t
i 60
I
o
50
40
55 30
E
"5
.20
a
10
Fig.
132
In calculating Class I springs, the procedure is similar except that the permissible working stress must be based on the endurance value of the material. A tentative allowable stress is assumed, and the wire diameter is calculated by following the same procedure as outlined above for Class I and Class II springs. The calculated wire diameter is then checked against the endurance charts as given in Figs. 249 to 253 for
the various materials.
As an example
calculated to be
of the use of the
endurance charts, assume a valve spring had been
made
of Swedish steel wire 0.177 in. diameter

in.
to be stressed to 62,000 lb. per sq.
when the valve is
and the wire calculated closed and 81,000 lb. per sq. in.
SPRINGS
TABLES FOR CALCULATING HELICAL SPRINGS
COMPRESSION SPRING FORMULAS
Spring index
133
-r or
-r-
(minimum)
Rectangular
Round
Square
-FL-^
-K
^kd
"^
-i
_h-FL-^
_t
AUd
^k
Sbt
0.3927Sd'
(D
- d)Y (2.25d)
_ 0A44Sd' ~ (.D - d)Y

(maximum)
-'^^-
VbV
6)y
3.185(1)
MWL
l.lOd
(maximum)
(maximum)
11.16P(D
Gbt(b'
SP(D d)3 F = Gd' Fv = FN FL =Fn + MWL

Pitch
(o^d +
d)'
5.58P(0
Gd'
6)2
Fa = FN FL =Fn +
Pitch
Fh =
MWL
iV
FN
+m
Fi.
= Fn +
MWL
iV
FL -
{2.25d)
N
of deflection
(iV
--[<i^+0]
= P/Fn
l) '^l
Pitch
.--['(i^+O]
of deflection
Load per inch

Solid length
= P/Fn Load
per inch of deflection
Load per inch

Solid length
= P/Fn
2.25)d
SoUd length = ro.48d (
^^ ^ +
ro.48f
(g-^-g
'^1
MWL
(l.lOdiV)
(2.25d)
^TFL
=[ 0.53d
(^+l)^]
MWL
= [o.sat^ ^^
l) N~\
Fn
=F X N
EXTENSION SPRING FORMULAS Pitch = EL/N Load per inch deflection = P/Fn
Square
Rectangular
-|FL[-
Round
r-l;'^^
-r-TnJ:
^Wd~^
AUd
AWt
w=
N=
0.3927Sd^
(D
- d)Y
W=
N
=
0.4445^3
(D
d)Y
W
-
Sbt Vb'-
+
-
r-
S.185Y(D
b)
(maximum) r a
FL
0A8d
8P{D - dy F =
Gd^
t
Gd'
D
d
N= +
1
FL
OASt
F =
5.58P{D
dy
F =
{^ U.16P{D GbtiV-
+
by
f)
134

TABLES FOR CALCULATING HELICAL SPRINGS
TORSION SPRING FORMULAS Pitch = FLIN
Hound
SPRINGS
proportional to the
135
number
of active turns.
active turns mil be the total

at each end of the spring.
In a compression spring, the number of number of turns less 2K turns, assuming IM dead turns
DEFLECTION
Calculate the deflection per turn and total deflection
by the formulas given
in
the tables
effective
on pages 133 and 134. For compression springs, the number of active or turns will be the total number of turns less 2M turns.
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
Compression Springs. Ends must be ground square. Minimum and maximum inside and outside diameters will be determined by the space restrictions imposed by the application. Both ends of the compression spring should be guided on either the outside or inside or both. All compression springs should be wound right hand except where they operate inside one another, in which case they should be wound oppositely. Minimum working length of the spring under compression should allow a minimum clearance between effective turns equal to 10 per cent of the wire diameter. Additional compression beyond this minimum working should not be permitted. Extension Springs. They may be close wound with or without initial tension, or they may ]5e open wound. They should always be wound without initial tension when load capacity is an important factor. All extension springs should be wound right hand unless required otherwise. Maximum working length determines the position of the spring beyond which additional extension should not be permitted.
FINISHES
Steel springs to resist moisture or atmospheric corrosion should be
cadmium
Springs
be enameled, lacquered, or japanned. made of nonferrous metals are usually not finished in any manner.
plated.
For appearance, they
may
STANDARD DESIGN PROCEDURE

using a form such as given on page 136, the procedure in designing springs can be standardized. The data relating to the actual dimensions and characteristics of the spring are obtained from the inspection or test department.
By
Examples
of
STANDARD DRAWINGS standard drawings on sheets 83-2 X 11 in. for the three types of hehand
torsion, are
cal springs, compression, tension,
shown on page
137.
Drawing need
not be to scale. Wire sizes should be specified in inches, not gage numbers. Use decimals for specifying wire diameters and fractions of inches for rectangular materials. Also dimension the thickness of rectangular wire so as to indicate how the wire is to be wound. Indicate finish, if any. In dimensioning the drawing, indicate the permissible manufacturing tolerances as given in table above, but tolerances as large as per-
missible should always be specified.
Load tolerances should be indicated as plus
or
minus, the
mean
value to correspond with the specific rate.
The
given.
notations and dimensions as given in the drawings show^n here should be
136

FORM FOR SPRING DESIGN CALCULATIONS
SPRING DESIGN
Drg.No.
Pitch
S-2494
0-550
F.L.
class
_Z_
Rate
^0
Max.O.D. Material
.Am.
MS-/2
Min.I.D.
//
^4
mwi
3.325
Length of rod
Size
0.24-3 7 d/am.
Length of
arm
Max.def.
CALCULATIONS
^, ^-
3.32 S- OSS'
q56s
,^ ^"^-^^
,^
Max.O.D.+ Mfn.I.D
(D-d)
=
=2.015
2.
FL-MWL
2.925
-
P=
G X d X Fn
/1 500,000 x.0. 00352 7x ~
925
= /Tg
8x(D-d)^xN
8x8.2x/0.35
>.
_P__ 175 Ra+e= Fn 2.925

Pitch =
,
60
S =
2.015x175 0.3927x0.01447
1.18
=73.200
6.25-0.55 -= 0.550
W.35
SoUd length = (10.35 '^ 2.25) %.0.2437 = 3.07
ACTUAL VALUES
F.L.
^32
6#
/QS"
Load
10
5(g
Def.
_ll
Solid length
O.D
^3Z
0.2^
Set
Average of
Springs
Total turn
I3_
Manufactured by
D.
GIBSON
200
4
Lengthy Inches
3.32
z
Tested by
GAV7.
Original by
6RE.
Date 2-9'3&
April
1936
Checked by
AND.
17,
Date 2-25-36
Date 3-25-36
REVISION DATES
APPROVED BY
DATE ISSUED
SUPERSEDING
SUPERSEDED BY
SPRINGS
STANDARD DRAWINGS FOR SPRINGS
137
dead coils at each end. Grind ends square

I4
wifii
C.L.
Minimum wor Idng iengih

Jj2 max. JJ2 minr"
Rote -390
Toleronce
lb.
per inch
Free iengfii
-5 7o
MS-IZ
Materiol
Size -0.250 diom.
musf be sfraigiif and compressible minimum working length without coils touching or taking a permanent set
Springs
fo
Hand -Right
Finish
-Block Japon
ono^
Close
out
wound withinitial tension
Free iength
Maximum working length

-4i
Rate- 1601b per inch Tolerance -t 57o
*l
length between ends

Springs must be straight and capable of extension maximum working length without taking a permanent set Ends must be neatly made and without mutilation of wire
to
Material- MS-13
Size- 0.135 diom.
Hond- Right
Finish- Block
Japon
{'Maximum deflection 180 degrees
--22 Free length
Rote
Toleronce
Materiol-S.A.E.81 Size- 0.125 diom.
Sp^'hgs musf be straight and capable of withstanding maximum deflection without taking a permanen t set Ends must be neatly made and without mutilation of wire
Hand
I
-Right
Finish-None
the middle
Examples of standard spring drawings. At the top is a compression spring; in is shown an extension spring; at the bottom is a torsion spring.
138

Wire Gages, Diameters, and Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers MONEL, BRONZE, AND BRASS WIRE STEEL WIRE SIZES
(Washburn
& Moen
gage)
(Brown
&
Sharpe gage)
No.
SPRINGS
detail
139
in
The spring end construction of tension and torsion springs should be given by showing all necessary views. See page 144 for typical spring ends.
INSPECTION
All springs received shall be carefully inspected, tested,
and marked, where
required, for identification.
Inspection shall cover
all
specification requirements noted
on the spring drawings
and on the material

sheets are absent.
specification sheets.
Particular care should be exercised in
make certain all defects noted on the material specification In case of doubt, one or two springs from the shipment in question should be etched in a 30 per cent solution of boUing hydrochloric acid for a sufficient length of time to reduce the diameter 0.002 to 0.003 in. After etching, aU material or manufacturing defects are readily discernible.
inspecting the material to
A sufficient number of springs from each shipment

the spring rate
any,
If
is
shall
be tested to determine
if
if
within the limits specified on the drawing.

to the
The amount
of set,
when compressed
minimum working
length must also be determined.
All springs failing to
more than 10 per cent ment shall be rejected.
of the springs
meet the requirements referred to above shall be rejected. on any one order are rejected, the entire ship-
Springs constructed of music wire,
Monel metal, phosphor bronze,
or brass shall
not be marked in any way for identification. Springs made of steel shaU have one or two coUs at one end painted a color corresponding to that indicated as follows Swedish steel, blue; carbon steel, orange; chrome vanadium steel, red. The paint used shall be quick-drying, oilproof, heat-resisting lacquer.
:
140

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF HELICAL SPRING FORMULAS
F= Inches Deflection per Turn at Stress Indicated
0,21 0.18
I
0,15
.
I \ I
0.12
1
I
0.10 0,09
0,06
I
I
i__l
^-^'f
90,000^
75,000
6Q000
60,000
75,000
100
110
I
120125
' \
9Q000
90' 100
-125,000 '^
110
120
130 140 150
Pounds Tension or Compression Load on the Spring at Maximum Unit Stresses Indicated
This chart, developed by Carl P. Nachod, of Nachod & United States Signal Co., can be used for the solution of the formulas for round-wire hehcal springs given on the preceding pages. The chart is based on G being 11,500,000. The Wahl factor is incorporated in the equation on which this chart is based. To use the chart: Given a load P of 20.1 lb. and an allowable stress of 60,000 lb. per sq. in.; go vertically upward from the point representing 20.1 lb. on the lower 60,000 scale to the intersection Avith the load ray, extending upward to the right, corresponding to the spring index (D/d) selected, in this example r = 8. A horizontal line through the intersection point to the scale for wire diameters gives d = 0.09 in. Extend this horizontal line to the- right to the "deflection" ray r = 8 of the group of rays extending upward to the left. From this point, trace vertically upward to the
scale corresponding to the value of

in.
selected,
and
this gives the deflection
as
0.079
per turn at 60,000
lb.
per sq.
in. stress.
SPRINGS
HELICAL SPRINGS OF GIVEN LOAD RATIO AND LENGTH RATIO
141
Graphical computation charts, developed by Frederick Franz, for springs for specified maximum load and length and specified minimum load and length based on
G =
Step
load
of
1.
11,500,000
S =
initial
50,000
To determine
spring index.
Compression Springs.
Pmax.,
Divide specified
load Pmm. on spring
by maximum
when compressed,
L,in.
to obtain load ratio.
Similarly, calculate length ratio
compressed length
to initial length Lma^.-
The
intersection of the vertical
line representing load ratio
and the horizontal
line representing length ratio gives
value of D/d, the ratio of outside diameter of coil to the diameter of the wire. Tension Springs. Divide initial tension on spring by final tension, to obtain
load ratio.
Divide
initial
length of spring
by maximum
length, to obtain length ratio.
The
intersection of the vertical line representing load ratio -with the horizontal line
representing length ratio gives D/d, the ratio of outside diameter of coil to the diameter
of the wire.
-S-0,8
0,7
0.6
05
0.4-
0.3
0,2
0.1
142

When
the value of D/d, ratio of outside diameter of spring to diameter of wire, has been determined, the chart below gives the maximum safe load, wire diameter,
and mean
coil
diameter for values of D/d, the spring index.

LOAD, WIRE DIAMETER,
MAXIMUM
MEAN
COIL DIAMETER,
AND SPRING INDEX
1.00
0.2
SPRINGS
stress.
143
For any other fiber stress, divide the selected fiber stress by 50,000, take the root of this ratio, and divide the diameter d obtained from the chart by this square
factor.
Step
3.
To determine
is
deflection per coil or per turn.

lb.
The
modulus
chart
based on 50,000
per sq.
in. fiber stress
of elasticity in shear.
For other values
of
maximum
and 11,500,000 for G, the stress and modulus of
CHART TO DETERMINE DEFLECTION PER COIL
144
Dimensions
and
DESIGNS OF TENSION SPRING ENDS Y should always be specified and are in the
See page 137 for standard spring drawings.
proportions shown.
îiiiir
'rrAVx
X-,
Y
-1
,.Jli
X^
>=p-
X.
^ ^= ^p A ^
^='
SPRINGS
CANTILEVER SPRINGS
Maximum
Fiber Stress, Length, Deflection, and Thickness
145
146

CANTILEVER SPRINGS II Maximum Fiber Stress for Given Loads
36
o o o OOo in ^ CiciC' O' CJ

lihlilihl
d odd d d
''''
lllllllll
I
d
I
d
M
Iniihi
I
I
liiiiliiiili
-0.10
Spring Wicl+h(w)in Inches
^0.20
^030
j-0.40
o bo.50
-0.60
-OVO
-0.80
^
C3>
1.0
2.0
E-3.0
h^.O SO
6.0 7.0 ao
1
mi
iii
[||mm
iii
1 |
1 |
M|
'
ii|iiii|
'
iii |ini|
iiii|
|
||
SPRINGS
CANTILEVER SPRINGS~ni
Load-deflection Ratio for Given Spring Dimensions
147
(Required thickness for given maximum deflection and fiber stress can be determined by use of Charts I and II, pages 145 and 146)
0.5
lo
0.6
î
06
1.0
-5 08
-r
w
2.0
^ E; 08 ^^
-z f
2,0
'S'
3.0
148

SEMIELLIPTIC LAMINATED SPRINGS
Leaf Thickness
0.50
0.45 0.40
0.35 0.30
025
Q20
015
OIO
005
800
1,200
1,600
In.
2,000
2,400
2,800
Rate-Lb. Load per
Deflection
SPRINGS
SEMIELLIPTIC LAMINATED SPRINGS
149
The chart on the facing page will facilitate the design of a semielliptic spring having graduated leaves of rectangular cross section. The chart is a graphical solution of
the following formulas
^ -
_ 2/ X d2E
KXU
^^^^
12
where
(31)
R = E =
rate of deflection, in
deflection
lb.
load per
in.
modulus
per sq.
of elasticity, 28,000,000
llr.
in.
L = full length of spring, in in. W = width of leaves, in in. T = thickness of leaves, in in. I = moment of inertia
constant for semielliptic springs

0.9
The accompanying example shows how

desired rate of deflection,
to use the chart.

in. deflection,
By
starting with the
up to the length of spring, L = 55 in. Cross horizontally to the hne representing the number of leaves, 6 leaves, then vertically to the hne in the upper section of the chart correspond1,200
lb.
R =
per
read straight
ing to the width of the spring,
"PF
in.
From
directly
this point, trace horizontally to the
parabohc curve.
deflection, is 55 in.
thick.
The
figure,
0.4375
in.,
above
this last intersection, desiglb.
nates the thickness of each leaf in the spring.
The
spring has 1,200
per
in. rate of
from eye to eye, has
six leaves 5 in. wide,
and each
leaf is 0.4375 in.
To
find the safe load

chart,
on the spring
after the other values
have been estabhshed
from the
^ where
4.DET
-Jjin.
or
i^
^ - SL'
1^
in.
in.
S =
unit fiber stress, in

total
lb.
per sq.
T =
thickness of leaves, in
full
D = E =
The
if
amount
of deflection, in in.
L =
length of spring, in
modulus
of elasticity
allowable working fiber stress will vary with the material used.
Usually
lb.
one-third of the elastic Umit
may
lb.
be considered a safe working

in.,
stress.
For example,
per
wifl
the elastic hmit
is
180,000
per sq.
the safe unit stress will be 60,000 the
sq. in.
By substituting this latter value for S in the formula,
amount
of deflection
can then be solved.
D multiplied by R
(rate of deflection in
pounds per inch)
give the fuU load capacity of the spring.
two-thirds of the elastic limit,

spring.
In practice, the spring may be stressed to but only under an occasional emergency load on the
CHAPTER
VI
POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS

transmitted by
Charts and nomograms for determining shaft and bearing sizes, horsepower flat and V-belts, and tyJDical examples of safety gear design, gear shifting mechanisms, bearing seals, gibs and guides, and cams. The final pages cover typical constructions of mechanical linkages.
P.\GE
Flexible Couplings
152
.
Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending. Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection.
Shaft Diameters for Lateral Deflection
161
162
163
Chart for Calculating Needle Bearings Thrust Bearing Friction Moments Bronze Bearing Alloys
Shaft Seals
Roller-bearing Seals
178 179
180
182
Shaft Diameters A.S.M.E. code
164
. .
184
186
Two-bearing Shafts of Uniform Strength Stress in Rotating Disk Velocity Chart for Gears and Pullej^s Flat-belt Length and Pulley Diameter Flat-belt Speed-horsepower Charts Belt Horsepower Charts Flat-belt Horsepower Charts Flat and V-belt Horsepower Charts V-belt Lengths
Short-center Belt Drives
166
167 168
169
171
Sleeve-bearing Seals
Safety Gears
Shifting
188
190 195 198
Mechanisms
172
173 174 175 176
Gibs and Guides Cam Designs Variable-speed Devices Transport Mechanisms Automatic Feed Hoppers Glue-applying Mechanisms
199
201 203 205
151
152

FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS
,
Shaft
'
Hose clamps
'Rubber hose
Shaft
For applications where torque is low and slipFig. 255. page unimportant. It is easily assembled and disconnected without disturbing either machine element. It is adaptable to changes in longitudinal distance between machines. This coupling absorbs shocks, is not damaged by overloads, does not set up end thrusts, requires no lubrication, and compensates for both angular and offset misalignment.
Fig. 256. Positive drive is assured by bolting hose to shafts. This has the same advantages as the type in Fig. 255, except there is no ova load protection other than the rupture of the hose.
Rubber hose ^Washer
^1* ' Shaft'
<//o/e
Coiled spring
-n
Hole
'Shaft
Fig.
257.
excellent shock-absorbing It will allow qualities, but torsional vibrations are possible. end play in shafts, but sets up end thrust in so doing. Other advantages are the same as for the types shown in Figs. 255 and 256. This type compensates for misalignment in any direction.
This
Shaft-
type
has
Sefscrews.
Coupling
She
Couplinq
Shaff-
Fig. 258. Coupling for low torques and unidirectional This type is easUy rotation. Inertia of rotating parts is low. assembled and disconnected without disturbing either shaft. The cable can be encased and the length extended to allow for
right-angle bends such as are used on dental drills and speedometer drives. The ends of the cable are soldered or bound with wire to prevent unraveling.
Hubs
>
Cover'
Fig. 259. A type of Falk coupling that operates on the same principle as design shown in Fig. 260, but has a single fiat spring in place of a series of coiled springs. A high degree of flexibility is obtained by use of tapered slots in hubs. Smooth operation is maintained by enclosing the working parts and packing with grease.

Coiled^
I
153
Rubber bushings
springs
Shafi
FiG. 260. Fig. 261. Fig. 262. Fig. 260. Two flanges and a series of coiled springs give a high degree of flexibility. This type is used only where the shafts have no free end play. It needs no lubrication, absorbs shocks, and provides protection against overloads, but will set up torsional vibrations. Springs can be of round or square wire with varying sizes and pitches to allow for anj' degree of flexibility. Fig. 261. Similar to Fig. 260, except that rubber tubing, reinforced by bolts, is used instead of coiled springs. Construction is sturdier but more hmited in flexibility. This type has no overload protection other than shearing of the bolts. It has good antivibration properties if thick rubber tubing is used. It can absorb minor shocks. The connection can be quickly disassembled. Fig. 262. A series of pins engage rubber bushings cemented into flange. This type will allow minor end play in shafts and provides a positive drive with good flexibility in all directions.
Fig. 263. A Foote Gear Works flexible coupling which has shear pins in a separate set of bushings to provide overload protection. The principle is similar to that shown in Fig. 264. Replaceable shear pins are made of softer material than the
shear-pin bushings.
Fig. 264. A design made by the Ajax Flexible Coupling Company. Studs are firmly anchored with nuts and lock washers and bear in selflubricating bronze bushings spaced alternately in both flanges. Thick rubber bushings cemented in flanges are forced over bronze bushings.
154

F/ang^
^Shatt
'Spring
refaining
Shafi-'
ring
Section Through
Flange
^F/ange
Keeper pin
'
Fig. 265. Another Foote Gear Works coupling. Flexibility is obtained bysolid conically shaped pins of metal or
fiber. This coupling provides positive drive of sturdy construction vfith flexi-
Cen+er
Fig. 266. In this Smith & Serrell coupling, flexibility is obtained by laminated pins built up of tempered spring steel leaves. Spring leaves secured to holder by keeper pin. Phosphor bronze bearing strips are welded to outer spring leaves and bear in rectangular holes of hardened-steel bushings fastened in flange. Pins are free to slide endwise in one flange but are locked in the other flange by a spring retaining
ring.
bility in all directions.
Rubber^ leather or fil:ierdisk
Bufferslot
Fig. 267. In this Brown Engineering Companj' coupling, flexibility is increased by addition of buffer slots in the laminated leather. These slots also aid in the absorption of shock loads and torsional vibra-
Under parallel misalignment or shock loads, buffer slots will close over their entire width, but under angular misalignment, buffer slots will close only on
tion.
Fig. 268. Flexibility is provided by resilience of a rubber, leather, or fiber disk in the W. A. Jones Foundry & Machine Company coupling. Degree of flexibility is limited to clearance between pins and holes in the disk plus the resilience of the disk. This type has good shock-absorbing properties, allows for end play, and needs no lubrication.
one
side.

Flexible disks ^
\
155
Laminafed mefal disks^
Aldricb Pump Company, similar to Fig. 268, except that bolts are used instead of pins. This coupling permits only slight endwise movement of the shaft and allows machines to be temporarily disconnected without disturbing the Driving and driven members are flanges. flanged for protection against projecting bolts.
Fig.
269.
coupling
made by
Fig. 270.
^Laminated metal disks are used in
Cenlerdisk-'''
this coupling
made hy Thomas
The disks are Flexible Coupling Company. bolted to each flange and connected to each other by means of pins supported by a steel center disk. The spring action of the center ring allows torsional flexibility, and the two side rings
compensate for angular and offset misalignment. This type of coupling provides a positive drive in either direction without setting up backlash. No lubrication is required.
r^f^
^' Lea Iher
disk
Section
A-A
i-;\
Secfion A-A
flange carries two studs, upon which are mounted square metal blocks. The blocks slide in the slots of the center metal disk.
Fig. 271. heavy torques.
design
made by Palmer-Bee Company
for
Each
principle of the T. B. Wood k Sons Company coupling is the same as Fig. 272. but the driving lugs are cast integrally with the metal flanges. The laminated leather disk is
Fig.
273.The
to accommodate the metal driving This coupling has flexilugs of each flange. bility in all directions and does not require lubrication.
punched out
,/
Rivet
members
Leaf her
Cast- iron ~hiub
Leaiher -'
disk
Fig. 272. In this Charles Bond Company coupling, a leather disk floats between two identical flanges. Drive is through four laminated leather lugs cemented and riveted to the leather disk. This type compensates for
all directions, and sets up no end Driving flanges are made of cast iron. lug slots are cored.
Fig. 274.
Another design made by Charles Bond
misalignment in
The flanges have square recesses into which a built-up leather cube fits. Endwise movement is prevented by through bolts used where low torque loads are to be transmitted.
Company.
thrusts.
The
156

Flange ^^ A
Leai-her 'cross ^
--|
^3^
Band
Section
A-A
"
leather,
Fig. 275. Similar to Fig. 274, being quiet in operation and used for low torques. Tliis is also a design of Charles Bond Company. The floating member is made of laminated leather and is shaped like a cross. The ends of the intermediate member engage the two cored slots of each flange. The coupling will withstand a limited amount of end
play.
Fig. 276. Pins mounted in flanges are connected by Coupling is used for canvas, or rubber bands. temporary connections where large torques are transmitted, such as the driving of dynamometers by test engines. This type allows for a large amount of flexibility in all directions, Machines absorbs shocks, but requires frequent inspection. can be quickly disconnected, especially when belt fasteners The driven member lags behind the are used on the bands. driver v/hen under load.
iLeaiher belf
Cable
Ir'nks
This Bruce-Macbeth Engine Company coupling Fig. 277. is similar to that of Fig. 276, except that sL\ endless wire cable The links engage links are used, made of plow-steel wire rope. small metal spools mounted on eccentric bushings. By turning these bushings, the links are adjusted to the proper tension. The load is transmitted from one flange to the other by direct pull on the cable links.
This Webster Manufacturing coupling uses a single* endless leather belt instead of a series of bands, as in Fig. 276. The belt is looped over alternate pins in both This type has good shock-resisting flanges. properties because of belt stretch and the tendency of the pins to settle back iuto the loops
Fig.
278.
Company
of the belt.
'Endless ropes -
-_
''"^
the Weller Manufacturing Company is similar to the design in Fig. 278, but instead of a leather belt uses hemp rope, made endless by splicing. The action under load is the same as in the endless-belt type.
Fig.
279.
This
coupling
made by
Fig. 280. This Bruce- Macbeth design uses leather links instead of endless wire cables, as shown in Fig. 277. The load is transmitted from one flange to the other by direct pull of the links, which at the same time allows for the proper flexibility.
Leather
link
157
Floaiing
disk
Leafher
sfar
Sec+ion X-X
Fig. 281. Fig. 282. Fig. 281. The Oldham form of couphng made by W. A. Jones Foundry and Machine Company is of the two-jaw type with a metal disk. Is used for transmitting heavy loads at low speed. Fig. 282. The Charles Bond Company star coupling is similar to the cross type shown in Fig. 275. The star-shaped floating member is made of laminated leather. It has three jaws in each flange. Torque capacity is thus increased over the two-jaw or cross type. The couphng takes limited end play.
Fig. 284. Fig. 285. Fig. 284. A metal block as a floating center is used in this American Flexible Coupling Company design. Quiet operation is secured by facing the block with
removable
grease.
fiber
strips
and packing the center with
The coupling sets up no end thrusts, is easy to assemble, and does not depend on flexible material for the driving action. It can be built in small sizes by using
hardwood block without facings
Fig.
285.
Westinghouse Nuttall Company coupling is an all-metal type having excellent torsional flexibility. The eight compression springs compensate for angular and offset misalignment. This type allows for some free endwise float of the shafts. It will transmit
high torques in needed.
either
direction.
This
for the floating
member.
No
lubrication
is
Rubberized
fabric disks'
'"
Flexible disk
Fig. 283. A combination rubber and canvas disk bolted to two metal spiders. Extensively used for low torques where compensation for only slight angular misalignment is required. It is quiet in operation and needs no lubrication or other attention. Offset misalignment shortens disk life.
is
Fig. 286. Similar to Fig. 283, but wOl withstand offset misahgnment by addition of the extra disks. The center spider is free to float. By use of two rubber-canvas disks, as shown, the coupling wiU withstand a consider-
able angular misalignment.
158

Siee/ sfr/ps -
3-piece sleeve
Spiders
,-
- -;
Compression sleeve
'-Â
Section k'k
this
coupling, a cross made of laminated-steel strips floats between two spiders. The laminated spokes, retained by four segmental shoes, engage lugs integral with the This coupling is intended for light loads flanges.
Fig.
287.
In
Smith
&
Serrell
flexible
only.
^Spring regaining pin
Fig.
Fig. 290. 290. In this
Fig. 291.
Machinery Company, and a three-piece sleeve are used.

bolted together
coupling of Falls Clutch & two hubs with triangular heads
The
sleeve
is
assembling. Three pieces of compression lining provide the necessary flexibility.
when
Misalignment is compensated for in all directions by compression of the linings.. Fig. 291. This Medart Company flexible coupling uses square keys or pins of fiber, Textolite, or other Clearance is flexible material which engage V slots. provided in the V slots for flexibility. The pins are Coupling can held in place by a retaining collar. float endwise.
Fig. 288.
This coupling, made by Brown Engineering

is
useful for improvising connections between apparatus in laboratories and similar temporary installations. It compensates for misalignment in all directions. It will absorb varying degrees of torsional shocks by changing the size of the springs. Springs are retained by threaded pins engaging the coils. Overload protection is possible by the slippage or breakage of replaceable
Company,
springs.
Mm
1
z
^s
..
m
Laminafed'
spoices
Oil /eveI when^ nol in molion
Ôil reservoir
holes
Fig. 289.
In another design by Brown Engineering
Company, a.series of laminated spokes transmit power between the two flanges without setting up end This type allows free end play. Other thrusts. advantages are the absorption of torsional shocks, no exposed moving parts, and good balance at all speeds. Wearing parts are replaceable and working parts are protected from dust.
the design of the W. H. Nicholson & Company flexible coupling, a series of floating steel keys shde in dovetail slots cut into each flange. The degree of misalignment compensated for depends on the clearance between the keys and slots. Wear is reduced, and cushioning is provided by operating keys in oil bath. Keys act noiselessly, centrifugal force keeping them
Fig. 292.
In
against the slot surfaces.

Hub,
159
Packing ^
Spring
reiaining
- Projecting
'
iooihon
hub
Keeper ring
'Projeciing ioo+ti in
sleeve
Fig. 293. Fig. 294. Fig. 293. In another design made by Falls Clutch & Machinery Company, a triangular center floating member made of steel is placed inside two flanges. As in Fig. 290, three pieces of compression lining are used. Coupling flanges are triangularly recessed. Fig. 294. In this Clark Controller Company design, a splined hub mounted on each shaft is connected by a sleeve having internal projections. Power is tran mitted through strips of pacldng fitted between the projecting teeth in the hubs and sleeve. Packing is retained at each end by keeper ring and snap ring. Compensates for misalignment in all directions without the use of flexing materials.
-Roller
chain
(endless]
Fig. 295. In one design of Lovejoy Tool Works flexible coupling, individual free-floating load cushions
Fig. 296.
The
positive drive design of
Diamond
hung between the flange jaws on removable studs. These replaceable cushions are made of brake-lining material, leather or rubber-duck fabric, depending on the
are
Manufacturing Company consists of two sprockets connected by a length of roller chain. Clearance between sprockets and chain side plates allows freedom to compensate for misahgnment in all
Chain
&
loads sustained tion is needed.
and the resUience required.
No
lubrica-
directions.
160
Flexible -
member
4Jaws
Composition
'^
packing rings
lenl
,
chain
Chain
Oil level wiifi
Oil level
(endless)
when
is
re laiper
slol
coupling al rest
coupling
running
Fig. 298. Fig. 299. Fig. 298. A silent chain is used as the flexible member in the Morse Chain Company coupling, the load being A series of retaining distributed over a number of teeth. Hnks, running in the center of one sprocket, keep the chain in place. Flange covers enclose the chain when
The Poole Engineering & Machine ComFig. 297. pany uses a two-piece floating sleeve with the internal
gear teeth cut at each end, meshing with gear teeth on hubs. Toothed hubs are mounted at the end of each The hub teeth have spherically formed shaft. crowns. The teeth are in mesh around their entire Compensates for misalignment in all circumference. directions without the use of flexing materials. Bearing surfaces are lubricated in a bath of oil. Dust is excluded by packing ring at either end.
necessary. Convex jaw surfaces that exert a rolling Fig. 299. pressure when loaded are used in another Lovejoy Tool Works coupling design. The convex surfaces are so proportioned that the compression is uniform over the The floating spider is entire area of each spider arm. made of a resilient material which gives flexibility in all
directions.
Fig. 300. This T. L. Smith Company type of coupling has a flexible metal ring engaging projections integral with the outer and inner hubs. A packing ring protects the interior from dirt, yet compensates for angular misalignment. The coupling can drive in
either direction.
Fig. 301. In this Meriam Company design, the internal and external hub is connected by a series of spring steel rollers fitted into semicircular recesses in each hub. The rollers are made of strip steel, wound spirally and ground on the periphery. Quiet operation is secured by packing the interior of the coupling with grease or ground
cork.

SHAFT DIAMETERS FOR TORSION AND BENDING
B
500,000
161
D=J^
15 16
-650
M-^ + T^
400,000
Example: Given f= 6,000 lb. persq.inBending momen+ M= 100,000 in.-lb. Torsional mornen+ T = 50,000 in.-lb. Determine equivalent bending mornen+
1
300,000
600
Join 100 on horizontal A scale +o50on vertical A 5cale. This length scaled off on vertical A scale is the equivalent bending moment= 111,000 in.-lb.
2
-550
200,000 -^
Join
scale
111,000
IH -
and extend line diam. on left scale
on B scale to 5,000 on^f to read 4.6"

150,000
-500
1.5
-450 c
o
0)
lb
-400
c
ty
u
.5^16
O
7
E o
-350
.E
300 i
E-îe
D
II
D >
cr
-250
"^
3^-_
4,4^16
20,000E
-200
15,000
4^-5,i
Nofe: For ordinary power -transmission shafting use 6,000 lb. per sq. in. for fhe allowable working stress
6,2
-^
16
E-7
Bending Moment,in Thousands Inch- Pounds
-rr
500
450
I
I
I I
ri
I I
I I
400
350
300
250
200
150
162

-b c
C>
a.
" w
(u-t<u
to
^*-
o
c
o,__
---
2
(i)
-C-l-I-
^
D
LLl
LCD 4= D
-^
o
E"-<
S =
w
_=.4_
U|-LUD_ia 4J.DLI5
2o~oofîDiri^
llllllllllhlllll
I
fc
ll
I I
CM
I
I I I
I
I
'^l"=l'
llllhllllllhl
I
I
L.
I
o o o
o o
o-
o o o o
I
y o
/
/
o o o
I I
o o
Inn
,
llllllllll.i.
nl(llll,l
IiiiJmmI
q"|_"ui'snbjoj^
_
O'
Iilihllliillliill
I r
o
CJ
llllllllllllllll/llllllllllllllllllllilllilliril
i
/
/^
ja/v\od3SJO|-|
/ /
'
/
'
-ui
iiii
| | i
bj jsd
1 1
'q-]
1 1 1
'SS3J4S
iiiii
|
m
o_
ii|
iii|ii
i|
Mi |ii
i
i| ii
i|i
|
i|
I
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iii i|i
> ii
iii
ni
i| II
|i
|
iiii[iiii|illll l lll
ll ll
Mi
o
|IIII{IIM|IIII|
I I
I
o
I
/
l/{
I
O O o O O O ltT ^.el-l
O O
(M""
I I I I
hrS"
U-^
O O O O O O f^
rj-
O O CM
I
O O
'1
1 1 1 I I I
oo o o o o
/I o/oooo o o o * o
in
|l|l|l|
|IMI|MI^ÎIII{IIII|IIII| P^WijttWi
mi|l|
I I
|IIII|IIII|IIII|IIM|IIII|
ro
<M
o Q
1/^
oopo ^
K1
tN
Lu-d-y
/ /
/
/
li ii ii II 11
I I I
/
I
II
I I
I I
I |
I
I I 1
I 1
O o
ro
cN

4J.D4S
j.0
Lj^BuaT
\^
jsd
-uji/j
u; uoi43a|j.aa
uoisjoj_

o o o o o o o o
liiiihiiilii nil
1
1
163
uf '"bs
jsd
'qi 'ssaj42
o o o
I
o o o
llllll
I
>
03
II ll
I'll
-S)
C ?4-
164

SHAFT DIAMETERS BASED ON THE
Bending Moment,
A.S.M.E.
to
CODE
in 1,000 In.-Lb.
f^ 00
o
I
to
rj-
ir>
_]
B 0-
2-
3-
M I
1
4-
8 4H o
E o
"5
7-
8-
10
10
14
12-" 15-
16-

SHAFT DIAMETERS BASED ON THE
D
165
A.S.M.E.
1,000 In.-Lb.
CODE
(Continued)
Bending Moment^ in
166
TWO -BEARING SHAFTS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

Values of ""
Q,
0.2 0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 0.9
1.0

STRESS IN A ROTATING DISK
Maximum
disk
IS
167
N 50110
I'n
+angen+ial stress given by the relation
a thin rotating
S=
71wN^x lO'^ [C3+m)R^+(l-m)r^] Rand r are radii in in. N= angular velocity in 1,000 r.p.m. m= Poisson's ratio for the moten'al w= density in lb. per cu.in.
S= maximum tangential
stress
in
45
lb.
100,000
per sq.in.
(if
R exceeds
10
use light face scales for R^randN)
o\
13
l l
40
Q. ai
4
I
I
10
\^
lllll
15
(L
II
1
II
II II
I
II
II
I
I
II
R
50
--
o o
.c
10
20
215
I
50
35
Outside Radius^ R
40
45
35 -1-7 g
1^
R=5, r = and m= 0.35, v\/ith w=0.4, a disk rotating 30,000 r.p.m. will be subject too maximum tangential stress of 214,000 lb. persq.in.
4-
L
D
01
Dotted
lines
show that for
=6^
,5"
Q.
o o o
ir
Density
in Lb.
per Cu.
0.15
In.
-<,^
0.2
0.>^
0.4 0.5 0.60?
lLlU
tn
"Copper
-Steel
c
I
Cast iron
inside Radius, r
168

VELOCITY CHART FOR GEARS AND PULLEYS

FLAT -BELT LENGTHS AND PULLEY DLA.METERS
The chart on the
following page
is
169
used for the
by Eq.
all
(32), the chart values are close
enough for
calculation of belt lengths for open belt drives,
ordinary belt length calculations.
step cone pulley sizes for open belts,
and pulley
Calculation of Step
Example.
diameters on V-belt
drives.
Cone Pulley Drives

is
The
length of a belt can be calculated with

all
accuracy for from the formula

sufficient
engineering problems
four-step cone pulley drive

2, 3, 4,
required with speed ratios n of
L = 2C
where
+ ^ rf(n +
1)
rf2(n
Assume that one speed ratio, namely, n

1)2
and 5. 4, and
4C
(32)
that the diameter of the small pulley d = Bin. is the same as in the preceding example. Center
distance
is
L= C =
d
belt length
C =
in.
50
in.,
and the
of
belt length
is
distance between pulley centers
= smaU pulley diameter = speed ratio D = large pulley diameter D = nd

n
is
L =
140.375
The value
L/C =
2.81 will
be the same in each instance.
L/C =
Any type of graphical solution of the equation not simple in this form, because there are four
and they cannot be shown the Eq. (32) is divided by take the form as follows
it
For the speed ratio n = 2, read vertically from 2.81 to where this line intersects the ray of the speed ratio 2. Follow horizontally to d/C, and read 0.17. When d/C = 0.17, then
d
variables in
in a
0.17
50
in.
=
17
8.5 in.
in.
simple chart.
will
If
C,
it
D=
8.5 in.
^ = 2+^^(n +
For further
l)+g(nwill
1)2
(33)
For the speed ratio n 3, d/C = 0.126 is obtained from the chart in a similar manner. Therefore
d
Z)
= =
simplification, let
L/C =
ly
x and
d/C
y.
The equation
then become
(34)
= =
0.126
3
50
6.3 in.
= =
6.3 in.
18.9 in.
+-y{n
1)
+ y\n -
For the speed

example, d/C
Equation (34) contains only three variables, of which n, the speed ratio, is usually known. The equation can be plotted on ordinary coordinate paper as in the accompanying chart. The following examples show how to use it.
For the
n = 4, as in the preceding = 0.10 and d = 5 in. Then D = 4 X 5 in. = 20 in. = 5, d/C = 0.083 on speed ratio
ratio
?i
the chart so that
0.083 5
50
Belt Length for

Example.
Open Drive
=
\vill
D=
dis-
4.15in.
= 4.15 in. = 20.75 in.
Assume the small pulley diameter

4,
d = 5 in., the speed ratio n tance between pulley centers
In this instance, the steps of the driven pulley be 4.15, 5, 6.3, and 8.5 in. diameter, mating
and the
50
in.
C =
with steps on the driving pulley of 20.75, 20,

18.9,
Then
d/C = îo
chart,
0.10.
From d/C =
and 17
in.
diameter, respectively.
0.10 on the
trace horizontally to the speed ratio 4 and follow vertically downward to read
2.81.
Pulley Diameters for V-belt Drive

Example.
V-belt
is
L/C =
Therefore
If
the pitch length
of
120
in.,
the speed ratio n
4,
an endless and the

find the
L = C X 2.81 L = 50 X 2.81 =
example
distance between centers

140.5
in.
C = 40
in.,
pitch diameters of the pullej^s.
Substituting the numerical values given in this

in the Eq. (32), the solution will be
100-1-^5(4+1)+
Although there
52(4
1)2
then d/C = 0.1216 is read at the intersection of the lines L/C and speed ratio M = 4. Therefore
If
L/C =
3,
^^^^
=
140.375
in.
0.1216
4.864
D =
X 40 = 4.864 in. X 4 = 19.456 in.
is 'î in.
difference in the belt

figures
A V-belt manufacturer's catalogue is then consulted to ascertain pulley outside diameters.
length
as obtained
from the chart
and
170

CHART FOR FLAT-BELT LENGTHS AND PULLEY DIAMETERS

FLAT-BELT SPEED -HORSEPOWER CHARTS
The fransmission copac/iy of a be/f or chain drive
is
171
ca/cula'iecl
from ihe
relaiionship
Horsepower
Nei i-urning force in 'V, Ft Id. per

,,
hp. mm per
lb.
speed in
fi
per min
_(T|-T2)V_(T|-T2)TrclN
33,000
33,000
^ ys
( T| - T2I =
^^ J
'
The iension on Ihe lighl side minus Ihe lension " ^'he loose side of a chain or bell. If is Ihe effeclive pull. V= The bell or chain velocily in ff per min. and is
-^
,^
"-^
equal lo Ihe producf ofrr limes D, Ihe diameler of Ihe pulley in feel, limes N^ lis r p.m. for a given flaf belf Ihe values of(^^-Tq\ c^^ per inch of widlh is usually known. For
V lype
belfs
il is
given per bell
In
chain
fransmission, T^ is usually zero, hence ^ "5
CTj-T^) is Ihe a/lowable working load chain as in roller chains or per
nominal widlh, as m silenf

N= 600
5.
line indicafes Ihalfor
and
in.
7per
TfT2=60, widlh of belf
172

BELT HORSEPOWER CHARTS
Determining Belt Tension Resulting from Centrifugal Force
30
40 50 60
80
lOp
wv ~Q~
The
fiat-belt
fn Lb.
per
In.
Wid+h
horsepower chart on the preceding page enables the designer to obtain the linear velocity of the belt in a given drive. In the illustrative example given with that chart, the linear velocity of the belt was shown to be 3,160 ft. per min. By assuming a belt whose unit weight is 0.15 lb. per ft. per in. width, the additional belt tension set up by centrifugal force can be obtained from the chart on this page.
point in the vertical scale designating 0.15 in. per ft. per in. width, trace horizontally to the right to the point representing a velocity of 3,160 ft. per min., as Then drop down vertically to the horizontal scale, indicated by the diagonals.
From the
which gives the value
of
WV^/G
as 13
lb.
per
in.
width of
belt.
173
1,000
900 800 700
600
500
400
300
250
200
10
174

FLAT-
AND V-BELT HORSEPOWER CHARTS
Sin
is
For a
flat belt,
1.
the half angle of the V groove for V-type belt. the angle is equal to 90 deg. and sin /3 is
equal to
of Ti can be determined from the breaking strength of the material and the factor of safety
The working value
of e^'" ^ can be obtained from the the coefficient of friction, and The relathe angle 8 of the arc of contacts are known. tion between Ti, the tight side tension, and Ts, the slack side tension, can be found from the accompanying chart. Example. A flat belt operating on a 20-in. diameter puUev is making 600 r.p.m., the arc of contact is 165 deg. Assume Ti equal to 120 lb. per in. of width, the belt to
be used.
The value
if
accompanying chart
v,
weighs 0.150
lb.
per
ft.
per
in. of
cient of friction equal to 0.25. belt can transmit.
width and has a coeffiFind the horsepower the

_
the speed-horsepower chart on page 171, it is v, the velocity of the belt, equals 3,160 ft.per min. The quantity ww-Zff may be calculated or determined from a chart on page 172. To find e''*, enter this chart at the horizontal line which represents the value of angle of arc of contact equal to Trace right to the diagonal representing a 165 deg. value of V equal to 0.25, and then upward to the diagonal labeled 90 deg., which represents a flat belt, then right to the curve and then down to the scale where we read
From
found that
ef^ equal to 2.1.
1098
6 5
By substituting this value of e sin /3 or, as in this example, e*** in the preceding equation, the value of Ti T- may be calculated. With this quantity known, and the use of the chart on page 171, the horsepower per inch of width of belt may readily be obtained.
yue

CHART FOR FINDING V-BELT LENGTHS
Diameter of Small Sheave
Size of
ropes,
in.
175
Min.diams.
Permissible
recommended
4
32^16
176

SHORT-CENTER BELT DRIVES
Calculations for the Arc of Contact and Length of Belts
Having an Idler Pulley
When an
idler pulley
is
used to increase the

it
When A
arc of belt contact
on the driving pulley,
becomes necessary to calculate that increase to

obtain the belt length. In the figure below, center lines are drawn connecting pulley centers.
Solving for the belt wrap
6
on pulley
d,
d-\-D^
2 sin
{4>
A)
above the center line, angle A will be if 4 is below the center Une, angle A The scale A in the chart can be will be plus. used for either plus or minus values but the sign preceding the angle A must be kept in mind. When values of A are less than 1, values of angle A must be interpolated. For e.xample, when A is between + 0.5 in., angle A is less than +2 deg. and is read on the scales "A" and "angle A in
is
minus, and,
d
2 sin
{4>
deg."
A)
by
interpolating.
2 sin (0
.sin
+ A)
52
(0
A)
=
2
{d
For the example shown on the chart on the next page, the arc of belt contact on pulley d will be
D2)
V^^ +
{d
<l>
+ D2) sm~^ 2 y/A^ + 52

A
sin~'
= = =
180 deg.
180 deg.
a+
{<f>
14.5 deg.
+ A) - A + 33 deg. L
of belt
(-4.5 deg.)
203 deg.
A =
,
\/A''
B^
Equation
for the length
is
d
2
<i>
sin~
D^
B'
V^' +
sm"
VA^ + W
wnere
,
L = E
^
+ e +F +G + H + J
57.3
The
d
will
angle of belt contact on the driving pulley
then be
^
d (180 deg.
2
<t>)
57.3
= =
180 deg. 180 deg.
a
01
+ +
(<#.
A)
+ A
2
<t>
57.3
in
which the angle of approach a

sin
is
D-d
2C
4>
or
= sm"
D-d
2C
chart,
G = C cos a H = Dta.n (90 deg. J = dtun (90 deg. -
V4>
+ X) + y)
The
angles
and A can be found on the
In the foregoing equations, values for the various symbols are calculated as follows:
,
.
_i
B--
2 a
D+d Va + (c - By
2C
sin
D-d
2
,
4>
sin"
+ D, VA- + B^
d
2)2/2 cos
lA
tan^^
-5
- A
sin
tan'^
\(C
- B)-
D2/2
\ ^/
y = sm
/ D2/2 cos < - i4 \ \B - >2/2sin <^/

SHORT -CENTER BELT DRIVES
A
III
I
I
177
in
Inches
X
20
O'l
r
10
20'
a
y
/
0.15
Procedure:-
to value of
Connec+ on A-scale with 12 on B-scale follow the ray on C-scale to Y-scale and connect A on X"Sccile giving A = 4.5deq. Connect point on Y-scale with (CI+D2) on Z-scale giving (^+A) = 33deg.
I
y
y y
I I
NII
| |
IIIIIIII
I I
^T\y\
I I
30
20
10
Angle AyAxx Degrees
Example:-d = 5in., D2= 8 in.^ A = (-lln.')or less than tin., B= 12 in., C= 50 in., and
D=30in.
0.4
10
\ I \
20
Va^+b^
\
\ \
30
40
\^
I
Angle f^+.4)
30N,
in
Degrees
I I I
|illlllTtl|IIIIIMII|lllll
II
1:
50
40
20
10
04
B
iiiii
1 1
loi
1 1
20
I I I I
I
30
I
I I I I
I I
55
I I
ni 04
in
i__i
Inches
\r ^
(d + D2)in Inches
60
50
40
I I I
I
30
I
20
I
^1
III
II
178

CHART FOR CALCULATING NEEDLE BEARINGS
4,000 3,500 3,000 T
o o
n^
o o o o o o '^
(T)
I I
irt
o o o
o o in
o\ o o o \o o
\
\
W=
N
I
load on bearing
in lb.
number
of rollers
in.
Revolutions per Minu+e
effecfive roller lengfh in
d
n
= roller
=
r.
diameter
in in.
Safe load from needle bearings
p.m.
W=
2,500 2,200 2,000 -
6,000
',
Nld
ao5
I
0.1
02
,
0.25
03
1
i
16
_L
<
I.I
r
-V
i\
8
5
2
32
3
16
\32
32 4
d,
Diam.of
Roller, vinches
1,700
1,500
\ \
\
\
1,300
1,200
\
\
\
Pivof Scale
1,000
V,
100
/ /
90
si
_j
900
^^.
Index lines
g'*-i
c?
800
show a needle bearing with 25 rollers af 2,240 r.p.m. will safely carry a load of
80
70
897
g
lb.
700600-
Load figures are based on contacting surfaces hardened to Rockwell C-51 and accurate alignment
60
I D
_l
50
500
5f
400 350 -
y^.. .^"
/
40
^-w--
30^
300 ^)25.
E
25020
200 eo
59
58
170 150 -
54 53 52 57 56 55 Rockwell C Hardness Number
51
50
17
The curve shows that the bearing load Wof 8971b. ata bearing hardness of C-51, may be Increased to 1.500 lb. at hardness of C-60
l-Length of
7 3
Cyli/ider
I'n
- 15
130 8
_1
In.
4
1
8/
c^
2
1
is the effective length of the cylindrical portion excluding rounded or projecting ends
Dimension 1 shown
12
10

THRUST BEARING FRICTION MOMENT DETERMINATIONS
750
-]-
179
1500
Chorf for obfoining friction

for solid sfiaff face Square wiih Hie axis and fa/<ing a ifirusf load p as given by me equafion
momenf Mf
end
wifh
'00
I I
1400
2Pf R
650
+
-|-
1300
f= CoefficlenloffricHon R = Radius of shaft

R
P-
600
1200
550
500
--
450 --
400
350
c
01
300
250 --500
200
ISO --
100
50
For the rapid calculation of frictional resisting moments, a chart such as shown by the illustration on this page for a solid shaft with end face square with the axis may be constructed. In using this chart, it is merely necessary to connect the given values of P and / as found on their respective scales by a straight Line. Where this line, shown dotted in the chart, crosses the diagonal, join this point with the given value of R as found on the scale, and extend to the left-hand scale where will be found
the desired friction moment.
If
the friction
moment and
the speed of the shaft are
known, the power
lost in friction can be calculated.
180

BEARING BRONZES GROUPED ACCORDING TO FIELDS OF USE
15
181
10
0)
182

SHAFT SEALS
grease lubrica-
Fig. 303.
used frequently, the effecti-veness of the seal increasing with the number of grooves, of which there should be at least two.
tion, the half-round
is
groove
Sometimes this type used without sealing rings.
is
Usually groove with a cork or
only
felt ring is
depended upon
The tapered
to perfect the seal. walls tend to press the
sealing ring against the shaft.
Fig. 305. This design makes it easy to replace the cork or felt ring. In some instances, the depth of the counterbore is doubled and
One method of applying Fig. 306. a simple leather seal.
two
rings are used.
Fig. 307. A simple design of labyrinth seal. Centrifugal force prevents the entrance of foreign particles while grease or oil lubricant on the shaft is thrown outward, thus filling the labyrinth opening.
Figs. 308
and
Fig. 308. 309. Labyrinth
Fig. 309.
and groove
seals can
be combined
for greater
effectiveness.
Addition of a slinger Fig. 310. helps materially to prevent liquids finding their way through the seal.
183
m
Standard lop endpiston rings. Bore] \same as for standard piston bores ând grooves 0.003"to0.006"wider than rings
For slow speeds, two mounted as shown can be used. The set collar is sometimes counterbored and two small
Fig. 311.
Fig. 312.
The common labyrinth

shaft seal.
Fig. 313.
Left,
Chicago Rawhide
cork rings
Company
seal.
Right, Gits Brothers
springs placed in the counterbore with a covering washer that bears
Manufacturing Company seal. They can be used for sealing in either direction, the spring maintaining pressure between the leather and the shaft.
against the sealing ring.
Fig. 314. Cooke-type seal that embodies the patented principle of maintaining contact between the stationary
Fig. 315.
Anotlier application of the

rela-
Cooke seal. Metal bellows permit tive movement.
and moving
surfaces.
Fig. 316.
An
effective
ball or
roller-
Fig. 317.
Illustrates the principle of the
bearing
seal.
water
seal.
184

ROLLER-BEARING SEALS
'Slinger
^ Oil
holes ensure safuralion of

fell
\t^Slinger closure
for excluding
wofer
Me /o/- seal ring

Fig. 318.
Oil grooves
Fig. 319.
n ^^>/y//A
-
iSoff felf
I
seal
Fell musf make
good confacf
wifh shaff
Wire snap ring holds seal in place
Permanenf mefal
seal bears againsf inner ring of roller bearing
Fig. 320.
Fig. 321.
^-Slingers--^
Slinger
.f
Oil holes drilled
for safuralion
of
fell
Feli
'
Sfofionary mefal ring seals
Mefal seals
drilled fo
felf
ensure safurafion of
Fig. 323.
Fig. 322.
Labyrinffi siingers^
(
musf be
-.
accurafely machined
'Felf
Fell
Annular
oil
grooves
Mefal sealing ring

Fig. 325.
Fig. 324.

'
185
Me-tal sealing
S linger
ring
/Spring
/
washer
Leaiher
Meial sealing ring

Fig. 326.
Fig. 327.
Fig. 328.
Removable
closure Felf
Fig. 329.
Fell
Fig. 330.
Fig. 331.
Removable
re+ainer
Feli
Fell
-Leaiher
Mei'ol sealing rings
""Melal sealing ring
Fig. 332.
Fig. 333.
Fig. 334.
Me laI sealing rings
186

SLEEVE-BEARING SEALS
Leather packings
Fig. 340. Fig. 339. Fig. 338. For retaining lubricant, the seal is assembled with the flanged leather projecting toward the bearing. Fig. 338. The leather packing is clamped near the outer edge of the flange by the inner of two telescoping metal cups, a tight Should jomt at the face being thereby assured. A garter-type spring compresses the leather about the shaft. misalignment occur, the seal is maintained by virtue of the flexibility of the leather and garter spring. To dram small hole is drilled in the casting connecting the reservoir. off the surplus oil passing the end of the bearing, a Installation of double seal unit for retaining lubricant in bearing recess and for guarding against Fig. 339. except that two entrance of foreign material. The seal is of the same general construction as shown in Fig. 338
flanged leathers are mounted opposed to each other. Used for the same general purposes as the arrangement shown in Fig. 339. The seal has but one Fig. 340. The leather washer for dust exclusion shown at right has a beveled garter spring for the oil-retention leather flange. shaft. the contacts lip which
Corker
lealher
iLeaiher
'
packing
Gorier ^l
spring
Feh
paclîng
Oil"'^ return
hole
Fig.
341.
Oil refurn
Figs. JJ3 lo J4J inci Courlesy of Lin i verso I

Oil- Seal
hole
Company
Sometimes
felt
is
used on the dust-exclusion
side of
the seal in place of leather shown Both sealing in Figs. 339 a,nd 340. materials are retained by spinning the outer casing over the leather
Where there is conFig. 342. siderable difference in the diameters, the face of the shoulder thus formed can be utilized as the sealsoft ring of cork or ing surface. leather is beveled at the outer
Working on the same Fig. 343. wedging principle as that shown in

Fig. 342, except that the packing
is is
clamping cup.
surface
flat spiral as sho%vn. spring, coiled to a greater diameter than the hole in the sealing mate-
expands the packing outward against the beveled ring and wedges it against the face of the shaft shoulder.
rial,
beveled on the inner surface and retained by a sheet metal flange. The cork or leather sealing material is compressed against the two bearing surfaces by a garter spring Seals shown here and as shown. in Fig. 342 are limited to approxi-
mately Yii
in.
end play.
187
Courtesy Gih Bros.
Courtesy Naiiona/ Motor Bearing
Manufacturing
Co.
Company^
Fig. 345. lubricant, it
Inc.
Fig. 344. Another type of seal wherein a bronze ring bears against the shoulder of the shaft. The sealing material is in the form of a dia-
is used as a sometimes desirable to assemble a single seal to keep dirt from reaching the bearing rather than
When grease
is
Courtesy of the Chicago fâwhide tânufacturingCo.

Fig. 346. Leather flange seal with garter spring mounted in a flanged end plate. Spring tension is such as to give small area of contact between leather and shaft, thereby minimizing friction. A bronze thrust washer is between the bearing and the bearing housing.
phragm
dirt.
of heat-resisting fabric which retains oil in the bearing and excludes
retain the grease in the bearing.

illustration
The
shows
an
installation
In the flanged member that is screwed to the housing is a series of compression springs which hold the ring against the shaft shoulder. These springs not only take up wear but provide for end play of the shaft. To avoid torsional strain on the diaphragm, guide pins are used between the outer flange and spring bearing washer.
wherein a right-hand spiral groove is cut in the bearing bore to lead the lubricant outward. Surplus grease is forced past the seal, thereby keeping the bearing clean.
Bushings
Washe.
Washer
-Dust
seal
cup
Fig. 347. The labj^rinth seal shown does not rely on nonmetallic materials but on the small clearances with the assembly. A steel washer contacting a bronze thrust washer is clamped against the shaft shoulder after the formed dust seal cup is pressed into the counterbored hole.
Courtesy of the
Garlocd: tânufactur-
ing
Company
Fig. 348. When oil seals are to be installed after a mechanism has been assembled or to preclude the necessity of disassembling heavy shafts and bearings when making seal renewals, split seals can be used in such installations. The spreader spring and packing ring are split, whereas the retaining cup is made in two halves. The packing is scarf-cut to form an oiltight joint when assembled.
Fig. 349. Another mounting of small worm-drive shaft for domestic washing machine and domestic stoker. The composition sealing material is held against the shaft by a V-formed spreader spring having serrated edges which nest into the sealing ring. The angle of the V in the spring is greater than the groove in the seal so that the fingers of the spring exert a light pressure on the sealing lip. An oil return hole is drilled outside the bearing to relieve built-up pressure against the seal.
188

SAFETY GEARS
25ieeih ^pHch for roller chain
H
9 springs
64
outside diame+er
109
32
2 spn'ngs M" outside diameter
0.
"diam. wire
per
in.
0.040"diam. wire
Load=
1100
lb.
travel per turn
Load = 26
lb.
per
in.
travel per turn^ for noise
maker only
Test = load 35 to 40
lb.
on 20
in.
radius lever
Test= load 25to281b.ona 57in. radius lever

Fig. 351.
Fig. 350.
10
springs
6 springs
g2.
outside diam.
outside diam,
0.109 diam. wire

lb per per turn Test = load 60 to 65 lb. on 20 in. radius lever
1,100
in. travel
0.080"diam wire Load= 259 lb per

in.
Load=
travel per turn
341-8 P
Fig. 352.
Test= load 56 lb on 18 in. radius ever

Fig. 353.
POWER TRANSMISSION ED'EMENTS AND MECHANISMS
189
13
'springs
3l
32 outside diameter
64 outside
0.092"d;am^w(re
Ib.per in. travel per turn Test=load 50to60 Ib.on 20in. rod lever
springs diameter 0.109 diam.wire

12
Load = 814
Load
Test
=
1,100 lb.
per
in.
1
travel per turn
load 65 to 75 b.on 60 in. rod. lever
Fig. 354.
Fig. 355.
20 springs 3,,. 64 outside diameter

0.109" diam.wire
Load
1,1001b.
per
in.
travel per turn

in.
Test= load 65 to 70
lb.
on 60
radius lever
Fig. 356.
190

SHIFTING MECHANISMS FOR GEARS AND CLUTCHES
,
^W'
Shiff coflar wiih -frunnions
Reclongular bronze shoe
Eccentric-'^
crank /h- fh fegrol on shaft
^Nuifor end play odjusfmeni'

Fig. 357.
Adjusioble
^3 nuf
Fig. 358.
for
Fig. 359.
assembly
Screw aoljusfs clearance between clutch d/sks
[Shifting lever attached to this shaft

ving
,^
Gear segment
/H
f-*i I
[Shifting fork,
r
.
I
Driven
disk
Over running
Thrust bearing Positioning nut
clutch drives d/sk

Fig. 360.
Rack teeth In hub engage gear segment

Fig. 361.
'
<-Shaft
cutaway for clearance

/Shifting Fork
Gear
Shifting
n
I
Turned grooves
^position rods
rod^
Cffl^;>.
Fork
Screw fastens' fork to shift rod
''Slot position
^Spring plunger
screw
Fig. 362. Fig. 363.

Eccenirically
191
fumed
r
^-'Adiusfinq
shiffing collar
nJf
^^Bell
crank shifting fork

ShifHng center
'SfeeUhoeCrecianqular)^'^^^^' oHached fo fork 'by inseriSd pins

Fig. 364.
^^^
\
'^'"^^^
^Driving
member
Fig. 365.
Operafing
pinion
f'Upper surface of shiffing bar has milled feelh
I
Shaff mo vable longifudinally
Clufch releasing fork engages
flange
''
Flange free fo rofafe on
bushing
Sfafionary shaff
Fig. 366.
'-Spacing
bushing
MounHng'
Fig. 367.
Rack
.'Pinion
\r
^,-,
Shiffing fork
screwed and doweled fo sliding rack
Shiffing
bar of
Iflafsfock
Clufch groove
'
^Pinion
Fig. 369.
Fig. 368.
192

Sliding bar
^y Cûfcl^ siiifiing lever
fi inio yofre /Basiling force fified /Bushing
Shifting shoe clamped to shaft/
J
Pivoi
seal for lever and roci< serves as sec rocl< provides means for locking
Positioning
grooves
<1
JIT
T^
^Light-duty gears
Fig. 374.
Spring -backed ball drops info hemispherical siois io lock clutch

Fig. 370.
Pawldisen-
/Locking pawl
i
gaging levep
/Screwed
(
to
main costing
free
Gear housing
to
turn in bearings
, - -^Pln
'
re fains shifling shoe) allows slight roiafi'on of shoe when gears are en-
Lever rocks -'

entire gear case
gaged
Bell
''
Handle end
locks into
crank
Pivot
counterbored hole
-Counter-
bored
Boll endedpin
hole
Fig. 375.
engages
bellcrank
Slot
Fig. 371.
Clutch
member
Lever which - - actuates locking plunger
j'
Bearing
housing/
_
.
Lru-^^
'
,
Vh/ft fork
i bearing A -Locks to clutch member

'/
Shift fork'
Trunnion
'Holds bearing housing

Fig. 372.
Locking plunger^
Solid yoke
Flange holds-, yoke in place
Accomo
dates yoke trunnions
Shift,
1
rod
^Shiff lever keyed

^Shifting shaft
to
rod
Fig. 373.
Fig. 376.
193
Clusfer^
Cluster
Shlfi- handle
Fig. 377.
Fig. 378.
Posi-f-ioning phie
cr
wifh counier-
y Hand /ever-.
Screw enCam,
f'
~_r
[
f-j.
^^
sunk spo-fs which engage spriYwbacked locking plunger

Fo/rk
gages cam
GecrshafI
Sere
Section
Spring- backed
Fork^
Drive
'
kn
shafi
^/
/ j.û Dogc/ufch
"s
KH ^t3
x-x
locking plunger
^
Floaiing bevel gears

Fig. 379.
Pins iimii amounf of iravel of gears

Fig. 380.
Fork swive led fo lever
Spring-backed
[localing plunger
/
\D pinned lo shafit
^ Levers shaped lo keep Ihis distance
a minimum
Clusier
Lever F'
pinned +o shafi E
Fig. 381.
194

,
Locking plunger
Handle
Pinion mounfed rocker arm and driven by D
^ on
engages clionge gears

Splined shaft drives gears
Rocker arm
^^''Locking plunger
Dandt
engages Ihese
nolches
-Locking plunger
I
engages Ihese
notches when
driving ofher
idler gears
Fig. 382.
Sec+ionX-X
Cam keyed
to shall B
Sec+ion Y-Y
Lever
same
mounied on shall B as cam
'Dwell
'
Rolalion of cam moves yokes to engage clusier gears

Fig. 383.
Circular rack enq
fastened lo hollow's ha fI fo which is allached shifling bar

Section
". "-^
_,
Change gears separaled by hardened ana ground
washers ^
Y-Y
T^
'Pivoi
33 - Hardened and
ground sliding
key
Section X"X
Fig. 384.

GIBS
Can be
196
AND GUIDES
Zone- poinfed
shimmed
here
i-
Screw ac/Jusfmeni'
r screw adjusf\
\for gib
merit
\
V/.
LT"
For light loads
only
Fig. 387. Fig. 388.
Fig. 385.
Fig. 386.
'
S-tud fixed' in gib
Fig. 393
^^
196
\

Dovei-oif gui'cfe in foble
\
Shims
Fig. 399.
Fig. 400.
[*- Table widih---^

\Guide
Angular -iapered gib lakes up wear
Fig. 401.
Fig. 402.
Fig. 403.
Fig. 404.
Fig. 405.
Fig. 406.
ÂdjusHng screw
^s
-*!
/'
^^,^;;^ looseness of gib prevents backing our loo far^
rAdJusling screw
Section A-A
Fig. 407.
Section B-B
197
Fig. 408.
Fig. 409.
Fig. 410.
Shims for odjusfrneni'
Fig. 411.
Fig. 412.
B-'
Fig. 413.
^
^Ôpposii-e fape red gibs ao/jusi gib
,:T|Tn!*l^_4 -
Miiii^
Lr
^5g^
Section A-A
A'
Fig. 414.
198

CAM DESIGNS
Typical
Forms Used
in
Machine Design
Radial
Cam
with Roller Follower
Face
Cam
Heor+
Com
Sliding Contact
Yoke
Cam
Radial
Cam
with
Toe and Wiper
Mushroom Follower
Conical Ca
Cylindrical
Cam with Swinging Follower
End Cam
Sptierical
Cam.
/*"?
:
Barrel
Cam
Plate
Cam
Dog Cam

VARIABLE-SPEED DEVICES
Driven cone^
199
power between fixed parallel shafts. Convex disks mounted freely on a rocker arm and pressing firmly against the flanges of the shaft wlieels by a coiled spring form the intermediate sheave. Speed ratio changed bj^ moving
Fig. 415.
for transmitting
Device
^-Driving cone
Fig. 416.
at
These speed cones are moimted
nected
any convenient distance apart and conbj' a belt, whose outside edges consist
rocker lever. No reverse possible, but driven shaft may rotate above or below driver speed. Convex disk must be mounted on self-aligning bearings to ensure good contact at all positions.
of an envelope of tough, flexible, wearresisting rubberized fabric built to withstand
the wear caused by the belt edge traveling at a slightly different velocity from the part of the cone in actual contact. Speed ratio changed by sliding the belt longitudinally.
Shaft
-Drivinq
belt
Driven cone
^Squeezed
belt
Fig. 418. Another device to avoid belt "creep" and wear in speed-cone transmissions. The inner bands are tapered on the mside and present a flat or crowned surface to the belts in all positions. Speed ratio is changed bj' moving the inner bands rather than the main belts.
Fig. 417. Two cones mounted close together and making actual contact through a squeezed belt. Speed ratio is changed by
shifting the belt longitudinally.
Taper on
cones must be moderate in order to avoid excessive wear on the sides of the belt.
200

Universal Joinf^
Devices for avoiding belt wear when using speed cones. At left, creeping acting of belt is not entirely Fig. 419. eliminated, and universal joints present a problem of cost and maintenance. At right, a roller is substituted for the belt, giving more compactness.
Oufpuf
shaft,
Rollers
Driven^
f-
/Driving pulley
cone
"Rocker shaft
Fig. 420.
is
The
main component
of this drive
roller.
Fig. 421
in
In
this transmission, the cones are mounted
a hollow cone driven by a conical
Speed
changed by sliding driving unit in V guides. Note that when the roller is brought to the center of the hollow cone, the two run at identical speed
ratio
Une and supported by the same shaft. One cone is keyed to the main shaft and the other is mounted on a
sleeve.
shafts
with the same characteristics as a cone clutch. This feature makes the system attractive where heavy torque at motor speed is required in combination with lower speeds for light preliminary
operations.
Power is transmitted by a series of rocking and rollers. Pivoting rooking shafts and allowing them to slide change the speed ratio.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
X
X
201
iTranspoH
A^
Top
rail
of
Pafh of
tronsporf Counterweights ^v
X-ArHcles
moved
Cenier of
cran/i
arm
Pafh of
Shaff
D--
'-Paih
'Shoff
franspori
In this design, a rotary action is used. The shafts Z) rotate in unison and also support the main Fig. 422. moving member. The shafts are carried in the frame of the machine and may be connected by either a link motion, a chain and sprocket, or by an intermediate idler gear between two equal gears keyed on the shafts. The rail AA is A pressure or friction plate may be used to hold the material against the top of the rail fixed rigidly on the machine. and prevent any movement during the period of rest.
/Tronsporf
Conneciing
linl<
Bearing
Swivel arm
^
Palh
of iransporf
^~ Driven
arm
'Palh of Iransporf
Fig. 423. Here is shown a simple form of link motion which imparts a somewhat egg-shaped motion to the transport. The forward stroke is almost a straight line. The transport is carried on the connecting links. As in are Bearings design in Fig. 422, the shafts are driven in unison and are supported in the frame of the machine.
X=
Arficles
moved
also supported
by the frame
of the machine,
and the
rail
AA
is fixed.
The
details of operation
can be understood
readily from the figure.
A = Top of roil
Fric lion slide C
Transport'-'
Palhof-'
fronsporf
Lifling lever
^
FricHon
roil
Slops
Lifting lever
Driving arm-'
X = Articles moved
Fig. 424. Another type of action. Here the forward and return strokes are accomplished by a suitable mechanism, whereas the raising and lowering is imparted by a friction slide. Thus it can be seen from a study of the figure that as the transport supporting slide B starts to move to the left, the friction slide C, which rests on the friction rail, tends to remain at rest. As a result, the lifting lever starts to turn in a clockwise direction. This motion raises the transport which remains in its raised position against stops until the return stroke starts at which time the reverse action begins. An adjustment should be provided for the amount of friction between the slide and its rail. It can readily be seen that this motion imparts a long straight path to the transport.
202

I
Transport
-A=.
Pafhof
transport
Eccentric
Top
of
rail
Imk
Shaft F
Shaft ETie
Fig. 425.
Here
rod '
Cam arm
X = A rti'c les moved
and lowering
of the transport
of the machine.
an action such that the forward motion is imparted by an eccentric while the raising accomplished by means of a cam. The shafts F, E, and D are located by the frame Special bellcranks support the transport and are interconnected by means of a tie rod.
is
illustrated
is
^y
Transport
Top of rail -^
Path of
'
transport
Fig. 426.
X=Arficles
moved
The bearings C are supported
This
is
another form of transport mechanism wherein a link motion is used. by the frame, as is the driving shaft D.
/Transport
^
Eccentric
Transport
^?fL
arms -/-/-T
-Path of
transport
Cam -
X= Articles
moved
X= Articles moved
Fig. 427.
of equal diameters
'" 'êar B
'
'Path of transport
^-Shaft C-''
Fig. 428. In this transport mechanism the forward and return strokes are accomplished by the eccentric arms, while the vertical motion is performed by the
An arrangement
of interconnected gears
which will impart a transport motion to a mechanism, the gear and link mechanism imparting both the forward motion and the raising and lowering. The gear shafts are supported in the frame of the machine.
cams.

AUTOMATIC FEED HOPPERS
Roiafing
^^ Refaining
203
arms
finger
Roiafing
arms
Kicker heel\
Chufe
slide
surface
^Hopper
Fig. 429. The rotating arms of the nut hopper push the nut blanks up the inohne into the chute. The retaining finger holds several nuts and prevents them from sliding back into the hopper.
Same type hopper and rotating arms as in but a different chute, designed to feed bolts. Kicker wheel at the mouth of the chute kicks back into the hopper the bolts that do not enter the chute properly.
Fig. 430.
Fig. 429,
Tube conveyor
Hopper
sides ^
used for feeding into a tube conveyer. A reciprocating plunger picks up the work at the lower end of the stroke and deposits it in snap fingers at the end of
Fig.
431.
shell-like pieces
Hopper
Fig. 432.
The hopper
is
adjustable for feeding various lengths
and diameters of plain round stock, the pieces falling into the chute by gravity. The agitator finger at either end of the work prevents bridging or wedging of blanks over the chute opening.
the conveyer tube.

.-'In cenfer af iiopper ,
Chufe slide surface
Oscillafing orrri-
FiG. 433. An oscillating arm carries the blade through the center of the bolt hopper and at the top of its stroke forms a continuation of the bolt chute. Sides of the hopper are inclined toward the center to feed bolts into the blade at a low position in the hopper. One blade is used for each diameter of stock handled, tapered spacers in hopper being adjustable to accommodate varying widths of blade.
204
Guard.
Tilting hopper for small rivets and Fig. 434. screws, in which the work falls into a slot at the bottom center of the hopper, which is tilted to the same angle as the chute.
Rotating hopper set at angle is slotted Fig. 435. at the lower face to feed into the chute small cupshaped objects, as shown at A, positioning them with Should cups enter chute open-end their open end up. down, they will drop through selector slot in the chute; thus only those correctly positioned are allowed to
proceed to the assembly point.
Chufe,
AcJ/'usfing
screws
Adjusting screws
Vertical rotating disk hopper for feeding Fig. 436. shouldered pieces to the chute. By adjusting the hardened dog-point screws, it is possible to feed pieces with a difference of only 0.010 in. on the diameter.
Hopper
Prongs
Fig. 437. Another type of vertical rotating disk hopper for feeding hollow cylindrical pieces having a blind hole. Prongs are mQled on the periphery of the disk; these prevent work from being fed open end up into the chute.

GLUE-APPLYING MECHANISMS
205
Direct glue dabbers such as this Fig. 438. are inexpensive and simple, but can be used only when it is permissible for the quantity of glue to be applied to vary and when the applicaThe tion is to be made in strips or dots. applicator, of any desired shapes, is held on the end of a bent rod, all parts that immerse in the glue being so shaped as to drain freely and not to splash when entering the glue. A collar on the rod serves as a stop to enable quick resetting after its removal for cleaning, whereas the linkage holding the applicator permits
adjustment over a wide range of positions. The glue pot can be removed freely and usually requires no securing device other than means to prevent it from shifting. In designing these mechanisms, the device
must allow only a minimum
of variation in the consistency of the glue at the point of application. Therefore the glue pot must be amply large so that evaporation of the solvent will Even affect the glue consistency but slightly. in transferring the glue, it should be exposed as little as possible to the atmosphere. In the device shown here, its directness of application and the simplicity of the parts in contact with the glue give it a high rating for continuous
Example of an indirect type of Fig. 439. gluing mechanism, similar in design to the direct type except for the addition of the transThis makes it possible to apply fer member. glue to top surfaces and also to control in a certain measure the thickness of the layer of This mechanism is also of the glue applied. type that applies strips or dots rather than films. In all these designs, simplicity is of greatest importance in order that the device will be easy to keep clean, lubricated, and adjusted. With reference to all types of gluing mechanisms, the practice of exposing the glue to the atmosphere after it has been applied and before the closing or uniting operation, in order to partly evaporate the solvent and thus make the Such a glue more tacky, must be avoided. practice usually is a serious source of troubles as many variable factors such as time, temperature, and atmospheric conditions enter in and will seriously affect the efficiency of the
machine unless compensation can be made for the variation in these factors and the time element can be maintained constant by uninterrupted operation of the machine.
good performance.
206
\)i)j))///)/iii/i>>>> 1 >>'"''/' />/]
Film applicators are used much more extensively than those applying dabs, because they permit the Fig. 440. A direct-acting type of this class of device is shown application of a uniform film of glue of any selected thickness. here. The material receiving the appUcation runs in contact with the wheel that dips in the glue, the application being made to the under surface. Best results are obtained when the wheel runs at the same surface speed as the In this class of glue applicators, greatest attention must be given to the design of the trimmer material passing over it. blade. This blade must be adjustable, but it should be so constructed that in making the adjustment the blade will
keep
its
proper relation to the wheel.
In the indirect types of film applicator, a Fig. 441. transfer wheel receives glue from the main wheel and transfers The clearance between the it to the point of application. transfer wheel and the main wheel is usually made adjustable. On machines that must be stopped frequently, the drive to the glue wheels should be independent of the drive for the main machine so that the glue wheels can be kept revolving when the machine is stopped, thus preventing the glue from drying
o\\
the surface of the wheels.
Fig. 442. In this design of direct applicator, the film of glue is applied to the upper surface To keep the exact relation of the sheet. between the trimmer blade and wheel, there must be a complete elimination of lost motion. If a means for locking the trimmer blade in position is provided, it should be so designed that the act of locking will not disturb the setting. It should also be possible to remove the parts for cleaning without disturbing the setting. The drive of the glue wheel should be A belt positive to ensure the proper speed. drive is not to be recommended.
.
machines.
A type of gumming mechanism that is much in use in sheet-mounting machines and gumming This type is easily cleaned and adjusted. When the rollers are long, consideration should be given to the This deflection will result in deflection in the center of the rollers due to the pressure exerted in squeezing out glue. a thicker fiilm of glue in the center of the rollers than at the ends. This is usually compensated for by making the glue roller larger in diameter in the center than at the ends. The device has no trimmer blade, but thickness of glue
Fig. 443.
film
is
regulated
by adjusting the gap between the
rollers.
CHAPTER
VII
DRIVES
Significance of
AND CONTROLS
Page
Page
WR^
Analysis of
Selection
Motor Load of Motor Tjrpe

for Electric
208 211
Electric Control
Electrically
Methods
214
Motors 218 Winding Connection Diagrams for Multi220 speed Motors

Inquiry
'.
Form
Operated Valves Automatic Timers Trigger Switch Mountings Thermostatic Mechanisms Automatic Stops
224 231 234 237 242 248
207
208

SIGNIFICANCE OF WR^
In Drives for Machinery
Any moving body
has stored in
it
kinetic energy, the
magnitude of which
increased,
is
pro-
portional to the mass of the body and to the square of speed of a body is changed, the amount of kinetic energy
in energy
its velocity.
is
Whenever the
and the increase
must be supplied from a source within the system. If the speed is decreased, the kinetic energy of the body is decreased, and the energy lost must be absorbed by some other part of the system. moving with a hnear velocity V ft. per sec, the kinetic In a body of mass
energy
in foot-pounds is
E = ImV' = 1(^j)v'
where
(35)
is
the weight of the body, in
lb.,
and
g is the acceleration of gravity, in
ft.
per sec. per sec.
mass as actually distributed is the same as an equivalent mass concentrated at a point distant from the axis of rotation equal to the radius of gyration R of the body, the equivalent mass havThe kinetic energy E in foot-pounds then becomes ing the same speed of rotation N.
In a body rotating at
r.p.m., the kinetic energy of the
a physical term applying to a specific body; the term of the body and a radius of gyration R which is determined by involves the weight the shape and dimensions of the body. The kinetic energy stored in a rotating body,
is
Note that the term WR^
therefore,
is
proportional to
its
WR- and
to the square of
A'',
its
rotational speed.
Since Eq. (36) represents the kinetic energy stored in the body after speed A'' is attained, this equation also represents the energy that must be suppUed from some In mechanical-drive problems, source, to accelerate the body from rest to A^ r.p.m. however, energy as such is of little interest; the major concern deals with the torque required to produce the acceleration. It can be easily demonstrated that the torque
in pound-feet required to accelerate a
body from
rest to a
speed of
r.p.m. in
sec. is
- From Eq.
(37), it is
W
X
<-)
obvious that the term WR^ is also an important factor in determining the torque required to produce a given acceleration. By making use of the familiar equation
^P =
and Eq.
(37), it is
torque
N
H
/cs
^^^^
5,250
simple to determine the horsepower
required to accelerate uni-
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

formly the body from rest to a speed
A'^
209
r.p.m. in
sec,
by using an average speed N/2

(^9^)
"
TxN/2
5,250
WR'N'
10,500
308i
WR'N' 3,234 X 10' X
the moving system
In mechanical systems with a number of rotating parts, the energy E^ stored in is the sum of the energies stored in each part, or
^'
W:R\N\ + W,R\N\ + W,RhNh +

5;873
+ W,.R\N\
,,.
(^^)
In power-drive and motor-application problems, it is advantageous to express the energy Es in the system in terms of an " equivalent WR"^," which will be designated here as W^R^s, at the drive or motor shaft having a speed of Nd, such that
E. =
W R^ N-^ 1!^'
be seen that
(41)
By combining
Eqs. (40) and (41),
it will
WM\
= W^R\
(^y +
W,RS (^^y + W^R\ {^^y +
Wr^RJ (^)'
(42)
The torque
speed in
t
sec.
T^ necessary to accelerate uniformly a system at rest to a required can be obtained by substituting WsR'\ for WR^, and Nd for A^" in Eq. (37),
which then becomes
^
The horsepower H^
to a speed of
in Eq. (39),
WsR'sNd
dOSt
(43)
required to accelerate the system from the drive shaft at rest

t
Nd r.p.m.
in
sec.
can be determined by substituting WsR^sN^d for
WR'N^
which then becomes
^
or
W R^ AT^
3,234
A''^
10^
from Eq. (39a) by substituting (43) which then becomes

jj
s-t^
for
N, and
iVd Nd
for
T the
value of T, as given by Eq.
VV 5-tVd y _ WsR'sNd
308t
5,250
^ ^
2
*y WM'N'd d 3,234 X 10^ X

s-tl-
-tV
/j^rN
^
Sometimes complex systems are encountered involving both motion. The equivalent WR- of the linearly moving parts can
the motor-shaft speed by the equation
linear
also
and rotating
be reduced to
"Equivalent
where
WR'" =
Y =
Tf
(p^^Y \ZTrI\
d'
(46)
'N d
= =
weight of the body

r.p.m. of the drive or
velocity, in feet per
min
motor shaft
210
This equation can be used only where the linear speed bears a continuous fixed A more complex equation relation to the rotating speed, as a rack driven by a gear. is necessary for systems involving reciprocating hnear motion obtained by a crank
arm.
method, it is possible to reduce the WR^ of the individual parts of a comThese values of plex system to an equivalent WR- at the drive or motor shaft speed. equivalent WR^ may be added directly, and the total equivalent WR^ plus the WR^ of the driving unit or the motor represents the WR^ of the complete system which the motor must accelerate or decelerate. All further calculations may be made as though the system were a simple one of one element of WR' equal to the total equivalent WR-. To simplify the calculation of the radius of gyration of various mechanical structures, see the tables on pages 17 and 19 to 25.
By
this
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

ANALYSIS OF
211
MOTOR LOAD FOR TORQUE REQUIREMENTS

and Time Required
to Start the
Starting Torque
Machine
Rg
rs
Condition at stoirHng = Scarfing A^'S of torque of motor "^^r

.
I
shaft
^*^r^-m-
P in.ff:
>:
P
in lbs.
Pp =(/-/o/d/ng torque ofsfatic/oad on driven macf>.)^ (holding fricfional

To start
torque of machine parts) mach. Rsrs must be greater than
Pp
fhe excess being available for accelerating the machine
motor torque must overcome all frictional resistances of bearings, sliding parts, and transmission elements, and also the resistance of any connected load. Where the load is not imposed until the machine has come up to working However, machines such as compressors, piston speed, the load resistance is zero. pumps, and hoists without unloading devices may be required to start under full load. With machines of these types, the resistance should be determined for the point of maximum starting torque in the machine cycle. The motor torque delivered in excess of that required to overcome running friction at start plus starting load on the machine is used in bringing the machine up
start a machine, the
To
to speed.
Accelerating Torque and
Time Required
to
Bring Machine
-Linear
acceler-
Up
to
Speed
Condition when accelerating

Torque to overcome frictional forces
ation per
sec.
Axis of4.
Pad. ofaeration ofmacn. parts Equivalent mass of rotating driven mach. parts
motor' shaft
^
'
.---Torque to accel-
1^
> erate
load on machine
Rg r^ = Accelerating torque delivered by motor To accelerate mach. Rq fc must be greater than algebraic sum of combined torques resisting acceleration in machine
needed to accelerate the machine and the rate at which it should be dehvered by the motor mil depend upon the moments of inertia of the masses contained in the moving parts and their radii of gyration about or -Rath reference to the motor axis. Flywheel members added to make the load on the motor uniform increase the WW- of the machine and, consequently, increase the accelerating torque which must be dehvered by the motor. (For a discussion of these factors, see page 208.) Other factors that determine the torque needed are loads on machine that must be accelerated before full speed is attained. The time allowed for acceleration is an important factor in determining the heat developed in the motor windings.
of torque
The amount
212

Running Torque over Time Interval Required by Local Cycles on Machine
Condition
when running
,
Axis of mofor shaft
Running
\
forque fo \ldo work

\\
a flood
fomatce
t.
Running forque
up for fricfional and in herenfmacfi. losses
Rp
ff =
To keep mach. running
Running torque of motor R,- r,. must be greater
than algebraic sum of combined resisting running torques in mach. Limiting value of Rf r^ h motor pull-out torque
When
to
operating at rated speed, the torque supplied by the motor

for frictional
is
that required
machine losses. In calculating the running torque required to keep the machine operating, it is desirable to add something on the safe side to take care of unexpected loads and circuit It is poor practice to plan to use the excess torque that a motor can deliver variations. over its nominal rating, because such overloads cause a rise in winding temperature with consequent depreciation in insulation properties and shortening of motor hfe.
do useful work and to make up
and
inlierent
Work Load
Applied After Motor Is Running
Clufch /ever -
-n
Mofor
Counfershaff drive for
machine ^
Time
With a disengaged
speed against
clutch or unloading device between motor

it is
conditions at starting favor the motor since

little resistance.
is
then free to start
and machine, the and to come up to
engaged, the machine load imposed on the running motor may be if the clutch is of the jaw or the magnetic types, or the load may be apphed to the running motor gradually over a short time range if the clutch is of the frictional or the spring-separated plate type that permits shpping.
When
clutch
applied almost instantaneously
However, the abOity of the running motor to start and accelerate the driven machine when the clutch is engaged is limited by the torque- value at which the motor will stall, usually called the break-down or pull-out torque. If applying the machine load slows the motor, an accelerating torque will be required of the motor to bring the machine up to the desired speed. Thereafter, the machine load will determine the running torque required of motor.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Work Load
Fan
Moior^
213
Applied as Motor Speed Increases
*\
214

SELECTION OF
MOTOR TYPE
Following the analysis of torque requirements and duty cycle of the driven machine, the next step in the selection of the motor is a matcliing of the torque characteristics of the load with torques that the various types of motors can be expected to
deliver
when starting, accelerating, and running. The torques that mbtors can dehver are dependent upon the type
of windings
and
the scheme of connections employed in the particular motor; the nature, uniformity, and magnitude of the voltage at the motor terminals; the capacity of the feed hues;
and the physical conditions surrounding the motor. Motors are designed primarily to dehver torque at
voltages.
Electrical current
is
specified speeds at definite

i.e.,
supplied commercially as either a direct,

in
unidirec-
which the voltage alternates in Wlien the electrical service is alternating, a motor must be selected not only to suit the magnitude of the voltage as with direct current, but also to suit the frequency and the number of phases of
tional potential, or as
an alternating potential
direction at definite frequencies or cycles per second.
current.
Although the frequency of alternating current as furnished by power companies is so nearly constant that variations in frequencies can be considered neghgible the same is not true of voltage. Voltages do vary considerably especially at the end of a
transmission
line.
Variations in voltage are very important considerations in motor performance because the effective torque output of any motor will vary as the square of the change Therefore, hne voltages at the motor terminals should be known, in applied voltage. and if a variation from rated motor voltage does exist the rated torque should be
interpolated accordingly. Feed-line capacity should be large enough to take care of the high inrush of cur-
mthout reducing the voltage and thus lowering the effective starting The motor even though starting under subnormal voltage may be able to break the static load but have difficultj^ in accelerating the load up to speed; thus
rent at starting
torque.
the accelerating time
attendant high current, which tends to cook the windings and in some types of motors to blow the condenser or burn the
is
lengthened,
^îth
commutator.
Effect of Physical Conditions.
Extreme heat surrounding the motor,
i.e.,
high
and copper in the motor and thus limits the power output of the motor. Insulation wUl be affected and the life of the motor reduced'if the temperature of the motor windings rises beyond safe hmits. Extreme cold around the motor and driven machine may cause the lubricating mediums to stiffen or harden. Stiff oU in the bearings, pistons, and packings of a machine will cause hard starting. Extreme dampness, moisture, or corrosive acid fumes reduces the effectiveness of
ambient temperatures, increases the operating temperature of the active iron
the insulation resulting in current leakage or actual puncture of the insulation.
Special insulations are available for
abnormal conditions.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Dirt, either falling or suspended in the atmosphere,
215
and dripping water should
not get into the motor
if
these elements are present, an inclosed type of motor should
be used.
DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS
nju(>
Series wound D.C motor
(
(Wi l Sr^ /
Shunt wound^ D.C. motor
216

Repulsion-start induction-run motors develop a continuous rotating effect on
the rotor because of induced currents in the rotor made continuously effective bycommutation to produce torque during the starting period. Repulsion-start induction-run motors have high starting and accelerating torques
motor with squirrel-cage rotor, or These motors at starting are repulsion motors, its equivalent, are very efficient. but on reaching a predetermined speed expanding governor weights push a device under the commutator which short circuits the commutator bars through a common ring; the same movement releases tension on the brushes with the result that the armature is short-circuited and is the equivalent of a squirrel-cage rotor in a poly-
and when running
as a single-phase induction
Self starting,
single-phase moTor, with phase coil cutout
Repulsion start
and
run, single-phase motor
o o O
Repulsion start, induction run, single-phase motor
j-,
^
Capacitor start, induction run, single- phase motor
Phase
-^
Capacitor start, capacitor run,
single-phase
o"o"OTroirv-i
3 Oq
O
~:^
/
Phase dsdz
,^s^-3x
|V::
-Ô motorg
"Jj
V>
-/
Fig. 445.
Wiring diagrams
of
winding schemes and starting devices used horsepower motors.
in typical alternating-current fractional
phase induction motor. When the motor stops, the governor and mechanism return automatically to their original starting positions. Repulsion-start induction-run type motors are suited for loads requiring high Repulsion-start induction-run type motors are starting and accelerating torques.
furnished only for single speed apphcations.
magnetic rotating effect b}' spUtting the magnetic field of the stator mnding into two separate windings displaced One winding is a starting or in space and having different electrical characteristics. phase winding, and the other is the main or running winding. When the motor starts, both windings are on the line. After accelerating up to a predetermined speed, a governor attached to the rotor acts to open a smtch and cuts out the starting winding. The motor then continues to operate on the running winding as a single-phase inducstart induction
its
The spht-phase
motor develops
tion motor.
Split-phase motors can be designed with high starting torque but only
by using
They are purposely designed with low starting relatively high starting current. torque so that the current and consequently the heating in the starting winding will
be limited.
Equipment driven with spht-phase motors should be easy to start. The inertia of the load should be small so that the motor can accelerate rapidly to avoid "cooking" the starting winding. Feed mres should have capacity great enough to carry the high starting current without reducing the voltage at the motor terminals with consequent reduction of the motor torque.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

starting.
217
Capacitor motors are basically split-phase motors using split magnetic fields in Improved starting characteristics are obtained by using a capacitor or condenser in connection with the starting winding. The electrical effect of the condenser increases the angle of the magnetic action to about 90 deg. between the two windings, approaching a true two-phase effect. Capacitor-start and induction-run motors employ a centrifugal governor switch which cuts out both the starting winding and the condenser at a predetermined speed
after
which the motor operates as a straight single-phase squirrel-cage inductionare
type motor.
Capacitor-start induction-run motors wiU dehver starting torques that
approximately three and one-half to four and one-half times their full load torque with locked rotor currents approximately one and three-fourth times repulsion-start induction-run motor currents. Their operating characteristics when running are
very similar to those of the repulsion start induction run type of motors. Capacitor-start capacitor-run motors use a capacitor and also a transformer. The transformer acts to impress a high voltage on the capacitor for starting. Starting torque
is
three and one-half to four and one-half times full load torque, and startof the
ing current
is
same
relative order as the capacitor-start induction-run type of
motor.
Capacitor motors can be obtained for both single- and multispeed applications. Fractional horsepower squirrel-cage induction polyphase motors have a field made up of polyphase windings and a squirrel-cage rotor made up of conductor bars.
The
starting torque
is
about two and one-half to three times the

the
full
load torque.
Squirrel-cage induction motors hke direct-current motors wUl usually pull
up
any load they can

required
start, i.e.,
maximum pull-up torque is about equal to the starting
torque, and the rating of the motor should be selected to suit the greater torque as
by the
load.
218

INQUIRY
FORM FOR ELECTRIC MOTORS

(d)
1.
Name
of
machine to be driveninitial
What
is
the inertia of the load including
2. 3.
Field of use
couplings, pulleys, gear drives, or fly-
Estimated quantity, first year
order
(e)
wheel ? Speed of driven element

Drive:
,
r.p.m.
,
4.
Power supply:
(a)
(6)
(/)
direct
gear
belt
Direct current
volts
chain_
Type
of coupling
Alternating
current
cj^cles
_volts.
8.
if
direct drive-
phase,
(c)
Universal motor_
Will power supply vary?
_volts
Space available for motor (a) Restricted to a maximum diameter of

in.
(d)
5.
Motor speed and

(a)
(b)
direction of rotation:
I'.p.m.
(6)
Restricted
in.
to
maximum
length
of
Full-load running speed
Allowable variation
full-load speed
per cent of
9.
Motor mounting:
(a) Vertical
,
horizontal
(c)
Direction of rotation, from end opposite

shaft
extension,
oblique
(b)
clockwise
,
counter clockwise
(d) Is
reversible
a multispeed motor required?

,
,
Give
(c)
speeds
(e)
(d)
Adjustable speed motor, speed range

to
10.
below Foot mounting at end above flange mountSpecial (show by sketch) ingResilient mounting Is mounting position of the motor changeable ?
,
6.
Running load requirements and Load determined by test tained from present practice
estimated
(a)
(6)
conditions.
,
Motor housing: (a) Motor exposure outdoor

:
in-
ob,
door
(6)
or
Within machine or housing, partly

closed
,
in-
(For multispeed motor

hp. hp.
full
totally inclosed
give following data for each speed)
(Give dimensioned sketch of housing and
Continuous load
Intermittent load
(1)
show ventilation
11.
provisions)
length of time at
load
(2)
min. idle running

rest
Condition of ventilating air: of dust (a) Presence steam moisture

,
grit
,
corrosive
min., time at
gases
oil
vapor
air
,
explosive
min.
gas
salt
other conair
(3)
maximum momentary
lb
in.
torque
tamination
(5)
Maximum
temperature of cooling
(c)
Fluctuating load
(1) (2)
(3)
deg. F.
_hp.
12.
magnitude
of overloads-
duration of overloads frequency of occurrence-
_mm.
Bearings and lubrication: (a) Manufacturer's standard(b)
Motor
to be lubricated at intervals of
(d)
Reversing service
(1) reversals per,
(2)
min
i.,off
(c)
End
play restricted
of bearing preferred
thrust loads
time intervals on min.

inertia of load
present
(d)
Type
(1)
(3)
7.
Sleeve: lubricated
by
oil
ring
Starting load:
(a)
waste
-,
Torque, starting
Is
accelerating
(2)
Ball:
lubricated
by
oil
or
grease
(b)
motor started under load?-
or
13.
Shaft extension: single.

_; .;
or both ends or
(c)
without load? Type of unloading device
if
vertical,
up
or tapered
down
straight
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

(a)
(b)
219
Diameter
key
in.,
length
in.
,
(b)
Motor protected against overloadunder voltage

Is limit
Pulley fastened by
setscrew
(c)
:
switch used
(c)
Key way dimensions standard

special,
or
in.
(d)
Are brakes used

Manufacturer's standard
Special leads:
width
in
in.
depth
16.
Electrical leads:
(a)
length
(d)
Can
the design be
made
for standard
(b)
(c)
number
length-
shaft dimensions?
14.
Attachment cord: length.
plug
Weight limitations
Electrical control:
(a)
if
any
17.
15.
Give special requirements such as special

insurance regulations, dynamically balanced,
rotor, quietness of operation, etc.
Hand
mote_
automatic
re-
220

WINDING CONNECTION DIAGRAMS FOR MULTISPEED MOTORS
MULTISPEED MOTORS, CONSTANT HORSEPOWER, KEY DIAGRAMS
Single winding,
two speed
N.E.M.A. MG.
Speed
6-41, Fig. 8, 1930
Low.
High.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

TWO WINDING, THREE
N.E.M.A.
221
SPEED, THREE PHASE, CONSTANT
HORSEPOWER
T,,
Bui. 110, p, 612, 1926
A.S.A. C-6 3.725, 1938

Ti
T,;
Speed
222

MULTISPEED MOTORS, CONSTANT TORQUE, KEY DIAGRAMS
Single winding, two speed
N.E.M.A.
Speed
MG
6-41, Fig. 7, 1930
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

MULTISPEED MOTORS, VARIABLE TORQUE, KEY DIAGRAMS
T4
223
T4
Single winding,
two speed
Single winding,
two speed
N.E.M.A.
Speed
MG
6-41, Fig. 4, 1930
A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938
Speed
Ti, Ti,
Ti, Ti,
L;
Ti, Ts, Tc
Ti, Tn,
Low.
High.
Ti open Tz together
Low.
High.
open
Tz together
T.
Two
N.E.M.A.
Speed
winding, three speed 6-41, Fig. 4, 1930
MG
il
Low*.
Second t High*...
224

ELECTRIC CONTROL METHODS
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Capstan
L| 1-2
225
Lj
Genera for
Capstan
motor
-F/yer motor
Capsfan Speed
A wire-insulating machine requires a constant speed ratio between capstan motor Fig. 448. and flyer for starting and running. The capstan motor drives a frequency changer or transmitter The speed ratio between flyer and electrically connected to the synchronous motor of the flyer. capstan is constant at all times.
Cutting
tool
_..
^
Works
m
1
--
Platen
y//////////w/y///y/yyyy//y/^wyyy/yyyyy'
'-Limit switches'-'
226
Siop /im/fswi^hi
S-f-arf
Siop
Speed-
=
Accurate positioning of reversing and stop Fig. 452. limits is necessary on tapping machines especially when tapping blind holes. Special alternating-current reversing motors for tapping service permit as many as 60 The use of two- or four-speed motors reversals per min. reduces the number of gear changes required. Accurate limit switches, quick-acting contactors, and high torque motors are used. A plug stop is used for braking at the "out" position.
"'-Reversing limH' swiiches''

Fig. 451.
When milling work having a gap between
Reverse limif swiich'
machined surfaces, production is increased by rapid traverse between machining positions. Jump feed control is accomplished by means of adjustable limit switches, multispeed motors, and suitable magnetic
controls.
Final posiHon swiich
Slow- down swifch
T
PosiHon
.J
T Rapid
-Slow speed
traverse
.5
Fig. 453. Accurate location of boring tools for indexing requires extremely slow speed of work table to prevent overdirect-current motor and travel when stop limit is reached. control is used; heavy armature series resistance and armature parallel resistance provide for creep speeds for final positioning.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

RecHfier-^
E= Voltage av= Average
R.M.5= /?ooj'
227
mean square
51
AC. supply
Load
I o o o o
CA)
Eav = 0.450 E RMS
'iRecti'fiers
|4'
-RMJ
-l
Load
=
0.450 Ek
fB)
\j \J \j \J
Eav=0.9ERMS
/\
/\
wave
{A) Halfrectifier circuits generally used. used in radio, also in industrial equipment such as (B) vibrating machinery or electric razors, requiring reciprocating motion. (C) Full-wave rectifier circuit used in radio work and magnetic chucks. Full-wave rectifier circuit used in industrial applications to obtain directFig. 454.
rectifier circuit
Single-phase
current from alternating-current source.
Load
Load
Fig. 455.
circuit
Other
rectifier circuits.
{A) Single-phase voltage-doubler rectifier
to obtain higher than line voltage without transformer. (B) A three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit, one type of rectifier used to obtain a large amount of direct-current power for power circuit.
used
in radio
work
228

PushbuHon ~^
,
^-~ Pushbuffon
for
.1
AX.
Fig. 456.
Illustrating the use of rectifiers in conjunction with
magnetic control equipment on relays.
Through
the use of a
circuit.
rectifier in
conjunction with direct-current relay, multiple control can be obtained over a single-control
Showing the use of a pulsating direct current on a vibrating machine. In most instances, frequency of Fig. 457. pulsations is important and on hammer shown 25-cycle alternating current is used with a single-wave rectifier.
^--J
Pump
motor
control
Time
delay
relay
Wheel motor
control
Start-s+op pushbuttons
Grinding wheet
driven by motor
Pump
motor
-A^
Large grinders use pumps driven by separate motors. Pump motor need not be in operation when Fig. 458. grinding wheel is not running, but it is sometimes desirable to allow wheel motor to coast to rest before shutting down pump motor. This can be done electricallj' by means of time delay relay to permit pump motor to operate for predetermined time after wheel motor is shut down. For the starting sequence, an arrangement similar to that in Fig. 462 may be used.
^'^^{[^Pump
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Reversing coni roller
229
Mofor,
230

TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
I
Press start button
2 3
Pump motor starter
closes
Pressure
switch
Pressure switch closes
4 Spindle motor starter closes

5
6
7 8
Press feed start button
Feed motor starter closes

Stop button stops
all
motors
Feed stop stops feed motor
Spindle
moior
starter
Sfop
buri-on
Feed
stop
o
Feed
Feed
start
motor
starter
Feed
motor
Fig. 462. Electrical interlocking or sequencing of motors for large milling machine ensures that coolant pump motor is running and pressure obtained before spindle motor starts and that spindle motor is running before feed motor can be started. A master "stop" button dominates all controls.
Limit switch No. I -
Limit switct? No. 2
Fig. 463. Combination mechanical and electrical torque or load limiting device for control of motor-operated valves, chucks, and clamps. When load becomes sufficiently high to stall wormwheel, the worm sliding on a splined shaft moves axially, similarly to a screw threading through a nut. This movement compresses a calibrated torque spring and opens a limit switch, thereby shutting oif the motor.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

ELECTRICALLY OPERATED VALVES
-o/ oL
231
Power
lines
^
Floal,
swilch
Power
lines
Corrfrol swiVch
D
Tank level''
C
Supply
Fig. 464.
Tank
Ex.hausi
supply
Straight-way
solenoid valve as eoin-
Fig. 465.
Straight-way
monly connected
for simple fluid control.
Control
switch energizes solenoid, opening valve, and permitting flow to begin.
automatically liquid level. control device for valve.
valve applied to control Float switch used as pilot
-Pilol
-circuil-
Supply
m
li
ExhausI
Delivery
Power
lines
First Condi+ion
Wafer
Fig. 467. Two straight- way valves offer means of automatically controlling cycle of processing machine, such as plastic molding press, having heating and
A-open, B-closed
straight-way valves, A normally normally closed, provide two-way fluid control. Energizing the solenoids cuts off supply and vents delivery through exhaust.
Fig. 466.
Two
open and
cooling coils.
Compressor
Pilol circuil
Pump
Mofor lines
Fig. 468. Single straight-way valve can be connected across one phase of motor winding to start flow of cooling water to compressor whenever motor
starts.
Oil supply
mA
Furnace
Straight-way valve of trip type interFig. 469. locked with oil-furnace control system to cut off oil supply upon loss of current to motor-driven pump or to atomizing equipment, or upon occurrence of low water, low stack temperature, or similar conditions.
232

Piloi(
arcu/^
J fxhausi-
Supply
i- Delivery
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Piloi
circuii-
233
Pilof
^
circuit
Supply
Jr-'-De/ivery No.1
Supply
Delivery No.2
Fig. 473.
Three-way
Second Condi+ion First Condition valve applied as convenient means of transferring one supply to either of two
deliverie.s.
Piloi circuit
Pilot
circuit
Jrt
Operating
'
Operating
rod
rod
Operating cylinder
Exhausi
Operating
cylinder
Supply
First Condi+ion
Second Condition
Fig. 474
Four-way valve arranged to control double-acting cylinder.

of cylinder reverses direction.
Upon
energization of solenoid, operating rod
Power
Exhaust
lines
Power
lines
Float switch
Float switch
~~
First
Pressure -operated valve

principle
'
Condition
Second Condition
through
in Fig. 474, provides automatic control of ' pressure-operated valve.
Fig.
475. Four-way valve arrangement, employing

level
shown
tank
Emergency
supply
"
Delivery
Normal
supply
Normal Condition
Fig.
476. Three-way valve,
transferring either of utilizing inversion of principle shown in Fig. 473, offers means of Useful in appUcations where an emergency supply is provided. supplies to a common delivery.
two
234

AUTOMATIC TIMERS
^Magnef
^^1
WeighlPivoi
^D
-
Make and break

confacfs
i^
'Trip
I
Adjusfable
venf
^
V^')
Weighl
Clearance
2)
y//////////Av///////////.
^^ Spring
or solenoid
Fixed
end
gap
>i
IK
Adjustable veni
,'Fluid
yTo con lad I h rough

spring or solenoid
~
Make and
break
conlacis
Simplest form consists of a Fig. 477.- -Dashpot principle. Adjustable piston or plunger operating in oil, mercury, or air. small orifices or bleeders provide time adjustment. A by-pass may be provided near the end of the piston travel for snap Widely used because of its action closing of the contact. When air is used, changing clearances simplicity and low cost. caused by dust, gumming of lubricant, and leakage affect the timing. If oil is used, the temperature will change oil viscosity and affect the timing. Also subject to error because of clear-
mechanism. by virtue of the inertia of two weights mounted on a pivoted arm and the length of arc to be travFig.
478.
Inertia
Time delay
is
made.
before mechanical contact is Tilted by gravity, this device gives a relatively short interval and becomes clumsy for long time intervals
ersed
ance changes from wear.
^Moin air line fr
^Valve
Fig. 479. Contactor works on back pressure from the main cylinder on the welder, pressure being assured between the welding points before the welding contactor closes. When the back pressure has built up to a predetermined value, the plunger moves upward at a definite rate of speed and the hardened cam closes the mam contacts. After a predetermined time, the cam moves by the roller that it engages and the main contacts open. One adjustment the sets the back pressure at which the contactor plunger starts to move and therefore determines the lag in applymg current after pressure has been applied. A second adjustment changes the needle valve opening to the contactor air This determines the welding time. A third adjustment varies the time of the cylinder and thus times the upstroke. downstroke and is of importance only when used with a repeater.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

,
235
Copper block
I
Bimei-allic slrip
li^gtegiJ
^,'
Make and
break coniach
t
ff
Copper Jackel or ring or shorl circuiled furns
'
Moke and break

conlacis
Copper block
^^-/Heal barriers
m \smm^
Make and break
Fig. 480.
iir^
/
U"'; Bimelalllc Î^jf ^^'''P^

-
conlacis
m
Fig. 481. Magnetic time delay, used on direct current only. Relatively inexpensive, effects time delays up to 10 sec. by means of residual
Inexpensive time delay around a bimetallic strip. Least accurate device. Has a slow make and break action. For longer time intervals, a copper block may be mounted to absorb some of the heat; the larger the block of Time intervals copper, the longer the time interval. ranging fromi J^ sec. to 5 to 10 min. are possible with this
relays.
Thermal
utilizing the effect of a heating coil
may have
de\ace.
Magnet may be copper jacketed, copper rings, or may have short-circuited turns around the magnet. Variation in the amount of copper or in the resistance of shortcircuited turns will affect the time delay.
magnetism.
Moke and break

con tads
\y Solenoid
Eleclro
Fig.
482.
magnel'
time
delay.
Magnetic-drag
small electromagnet is used, and the motion of the relay plunger is made to revolve a metal disk in the field of the magnet. The rotation of the disk is retarded by magnetic induction. Reliable device, trouble free, but relatively expensive.
236
> WWt
Relay
1
l_.
.
Relay
Fig. 483. Vacuum tube. Condenser charged or discharged through a resistor closes a relay after definite time, using direct current. When switch is open, the condenser discharges slowly through shunt resistor. This lowers the negative potential on the grid, and at the critical value the plate current will rise enough to operate the relay. Full line voltage may be applied to the condenser to obtain longer time delay.
- +
In this circuit, operation is maintained for a predetermined time after the starting impulse has stopped. the button has been pressed, the filament gets current in series with relay winding 1, and the relay pulls up, locking in the circuit. The second contact charges the condenser negative, and no plate current flows. When button is released, the relay stays closed until condenser discharges. Then the plate current flows through the second relay winding in opposition to the first, releasing the armature. Applicable to direct current or rectified alternating current
Fig. 484.
When
only.
Reciifier
Relay
Re sis lor,
y^
Condenser
PolenHomef'er
^
Transformer
Swiich
Fig. 485. In the Wes'tinghouse electronic relay, there is no temperature error, reset is instantaneous, adjustment When the switch is closed, the tube passes current. As the current increases, the increasis easy, and first cost is low. The IR drop across the resistor ing IR drop from the potentiometer causes a charging current through condenser. because of this current applies the negative bias to the grid. Plate current cannot build up very rapidly, because the After a time period, adjustable through potentiometer, the faster it increases, the more negative the grid becomes. plate current will operate relay. The time delay is proportional to the product of resistance and capacitance. Long Maximum time delay with this device delays require large resistors, and short delays correspondingly small resistors. is about 3 min. About 0.05 see. is the minimum.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

TRIGGER SWITCH MOUNTINGS
237
Switch- Posi+ion ndicafor

Fig. 486.
Top View with

Cover
Removed
ratchet-type single-pole switch, a design no longer in general use. An arrow stamped on the end of the shaft shows through a hole in the cover plate to indicate the position of the switch. Spring blades pressing on the faces of the square contact block give a snap action and hold the block in position.
Trigger-operated
Snap lever
spring^
Snap lever fo give quick break action/
,Slalionary
/ confach
Ralchel operoled
drum
Pawl
spring
Fig. 487.
'
Pawl ptvoled on
trigger
Ratchet-type switch with double pole

in the cover plate.
for three phase.
Can
also
be used for single phase.

in
"on"
is
stamped on diametrically opposite points on the ratchet wheel.
With switch
"on"
position, the
shows through a hole

the switch, a definite
A spring lever snaps into the star wheel,

is
giving quick snap action.
The word word To open
movement
of the trigger
required.
238
- -
Snap
lever
Compress/on spring
i
On position of trigger
~
1
Fig. 488.
A design of switch similar to that shown

It is
in Fig.
486 except that

position.
it is
a two-pole design and

trigger
is
is self-
opening when the trigger is released. eompression spring opens the switch.
shown here
in the
"on"
As soon as the
released, the
Toggle type releasing switch handle. Used on old style d.c. reamers, toggle device tor ^
quick
make and break
Fig. 489. A toggle-type self-opening switch used on old-style direct-current reamers. The tripper is pushed forward until the line of pull of the spring passes the dead center of the link to which it is attached. The spring then pulls the switch closed. Upon releasing the trigger, the mechanism returns to the position shown, the switch snapping open when the toggle spring passes dead center.
Fig. 490. A conventional-type switch of old design that is self-opening when the trigger is released but can be held in the closed position by means of a looking pin. Common to all the switches shown in this group of designs, it is not dustproof.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

le achbn maies quick make and
239
break
Round confaci- causes

rapid increase in arcing
disi-once
and quick
break of arc
A special design of built-up switch of the self-opening type and provided with a locking pin, similar to Fig. 491. Common to all the designs shown here, the switch is now obsolete in favor of fully enclosed that shown in Fig. 489. and easily replaceable switch units.
Fig. 492. Fig. 493. Fig. 492. A modern-type commercial switch mounted in a side handle. Such switches are readily replaced as a The switch opens as soon as the trigger is released unless unit, inexpensive, and sealed against the entrance of dirt. the locking pin is set, in which case a slight pull on the trigger releases the locking pin and opens the switch. Another example of a modern commercial switch mounted as a unit in a grip-type end handle. Fig. 493.
240
Fig. 494.
Fic_ 495
It is
494. a rocker-type switch such as used on polishers and portable sanders. now being replaced by plunger-operated dusttight switches such as shown in Fig. 498.
Fig.
not self-releasing and

is
is
Fig. 495. Another style of mounting a commercial-type switch in a side handle. The switch unit and is self-opening, as soon as the trigger is released; the return spring being shown dotted.
replaceable as a
Fig. 496. In this switch mounting, the trigger actuates the switch by means of a lift rod attached to the back of the trigger. A tension spring attached to the upper end of the lift rod and anchored to the lower end of the switch plate pulls the switch open as soon as the trigger is released. If the locking pin is depressed when the trigger is pulled
back,
is
it passes through the hole in the trigger which then cannot return to the open position. pressed, the locking pin is released, snaps back, and releases the trigger.
As soon
as the trigger
DRIVES AND CONTROLS
241
Fig. 497.
moves back and
This switch is ment. It is used only on light model tools where no damage would be done if the tool were laid down with the power still on.
The slider slider-operated switch. forth as indicated in the drawing. not provided with any release arrange-
Fig. 498. Latest type switch handle for polishers, Sanders, and portable grinders. The switch is in a dusttight chamber and is operated by a plunger instead of a trigger which eliminates the necessity of an opening such The as is required when triggers or rockers are used.
plunger makes a close fit. Switch is not self-releasing, it being necessary to push the plunger for both on and off
positions.
Fig. 499.
unit
is
mounted
This type of
The toggle-operated switch for small die grinders and sanders. compartment and a dust seal is provided where the toggle comes through the case. switch does not have a release arrangement that opens it automatically.
in a dusttight
Latest design of switch arrangement
This switch is of the same type as shown in Fig. 495. It is mounted in a longer handle, being actuated trigger arrangement. It is provided with an additional return spring for quick action and also has a locking pin for holding the switch in the closed position when the trigger is released. A slight pull on the trigger releases the locking pin and opens the switch.
Fig. 500.
by a remote
242

THERMOSTATIC MECHANISMS
Sensitivity or change in deflection for a given temperature change depends
upon
the combination of metals selected as well as the dimensions of the bimetal element. Sensitivity increases with the square of the length and inversely with the thickness.
The
force developed for a given temperature change also depends
on the type
of
bimetal, whereas the allowable working load for the thermostatic strip increases with the width and the square of the thickness. Thus, the design of bimetal elements
depends upon the relative importance

Bi'mefa/ helix
I
of sensitivity
and working
load.
Pen arm
Bimetal
In the Taylor recording thermometer, a pen is moved vertically Fig. 501. To obtain sensiacross a revolving chart by a brass-invar bimetal element. tivity, the long movement of the pen requires a long strip of bimetal, which is For accuracy, a relatively large cross section coiled into a helix to save space. gives stiffness, although the large thickness requires increased length to obtain
the desired sensitivity.
Heating
coil ^
Coniacf r of a led by bi-
metal
spring
Fig. 503.
Heal
barrier
Room temperaFig. 502. tures in summer as well as winter are controlled over a wide range by a single largediameter coil of brass-invar in
'
Westinghouse overload relay for large motors, a portion passed through a heating coil within the relay. Heat from the coil raises the temperature of a bimetal spiral which rotates a shaft To withstand the operating temperature, a carrying an electrical contact. heat-resistant bimetal is used, coiled into the spiral form for compactness. Because of the large deflection needed, the spiral is long and thin, whereas the width is made large to provide the required contact pressure. By the use of heat barriers between the bimetal spiral and the heating coil, temperature rise of the bimetal can be made to follow closely the increase in temperature within the motor. Thus, momentary overloads do not cause sufficient heating to close the contacts, whereas a continued overload will in time cause the bimetal to rotate the contact arm around to the adjustable
this
of the
In
motor current
is
thermometer. To the Friez prevent chattering, a small
permanent magnet
on each side
is
mounted
of the steel contact
The magnetic attracblade. tion on the blade, increasing inversely with the square of the distance from the magnet, gives a snap action to the contacts.
stationary contact, causing a relay to shut
down
the motor.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Insulaled healer
243
/Intake manifold
winding
I
/load
Conlacis close when bimelal is healed Fig. 505

iHeol barriers/
.1^.
^.^
Aclive bimelal sirip healed by eieclric curreni,
"lemperolure compensalingV^
strip
(
&3i
EC-d
-|
r'
c-r-3
"hot spot " is held open by a bimetal spring against the force of a small counterweight. When the thermostatic spiral is heated by the outSince side air or by the warm air stream from the radiator, the spring coils up and allows the weight to close the vane. high accuracy is not needed, a thin, flexible cross section is used with a long length to give the desired sensitivity. Fig. 505. In the Friez relay, a constant current through an electrical heating coil around a straight bimetal strip Since the temperature range is relatively large, high sensitivity is not necessary, hence a gives a time-delay action. Because of the relatively heavy thickness used, the strip is sufficiently stiff short straight strip of bimetal is suitable. to close the contact firmly without chattering. Fig. 506. A similar type of bimetal element is used in the Ward Leonard time-delay relay for mercury-vapor This relay closes the potential circuit to the mercury tube only after the filament has had time to reach its rectifiers. normal operating temperature. To eliminate the effect of changes in room temperature on the length of the contact gap, and therefore the time interval, the stationary contact is carried by a second bimetal strip similar to the heated element. Barriers of laminated plastic on both sides of the active bimetal strip shield the compensating strip and prevent air currents from affecting the heating rate. The relatively high temperature range allows the use of a straight thick strip, whereas the addition of the compensating strip makes accurate timing possible with a short travel.
Fig. 504.
is
On the Dodge carburetor, when the engine
Fig. 504.
Fig. 506.
cold, a
vane
in the e.xhaust passage to the
'Oil pressure
diaphragm Grounded conlaci pioved by diaphragm

I
Bimelal
Receiver on
^^^^^
Sender
Fig. 507.
dash
Fig. 507. Fig. 508. Oil pressure, engine temperature, or gasoline level are indicated electrically on automobile dashboard instruments built by King-Seeley in which a bimetal element is used in both the sender and receiver. grounded con-
tact at the sender completes an electric circuit through heaters around two similar bimetal strips. Since the same current flows around the two bimetal elements, their deflections are the same. But the sender element when heated will
bend away from the grounded contact until the circuit is broken. Upon cooling, the bimetal again makes contact and the cycle continues, allowing the bimetal to follow the movement of the grounded contact. For the oil-pressure gage, the grounded contact is attached to a diaphragm; for the temperature indicator, the contact is carried by another thermostatic bimetal strip; in the gasoline-level device, the contact is shifted by a cam on a shaft rotated by a float. Deflections of the receiving bimetal are amplified through a linkage that operates a pointer over the scale of the receiving instrument. Since only small deflections are needed, the bimetal element is in the form of a short stiff strip. Fig. 508. Oil dashpots used in heavy-capacity Toledo scales have a thermostatic control to compensate for changes in oil viscosity with temperature. A rectangular orifice in the plunger is covered by a swaged projection on the bimetal element. With a decrease in oil temperature, the oil viscosity increases, tending to increase the damping effect but the bimetal deflects upward, enlarging the orifice enough to keep the damping force constant. A wide bimetal strip is used for stiffness so that the orifice will not be altered by the force of the flowing oil.
244
Helical

/Bimelol
expansion iube -
compensallng
lever
isss\ssy
Valve closed
of l40deg.F Full open of ISOdeg.F
Fig. 509. In mercury-filled indicating thermometers, expansion of the mercury in a bulb at the end of a capillary line causes the spiral tube in the gage to uncoil, the dial pointer being moved by means of a linkage. However, changes va the temperature of the mercury in the capillary and spiral also affect the movement of the In the linkage introducing an error in the reading. Taylor indicating thermometer, compensation for changes in gage temperature is obtained by a flat bimetal strip that forms a part of the pointer linkage. The strip is designed so that its deflections are equal but opposite to the effect caused by changes in gage temperature. Since little load is imposed on the thermostatic strip, the compensating action can be obtained with high accuracy.
Fig. 510. In cooling-water thermostats for automobile engines, the water flow imposes a load on the bimetal spiral, and in addition the overtravel caused by continued cooling after the valve is closed sets up stresses that increase as the temperature decreases.
Sufficient strength and cross section to safely withstand these stresses without permanent deformation requires a long flexible element. High accuracy is not obtainable, but in this application a relatively large variation in operating temperature is permissible. In the Chase thermostat, the bimetal element is in the form of a tapered spiral spring v.'hich is connected to a rotating valve by a simple linkage. To stabilize the bimetal element, it is subjected to a series of hot and cold treatments at temperatures beyond the normal temperature range.
Fig. 511. When the bimetal element in a gas pilot-light control is placed near the pilot flame, the bimetal is subjected to a temperature near its maximum operating range, and in service over long periods of time the valve may become corroded and fail to function when an emergency arises. In the pilot control made by the Patrol Valve Company, operating temperature of the bimetal is reduced and distortion from overheating is prevented by a dual pilot construction. The constant-burning pilot ignites a second pilot which heats the bimetal strip when the thermostatic control calls for heat. The bimetal strip upon heating opens the toggle-operated main burner valve, which, hy means of a double-seat construction, reduces the supply of gas to the second pilot, just enough flame being left to keep the bimetal from closing the valve. Since relatively wide limits for temperature of operation are permissible, the bimetal element is designed to develop sufficient force to operate the toggle spring without the use of high working
stresses.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Double-ihrow confac^ b/ads/
Confac-/-,
245
" - Nickel silver
vacuum
check
spring
'
-Nickel silver
valve pin
~
Valve closed
by floaf or expansion
of bellows
Concave
bi'mei-al disk.
lead
washer
Terminak
Bimefal
strip
^
Temperolure adjuslmenl
Fig. 612.
Coniacfs
VenI regulaling screw

Fig. 514.
obtained in the Spencer disk thermostat. The disk is a saucer-shaped piece of bimetal sheet which snaps itself from a concave to a convex shape at a predetermined temperature. Both the amount of movement and the temperature diiferential between opening and closing temperature depend on the design of the disk. For greater sensitivity, smaller differential and a larger movement than can be obtained with the plain disk, the bimetal disk is corrugated. Since the disk is small and stores but little heat, it warms
action, without separate springs,
is
Toggle
Fig. 512.
Fig. 513.
or cools rapidly.
When used as an electrical control device, insulated silver contacts are mounted on the bimetal disk. In the cold When position shown, each of the contacts bridges a gap in insulated plates connected to the heavy terminals. heated, the disk snaps to a convex shape, the circuit opening through the êvice at three points. Fig. 513. In the Westinghouse thermostat for electric hot-water heaters, a small range of temperature difference between on and off is needed, and to eliminate the necessity for an intermediate relay, the contacts must break a relaThese conflicting requirements are met by using a double-toggle mechanism. A light toggle tively heavy current. spring on the contact blade keeps the contacts firmly seated until the stronger toggle on the bimetal strip comes into
operation.
The bimetal blade is free to move nearly to the dead-center position, thereby storing energy in its toggle spring Energy released by the toggle spring, when the bimetal blade before any pressure is applied to the contact blade. passes dead center, delivers an impact to the contact blade, breaking loose any slight welding that may have occurred during the previous operation. This thermostat is used as a current-limiting switch, disconnecting one heater as another is connected. Because of the double-toggle design, the thermostat contacts will safely interrupt 5 kw. at 220 volts alternating current with a temperature differential of 5F. or less. Fig. 514. In radiator air valves made by the Anderson Manufacturing Company, air forced into the valve When steam reaches the valve, the heat increases the vapor passes around a small bellows partly filled with a liquid. pressure within the bellows, and the resultant expansion raises the float, thereby closing the air-vent orifice.
Adjusfing screw
Fig. 515.
Electric irons require a convenient adjustment for the temperature at which the bimetal element opens
W////yyyyy////A
the circuit. In the mechanism designed by Proctor & Schwartz, a double lever not only permits adjustment of the operating temperature, but also relieves the bimetal strip of anj' restriction when it cools to room temperature. Since the operating temperature range is high, a heat-resisting bimetal material is used in the form of a short stiff strip. Current is conducted to the bimetal contact through a flexible silver ribbon eliminating the effect of heat caused by current passing through the bimetal strip.
246

Pressure
bellows.
,
Pressure connection
Rubber diaphragm
/Vapor
filled bellpns
Valve disk
-Bellows spring
Spring
Fig. 516. Automobile cooling water temperature is controlled by a self-contained bellows in the thermostat made by the Bridgeport Brass Company. As in the radiator air valve, the bellows itself is subjected to the temperature to be controlled. As the temperature of the water increases to about 140F., the valve starts to open; at approximately 180F., free flow is permitted. At intermediate temperatures, the valve opening is in proportion to the temperature.
Walerinkf
action
screw
-'' _ *^Q]
Fig. 517. In a throttling type of circulating water control valve made by C. J. Tagliabue Manufacturing Company for use in refrigeration plants, the valve opening varies with the pressure on the bellows. This valve controls the rate of flow of the cooling water through the condenser, a greater amount of water being required when the temperature, and therefore the pressure, increases. The pressure in the condenser is transmitted through a pipe to the valve bellows thereby adjusting the flow of cooling water.
The bronze bellows is protected from contact with the water by a rubber diaphragm.
Liquid outside of / Pressure spring belJows ,' adjusted by dial

^Capillary tube
Bimetalblade
Bellows
housing
Bimefai ' rocker
^
Pilot light
va/ve
gas
Throttling ' valve
~Double
break
^^
contacts
Fig. 518.
An
automatic gas-range control made
by the Wilcolator Company has a
sealed thermostatic element consisting of a bulb, capillary tube, and As food is often placed near the bulb, a bellows. nontoxic liquid, chlorinated diphenyl, is used in the The liquid is also nonliquid expansion system. inflammable and has no corrosive effect upon the phosphor bronze bellows. By placing the liquid outside instead of inside the beUovvs, the working
stresses are
Fig. 519. For electric ranges, the Wilcolator thermostat has the same bellows unit as is used on the
maximum
at normal temperatures
when
At elevated working the bellows bottoms on the cup. temperatures, the expansion of the liquid compresses the bellows against the action of the extended spring Changes in which, in turn, is adjusted by the knob. calibration caused by variations in ambient temperature are compensated by making the rocker arm of bimetal suitable for high-temperature service.
But, instead of a throttling action, gas-type control. the thermostat opens and closes the electrical contacts with a snap action. To obtain sufficient force for the snap action, the control requires a temperature For a difference between "on" and "off" positions. control range frora room temperature to 550F., the differential in this device is plus or minus 10F.; with a smaller control range, the differential is proportionately less. The snap-action switch is made of beryllium copper, giving high strength, better snap action, and longer life than obtainable with phosphor bronze, and because of its corrosion resistance the beryUium-copper blade requires no protective finish.
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

Permanent magnef
'S+eel Blade
Âuxr/j'ary
Silver
247
confacis
Silver
conlacis
Foggle spring^
conlacfs
'Bellows spring
''
Ternperalure
0Fig. 520.
ad/usfmenl-
Dlfferenh'al
'
Ternperalure
adjuslmeni
Fig. 521.
adjuslmeni
Ad/usling screw
Fig. 622.
heavy-duty room-temperature controls, the Perm thermostat uses a bellows mechanism that develops a high force with small changes in temperature. The bellows is partly filled with liquid butane, which at room temperatures is a gas having a large change in vapor pressure for small temperature differentials. Snap action of the electrical contact is obtained from a small permanent magnet that pulls the steel contact blade into firm contact when the bellows cools. Because of the firm contact, the device is rated at 20 amp. for noninductive loads. To avoid chattering or bounce under tlie impact delivered by the rapid magnetic closing action, small auxiliary contacts are With the large force developed by the bellows, a temperature differential of only 2F. carried on light spring blades.
obtained. Fig. 521. Snap action in the Tagliabue refrigerator control is obtained from a bowed flat spring. The silver contacts carried on an extended end of the spring open or close rapidly when movement of the bellows actuates the spring. With this snap action, the contacts can control an alternating-current motor as large as IK hp. without the use of auxiliary relays. Temperature differential is adjusted by changing the spacing between two collars on the bellows shaft passing through the contact spring. For temperatures used in freezing ice, the bellows system is partly
is
For
Fig. 520.
with butane. In the General Electric refrigerator control, the necessary snap action is obtained from a toggle spring supported from a long arm moved by the bellows. With this type of toggle action, the contact pressure is a maximum at the instant the contacts start to open. Thermostatic action is obtained from a vapor-filled system using sulphur dioxide for usual refrigerating service or methyl chloride where lower temperatures are required. To reduce friction, the bellows makes point contact with the bellows cup. Operating temperature is adjusted by changing the initial compression in the bellows spring. For resistance to corrosion, levers and blades are stainless steel with bronze pin
filled
Fig. 522.
bearings.
Flexible bellows seal,
'
Thermosl-a-fTc
bellows spring
Capillary
lube.
Needle
valve
Bellows spring
adj'usrmen/
in the
Fodders thermostatic expansion valve for controlling large refrigeration systems. A removable power bellows unit is operated bj' vapor pressure in a bulb attached to the evaporator output line. The second bellows serves as a flexible, gastight seal for the gas valve. A stainless steel spring holds the valve, closed until opened by pressure transmitted from the thermostatic bellows through a molded push pin.
Fig. 523.
Two bellows units are used
248

AUTOMATIC STOPS
Thread or
wire
SpooU^
Spool^
'
Tension spring
Idler
-4
Idler carrier
i'iiis
Sh'rrup swivels on point so ffiaf ii

cronl<
Osciiiat/nq
'^
cannoi reengage
Stationary'
Feelers"
shaft Angle of continuous oscillation
To clutch ~,
Thread-'
Fig. 524. A mechanism used on the Barberspooler. When the thread breaks, the feelers are released and the spiral spring causes the spindle with finger to rotate. The latter throws the stirrup into the path of the oscillating crank, which on its downward stroke throws the spool into the position shown dotted, the stirrup then being thrown out of the path of the oscillating crank.
Colman
Fig. 525. Mechanism used with variations on tubular braiding machines. When braiding, tension on the wire or thread lifts the idler carrier which thereby releases the pawl from the ratchet on spool flange and allows the spool to turn and unwind. When the machine stops, the tension on wire is decreased, allowing the idler carrier to fall so that the pawl can engage the ratchet. If the wire breaks while the machine is running, the unsupported idler carrier falls to the base of the standard, and when the standard arrives at the station in the raceway adjacent to the cam C, the lug h on idler carrier strikes the cam C, rotating it far enough to disengage a clutch on the driving shaft, thereby stopping the machine.
Crankshaft
Unsealed
Continuously
packages,!
/
rotating
eccen trie
,
>
^^/
'Eccentric arm oscillates con tinuously about the fixed center
Recip rocafing
bar,
Siop^
WW//////M/////.
Fixed
center
~~ Floating center in guide block that

rides in slot
Thread
tension
Ratchet wheel
used on some package-loading machines to stop the machine if a package should pass the loading station without receiving an insert. Pawl finger F has a rocking motion obtained from crankshaft, timed so that it enters the unsealed packages and is stopped against the contents. If the box is not filled, the finger enters a considerable distance and the pawl end at the bottom engages and holds a ratchet wheel on the driving clutch, which disengages the machine driving
Fig.
527.
shaft.
Fig. 526. When the thread breaks, the stop drops and intercepts reciprocating bar. On the next counterclockwise oscillation of the eccentric arm, the bar B is raised. A feature of this design is that it permits the arm B to move up or down independently for a limited distance.
Arrangement
DRIVES AND CONTROLS

lis
249
Bobbin shuHle
>7r,
oscilbfes
wM
the/ay
s^:^.
P/vofed,
Mach/ne
iob/e^ _I_
Adjusiable dog
'X-slo-l-i
^-F/xed
Fig.
528.
Clutch and brake operating sfjafi
Schematic
diagram of mechanism to
cause bobbin changer to operate. If the contact arm does not sHp on the bobbin, the lever A will rotate to the position shown. But if contact with the bobbin center slips, as it will do if the bobbin is emptj', lever A will not rotate to the position indicated by the dashed line, thereby causing the bobbin changer
to
Simple type of stop mechanism for hmitFig. 529. ing the stroke of a reciprocating machine member. Arrows indicate the direction of movement.
come
into action.
\\%f'Pour/ng spout
Reciprocating
shaft,
,
Latch
Fastened
to frame
-tiarc/ened
steel stops
Catch
lever
control shaft
Fig. 531. When the predetermined weight of material has been poured on the pan, the movement of the scale beam pushes the latch out of engagement, allowing the paddle wheel to rotate and thus dump the load. The scale beam drops, thereby returning the latch to the holding position and stopping the wheel when the next vane hits the latch.
Fig. 530. In this textile machine, any movement that will rotate the stop lever counterclockwise will bring it in the path of the continuously reciprocating shaft. This will cause the catch lever to be pushed counterclockwise and the hardened steel stop on the clutch control shaft will be freed. A spiral spring then impels the clutch-control shaft to rotate clockwise, which movement throws out the clutch and applies the brake. Initial movement of the stop lever may be caused by the breaking of a thread, a moving dog, or any other means.
CHAPTER
VIII
DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION
METHODS
Page
Page
Fusion Welding
Resistance Welding
252
259
Permanent Mold Casting

Die-casting
Furnace Brazing Flame Hardening

Centrifugal Casting
264 266 267
Forging Flame Cutting
Powdered Metal Pressings
267 268 270 275 276
251
252

BUILT-UP
WELDED CONSTRUCTIONS
The details illustrated, taken from designs for sanitary

and chemical processing equipment, represent utUization of diversified metal-working equipment bending roUs, power presses, flangers and such ^to fabricate functionComally correct parts from simple sheet and fittings. mercial shapes are used where practical; but parts are flame cut, forged, or roUed when such fabrication is more
~Benf and flame cuf fo size

'
Pipe section
-Sfeel base plate
economical or design requirements dictate.
Angle
Shell
'
Angle
L
'Angle
Half coupling flame cut fo shape
"
"Pipe section
Bent
plate
^'Steel base plate

BUILT-UP SUPPORTS
LIGHT TANK SUPPORTS

Shaft-_
Thrust bearing
Pipe section
'Tank shell end
n
II
n
ii
l!5/7e//-Hx
-Flame cut fo
fit
Flangedchan nel not welded

to be
tank shape " Sheared and bent fo shape
SUPPORT FOR LIGHT-LOADED LARGE DIAMETER TANKS

Angle edgewelded
to shell
.
'^Sheared
ribs
TANK SUPPORT
SHAFT SUPPORT
Shell
A
/Steel base
Section
Steely 0^ ring ^',\
Formed and
^?
s
SIMPLE SUPPORT FOR CIRCULAR OR SQUARE TANKS

Angle ^
Shell-
>
crimped
b
Heavy gage y ^
plate
Shell-U*-Shell
ED6E REINFORCEMENTS
sri eared
^5SS
Rein-
^
\
and bent to
Cover ^
shape
'Top
>.y4>^)^'iL^Gasket
Shell^:
Shell'^
forcing '^Shell
Steel base plate
ring
flanged at top
Dished
'Ângle
bottom
SIMPLE TANK SUPPORT
DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS

Flame -cut
circle
^
253
.^Cylindrical "^ shell
Eiss
|/
I
Pipe
secifon,
v^'Flnnnp
lAluminum washer
Tank base, flame -cut

steel circle
\
'-Pipe section
L/
Aluminum
shell
/^Rubber gasket
Welded
,>>,,!!,. ,!>/>'>lV,
Tank shell
spud
Aluminum coupling
Shells'
Drop - forged spud or forged boiler plate

Pipe
section,
Cylindrical shell
Tank siiell
Cladding metal
Steam
Flame-cuf sfeel ring j
^^
Pipe section
V
mid
r
^Pipe
Inlet
'Erosion
plate
flange
/Steam
Outer - *{.
shell
Jacket
Outlet cast of cladding material
Extends inside tank
two weld points tor additional

wall allowing
BUILT-UP INLETS AND OUTLETS
strength
Shafts
<^^
Flame-cut
steel rings
II
/Reamed
BUILT-UP AGITATORSANITARY PROCESSING

Shaft ~-,^
iln
^ M
^
.
\wk;
Packing
iyPipe
section
"Pocking
^^
y,' Round iron bar, threaded
ana reamed
Flame-cut
steel ring
Small diameter shaft
<~<^ STUFFING BOXES
254

Flaf iron ring bolted to shell
Dished fop
'
Clamping means welded io iron ring which is bolted to light-gage stiell
Cylindrical shell
PERMANENT
TANK COVER
Cover
Aluminum bar
\
Flame -cut circle

;i
Gum-rubber gasket
Clamp VAPOR-TIGHT /
^^Ligtit-gage
^mA
_E
//
/.Rubber gaskeisf
gasket (- /'""' Top i^'"-" plate Ola,
Rubber.^ plate i
rgi'Ea iTank
TANK COVER
aluminum
^^d^''
^ SIGHT- GLASS DETAIL
Rubber) gasket
Cylindricai shell
'Sleel clips
solid welded to flat iron band bolted to drum
AQ.Z'c^Z
DOOR
Tee bolt
Tankshell
end^
"Jv
"
.^ Steel
Tee bolt-
door frame
gasket
SteeI slee
Gasket
Defail
Asbestos
STEAM-TIGHT DOOR
S^Szzzs
Section A-A
FOUR-SEGMENT DEMOUNTABLE TANK COVER
Cover clamps equally spaced

JL.
Steel ring ^
Tack welded
to cover
1
i
"7*
Inner
I
shell
Outer
shell
Inner
shell
"-^
\
Dished
T!r
Outer base .lArKFT'? 'J'^^Ktli, jacketing
Low-pressure Jacket
HINGED COVERS
Round-iron
Tack welded.
7.
Forged
steel
$
Heavy forged
steel ring
^ ^
arm
Steel
gusset
Inner
shell
ring-s.
^;
Outer
shell -.
Tank cover
/Inner ^shell
',
Flame -cuf
steel
Cylindrical^
shell
Outer^
shell
Moderate
Pressure
High Pressure
andpipe
Steel plafe welded to tank

"Steel
Tack welded
washers

Flanged and
sloffed cover
'
255
Flanged and
slotted cover
/Slotted steel
)J
iTin retainer
reinforcing ring
a^ ^
i*
^
..
r' Gasket
Gasket
Cylindrical
stie II
~~
ll
'Steel ring
;L
;
'',
^^ Steel Steel r. ring
;^v^
"a
orpin
\
''Angle 'gle
^
orpin
ring, slotted slott
^^-' Cylindrical
shell
shell
Angle ring, slotted
H^
Sanitary
Gaskef-ing
-^^
Angle
Cylindrical shell
Construction
Dished top
'^^Szi^^^Dished top
^Z222zs^Dis/7ed top
^^^
A Hoy casting
^ -;
Forged steel
Forged steel
machined
flanges
machined
flanges
g^
"^^m V^mMss.
{Forged
^r^^'
r'
^y.
r
ty\
'Gasket
r/hyj
\ \
\\
V\
sT^ ^ 1^^^^^^
yy Clamp ^
Shell
Cylindrical shell
- Cylindrical shell
VARIOUS FORMS OF PRESSURE JOINTS
^
D
^Sfeel
bar
stock
Flanged top
Clamp
'Reinforcing
ring
Sguare iron ring shaped and cut from solid bar machined to section
detail,
shown above
Wy ^ Flanged
shell
Clamp'
I
Flame -cut slots

for hold down
bolts
)
Iron ring, machined
\ Flanged top
Clamp ~.
'
Stainless steel
Rubber gasket
Flame-cut
I
I
steel ring
Iron ring,
welded to
shell
Flat
'"-
Pin
Cylindrical shell
'^Cylindrical
shell
Flame:cuf
i[on
Cylindrical shell
steel ring
CLAD JOINT
HIGH-PRESSURE JOINTS
256

WELDING
By
S.A.E. 4340
STEEL
welding, quenching, and tempering after gas welding, S.A.E. 4340 tubes can
be butt-welded to give a tensile strength of more than 180,000 lb. per sq. in. with a Rockwell hardness of C 46. It is considered that a minimum tensile strength of 125,000 lb. per sq. in. can be safely specified for parts made by gas welding S.A.E. 4340 steel tubes and normahzing. As shown in the accompanying table, butt-welded specimens of S.A.E. 4340 tubes can be heat-treated to develop a maximum tensile strength of 217,000 lb. per sq. in. as compared with a maximum tensUe strength of 252,800 lb. per sq. in. for the
unwelded tube. The gas-welding characteristics ter than those of S.A.E. 4130 steel tubes.
RESULTS OF TENSION TESTS,
of this material are equal to or bet-
BUTT-WELDED 4340 STEEL TUBES 2H in. O.D. X 0.12.5-in. wall

Specimen No.
Rockwell
Tensile strength,
lb.
per sq. m.
hardness,
(base metal)
As Welded
1
2
3
4
5
Average

ARC WELDING THIN SHEETS
257
Uniformly good arc welds in sheets less than 0.050 in. (18 gage) thick can be made with generator-type welders with a minimum setting of 10 to 15 amp. with Stainless steel and Monel exhaust stacks stable operation at 20 amp. and higher. comparatively for aircraft, which are of thin gage, are being fabricated manifolds and by this method. Results of tests on two aircraft materials, S.A.E. 1025 and 4130,
are
shown
in the following tables.
RESULTS OF TESTS ON WELDED THIN TUBES

Specimen
258
HANDBOOK
o3
03
i-O
-2
J^
tt
qj
-;
r\
^1
PL,
S^'-"
S"$ <^^ "
CO
o
a!
t-l
CO
CO
< O O ( H
en p2
o3
CO
H O
-J!
j3
C O
O
C5
I
a w ^ o

METALS THAT CAN BE RESISTANCE WELDED
259
Good weld
Completely unifed bu+ briHIe weld
Poor weld No weld Blank space- Combination

net- tried
the course of spot v/eldi'na oafed materials, ftie coatings frequently dissolve In the other tals presen t or burn away
Courtesy of " Telephone Record
260
261
FOUR SURFACE PREPARATIONS FOR SPOT WELDING ALUMINUM

Method
1. I.
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
in 50 per cent HNO3 cold for 15 sec* Rinse in cold water. * 4 per cent NaF at 160F. for 30 Dip parts in 5 per cent NaOH
Dip parts
sec.
Rinse in cold water. Dip parts in 50 per cent

Rinse in cold water, f
HNO3
cold for 15 to 30 sec. to remove black deposit from step
3.
7. 8.
Rinse in boiling water. J Dry parts on steam coils or in sawdust.

II.
Method
1.
Dip parts
Dip parts
2.
in 50 per cent Rinse in cold water. * in 10 per cent
HNO3
cold for 15 sec*
3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
NaOH
HNO3
at 160F. for 30 sec.
Dip parts
Rinse in cold water. in 50 per cent Rinse in cold water, f Rinse in boiling water. |
cold for 15 to 30 sec. to
remove black deposit from step
3.
8.
Dry
parts on steam coil or in sawdust.
Method
1.
III.
2. 3.
Paint area to be welded with gum tragacanth HF acid paste and leave on for 30 Wash paste off with running cold water or with wet rags.
sec.
Dry
off
water with dry rags.

paste
is
Gum tragacanth
prepared from
3
lb.
gum
tragacanth
10
Dissolve
gal.
hot water
if
gum tragacanth in
hot water, add one gallon of alcohol to water
necessary to dissolve
gum
tragacanth.
Add
10 lb. hydrofluoric acid to above solution. Material must be stored in parafHn-lined containers.
Operators must wear rubber gloves and goggles to use this material.
parts precautions should be taken to keep acid out of joint.
In partially assembled
Method
a.
h.
c.
IV.
Area to be spot welded
may
be cleaned by mechanical means.
Rub Rub
Use
with steel wool.
with
fine
emery
cloth.
fine wire brush.
* t
I
Omit
steps 1 and 2 for material relatively free from oil. Repeat steps 3 to 6 for material having very heavy heat-treating film not removed in steps 1 to 6. Final hot water should be thoroughly free of dissolved salts and of organic matter which would tend to stain the
freshly cleaned parts.
262

PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR RESISTANCE WELDING
Round, embossed projections allow the use of electrodes. Several projection welds can be made simultaneously. Fig. 533. Pointed or cone-shaped projections are often used on light-gage materials, such as 22 and 24 gage. Fig. 534. Protruding punch out may help to locate parts preparatory to welding. Wliere great strength not required, the punch out sometimes electroforged down. Fig. 535. Prick punch marks made with round punch (one blow) used in welding thick plates to light-gage sheets
Fig. 532.
flat
is
Fig. 532.
Fig. 533.
Fig. 534.
Fig. 535.
itself is
to
throw up a crater which
localizes
welding heat and pressure.
Fig. 536. Fig. 536. Fig. 537. Fig. 538.

flash.
Fig. 537.
of
Fig. 538.
specially
Fig. 539.
electrodes.
fin
Design of embossed corners, formed over one another and welded between V-shaped headed part can be projection welded. or Almost any form screw, Slight radius on the end the rod permits to be welded to another part without throwing a the round projection, resulting with the heated metal cavity Fig. 539. The crater or
rivet,
of
it
or
ringlike
is filled
of
in close
mechanical contact over the whole surface.
Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. necessity
640. 541. 542. 543.
A ring projection can be turned or coined on the shaft Similar to except reversed. Projection swaged on the edges a a method Specially headed screws or studs prepared both to
Fig. 539,
of
Fig. 540.
Fig. 541.
Fig. 543. Fig. 542. in order to localize the welding area.

of
piece,
localize
embossing thick plates or strap stock. weld and to locate the screws without the
of using jigs or fixtures.

PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR RESISTANCE WELDING
Fig. 544.
> <
263
Fig. 546.
Fig. 545.
Fig. 548. Fig. 547. Fig. 549. Elongated projections that cross each other are for the lightest gages and certain nonferrous combinaFig. 544. tions and where a good strong weld is imperative. Elongated projections or a pattern of ribs that cross one another gives many points of small welded Fig. 545. Should be used for thin sheet metal. area. Elongated projection for welding to a curved surface. This assures ample contact surface in the Fig. 546. direction in which movement is likely to occur. Upsetting a tube to form bulges can be done by heating and upsetting on a butt welder. Fig. 547. Fig. 548. Rods of almost any metal can be upset to provide increased sections or limiting rings. Fig. 549. Offsetting helps to locate the lap joint and also contributes to having one side smooth.
Fig. 550.
^
Fig. 552. Fig. 550. Fig. 551. Fig. 552. blade.
sides of
fn
Welding both a box form simultaneously, by employing a shunt-block device. An example "pry-bar" welding. Done by prying against parts backed up by Coined switch contacts having three conical projections that nest a ring groove stamped
of
dies.
in
in the
M ^

Wire cable ^
Fig. 555. Fig. 554. Fig. 553. Fig. 553. When wire cables are "cut" by clamping between the jaws of a welder and burning the cable in two, a globule of metal, formed on the ends, holds the wires together. Fig. 554. Pipe or heavy-walled tubes can be butted together or to other pieces. Chamfering the pipe ends keeps flash at a minimum. Fig. 555. Rods or cables can be economically welded into sleeves or ferrules.
264
HANDBOOK
FURNACE BRAZING

DESIGNS OF JOINTS FOR BRAZING
PARTS HELD TOGETHER BY THEIR
265
OWN
WEIGHT
SCREW
FASTENING
-<ZZ>i
I
Copper
washer
locoHng
Brazing
Brazing
wire
LocaHng ^
^Hole for
^
\
îCoppen^
STAKED i^Z
/Brazing
I
Copper
y wire
Nofe square corners io obiain
Brazing
'
a consfanf minimum clearance

between al/portions of surfaces to be brazed
wire
^^^
KNURLED
FLAN6ED JOINTS
^Chamfer
METHOD FOR KEEPING CORNERS CLEAN OF

BRAZING MATERIAL
Brazing wire
Brazing
SWAGED
Riveted or screw fastening
W^
r
^ wm
-<^
RIVET
iBrazing wire
,
Hold by ex-
panding
tube, spot
welding or
^
pinning
COUNTERSUNK
Brazing
wire
CRIMPED ASSEMBLY
~ Brazing wire
EX PANDED TUBE
^
zzzz^k
m ^
.Brazing
'
wire
mzzzzzA
266

FLAME HARDENING DATA
900

CASTING DATA
Centrifugal Casting
26/
Materials Suitable.
Alumininn, bronze, Monel, beryllium copper,
iron, steels of
various grades, stainless
steel, copper, and other nonferrous materials. Shapes. Any combinations of cylindrical shapes such as wheels, gears, screwdown nuts, bushings with tapers, and parts with varying diameters. Maximum Size. Screw-down nuts, weighing approximately 3,600 lb. each, for a
new continuous-type
steel mill,
have been centrifugally
cast.
Finish Allowances.
Outside diameter
Outside diameter,
2 or less 2 6
in.
Inside diameter
allowance,
in.
allowance,
in.
4K.
-10.
4K-6.
Over 10
Ford casting
for machining.
of
both bevel and cluster gear blanks allows only

in.
.I32
to
He
in.
stock
Wall Thickness,
Relative
than sand castings in small However, as quantity increases to 20 or more, the cost is little if any more quantities. because of the material required for extra gates and risers in sand castings. CentrifGenerally ugal mold cost is only about 15 per cent that of a comparable forging die. justified as few as can by centrifugal casting be the cost of a permanent metal die for 10 or 12 pieces, although customarily such a die is not made for fewer than 25 or.
in
Practical minimum about H smaU quantities Cost. More costly
30 pieces. Typical Examples.
bushings for Hamilton Standard propellers were forcopper with scrap running as high as 30 per cent. Permamerly sand cast of beryllium nent mold castings did not prove feasible. Scrap has been almost eliminated by use of aluminum bronze centrifugal castings of tapered hollow bushings. In another case, several hundred bronze rings, about 45 in. outside diameter, and 20 in. inside diameter and 3 in. thick, originally specified as forgings were found to
The
have satisfactory physical properties when centrifugally cast. Die costs would have been high for the comparatively few forgings required. Another gain was less time
required to get delivery.
Permanent Mold Casting

Size limitations:
Largest permanent mold casting produced, 20

100
lb.
16
34
in.,
weighing more than

1
Smallest permanent mold casting produced weighed
less
than
oz.
Minimum Up to 5
Over
tolerance, all dimensions:

in
+0.010
in.
5 in
Add 0.001
in.
per
in. of
length
268

Undercuts: Omit wherever possible, but, if unavoidable, they can be produced through use of collapsible metal core or, if that is impractical, by use of baked sand core.
Section thickness,
Cored
holes,
Draft angle,
minimum minimum diameter minimum
085 in. 25 in.
'
0.5 deg. per side
Inserts, steel or cast-iron inserts practical
Cast threads, not practical
Aluminum Die Casting

Size limitations
Maximum
practical over-all dimensions

die castings exceed 25 in. in length)
36
12
9 in.
(Few aluminum
Largest produced:
In size
84
12
X X
1 in.
(14 lb.)
(Die-cast dog used as trade-mark on
Greyhound buses)
19
lb. (12
By
weight
19
20
in.)
(Die-cast cases for Leeds
and Northrup instruments)

0.085 to 0.10
in.
Section thickness:
Large castings, minimum Small castings less than 6 in. length or width Avoid abrupt changes in wall thickness. Dimensional tolerances In any one dimension (Frequently less by trial and error)
Perpendicular to parting line:
0.050 to 0.065
in.
0.0015
in.
per
in.
Large castings 0.00 to -HO.OIO in. Small castings 0.00 to -1-0.003 in. Between points formed by removable part and die, tolerances are the same as those across parting line. Cored holes: Minimum diameter of cored holes 0.090 in. approx. Length limit for through holes and blind holes:
Diameter
Length
limit
Diameter
Length limit
10 diameters
Under
ê
rn.
3 diameters 6 diameters
To Min
Tolerances on through holes
Over }^ in. Larger holes.

.
No
limit
small holes
must be obtained by reaming, the hole being
0.001
cast 0.005 to 0.010 in. undersize.
in.
Closer tolerances on through holes
Cores for internal threads preferable to use threaded insert. Draft allowances: Outside walls, recommended Rectangular core, on each side Internal cores, in general, as in table below:
0.010
in. /in.
0.008
in. /in.
Approximate Diameter
OF Hole
Less than J^ in 3^ to 1 in
Amount of Draft
on diameter on diameter 0.010-0.030 in. on diameter (depending on size and design)
0.015-0.020
in.
0.010-0.015
in.
More than
in
If no draft is permissible, ream or, unless hole is shallow, use insert. Small holes for tapping usually cast to root diameter of thread plus 15 per cent with standard draft added.
Inserts:
If strained,
Small pins,
if
should be knurled on surfaces within casting. subject to pull, should be both knurled and grooved.

Fillets:
269
Avoid sharp corners

Finishes
if
possible.
Alumilite finish best on alloy 218.
Colored alumilite best in darker shades.
May
be plated with
common
plating
metals if desired. Design to aid trimming: Design part so that flashes will be in or parallel to main parting plane.
Cast threads: Internal threads External threads
best to cast threaded can be cast and need only
insert.
light chasing to finish.
270

THE DESIGN OF DROP FORGINGS
made from bar stock wherein the lines of the fibers run Best forging results are obtained when the forging pressure is applied along the axis of the bar, which will compel the metal to flow wdth least distorWhen metal is compelled to flow in a direction perpendicular tion of the fiber hues. to the lines of the fiber by means of pressure appUed perpendicular to the flow Unes, as in raising a boss on a flat plate, the metal will not be as strong, especiaUy in its An even worse condition is created when the metal is resistance to impact loads. compeUed to flow at an angle to the direction across the grain.
Most metal
forgings are
parallel to the axis.
The accompanying
flgures illustrate flow conditions in forging bars or plates.

Forging pressure
Forging pressure
Forging pressure
''7/777777777777777777777777777777^77/
Best forging condition.
Raising a boss in this manner weakens the metal.
Worst
condition
is
is
when a boss
thrown up on a plane making an
angle with the flow lines.
v
/
-^
Correct design
t.
Vo/ume curve
l^corêc^ design
Volume curve
>
mML^J^^yt^
forging
To
plotted.
assure best forging conditions, a curve of volumes, such as above, should be
This enables the designer to visualize quickly and accurately the flow conThus to the left is the volume curve obtained from a poor design as indicated by the abrupt changes in volume. To the right is shown the same design corrected so that the volume curve changes smoothly. Smooth changes in volume also indicate a design that is most economical to forge. Poor flow conditions aaoII cause an excessive amount of flash, thereby necessitating an excessive number of forging blows, which favors the formation of cold shuts, the metal not fiUing the die cavity. Cracks and other defects are also hkely to result if the distribution of the metal around the neutral axis is unsymmetrical In making upset forgings, the bar stock is rough upset and is usuaUy so proportioned that the upset ratio on the
ditions that \\dU exist in the forging operations.
diameter will be 13^ to 2, the length upset ratio usually 2 to 2I2, with 3 as a maximima. If it is greater than 3 diameters, the bariwill usually buckle. However, length upset ratio may exceed 3 diameters, but the die and operation costs will be
Gripping die
'
greatly increased.
271
STANDARD TOLERANCES FOR FORGINGS UNDER
100 LB.
EACH*
Tolerances shall be either "special" or "regular." Special tolerances are those which are particularly noted in the specifications and may state any or all tolerances in any way as occasion may require. Special tolerances apply only to the particular dimension or thing noted. In all cases where special tolerances are not specified,
regular tolerances shall apply.
Regular tolerances are divided into two divisions, "commercial standard" and "close standard." Commercial standard tolerances are for general forging practice, but when or where extra close work is desired involving additional expense and care in the production of forgings, close standard may be specified. Close standard may be specified for one or more of the following classes. When no standard is specified, commercial standard shall apply.
Classes
Regular tolerances are applicable to the following

1.
classes:
Thickness.
(a) shrinkage and die wear; Draft angle. Quantity.
2.
Width:
(b)
mismatching;
(c)
trimmed
size.
3.
4.
5.
Fillets
and
corners.
THICKNESS TOLERANCES
(Inches)
Net weights up
272

Class
1.
Thickness Tolerances
Thickness tolerances shall apply to the over-all thickness of a forging.

pendicular to the main or fundamental parting plane of the die.
When
applied to drop-hammer forgings, they shall apply to the thickness in a direction per-
When applied to upset forgings, they shall apply to the thickness in a direction parallel to the direction of travel of the ram, but only to such dimensions as are inclosed by the die.
Class
2.
Width and Length Tolerances
and shall apply to the width and/or length of a forging. When applied to drop-hammer forgings, they shall apply to the width or length in a direction parallel to the main or fundamental parting plane of the die, but only to such dimensions as are enclosed by and actually formed by the die. When apphed to upset forgings, they shall apply to the width or length in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the ram.
Width and length
tolerances shall be ahke
Width and length

Class 2a.
tolerances shall consist of three subdivisions:

,
Shrinkage and die wear tolerance.
Class 26.
Class 2c.
Mismatching
tolerance.
Trimmed
size tolerance.
Class 2a.
Shrinkage and Die
Wear
by a
Shrinkage and die wear tolerances shall apply to that part of the forging formed single die block only. They shall not apply to any dimension crossing the parting plane. They shall be the sum of the shrinkage tolerances and the die wear tolerances as given in the following table. The shrinkage tolerances and die wear tolerances shall not be applied separately, but shall only be used as the sum of the two. They shall not be so applied as to include draft or variation thereof.
SHRINKAGE PLUS DIE WEAR

(Inches)
Lengths or widths up
to
in.

Class 26.
273
Mismatching Tolerance
Mismatching
is
the displacement of a point in that part of a forging formed by
one die block of a pair, from its desired position when located from the part of the Mismatching does not include any forging formed in the other die block of the pair. displacement caused by' variation in thickness of the forging but is only the displacement in a plane parallel to the main or fundamental parting plane of the dies. Mismatching tolerances are independent of, and in addition to, any other
tolerances.
MISMATCHING TOLERANCE
Net weight up
to
lb.
274
HANDBOOK
Class
4.
Quantity Tolerances
Quantity tolerances shall be the permissible over, or under, run allowed for each Any shipping quantity within the limits of release or part shipment of an order. over, and under, run shall be considered as completing the order. Commercial and close tolerances shall be the same amounts.
QUANTITY TOLERANCES

toward the wide end.
275
mil equal the length of the drafted surface in inches, multiplied by the tangent of the nominal draft angle. The radii of fillets and corners may be any value not greater than those given in
total increase in the radius
The
the following table.

FILLET
AND CORNER TOLERANCES

(Radii in Inches)
Net weights up
276
HANDBOOK
OF
MECHANICAL DESIGN
POWDERED METAL PRESSINGS

Design Factors
Direct pressure must be applied to the entire cross section of the part when moldThe amount of pressure required to obtain a required density in the compressed compact depends upon the malleability of the metal powder used. Powdered metal materials have almost no lateral flow in the mold in response to pressures
Formability.
If
ing.
applied axially, therefore reentrant angles cannot be molded in the compact.

are required at planes normal to the axis, thej^
reentrant angles
pressing may be resorted to as however, the operation is slow, method, Capacity of press available determines the maximum cross-secSize and Shape Limitations. can compacted. Pressures for compacting vary from 30 to 60 tons per sq. in. area that be tional working stroke of the press, the compression ratio of the powder selected, and the density The Compression ratios range between required all determine the length of part that can be compacted. 2 to 1 and 20 to 1 for various metal powders. Length is limited bj^ minimum density desired because frictional losses prevent the compacting pressure from being uniformly transmitted throughout the
Hot
must be machined to shape by conventional methods. means of obtaining solid, pore-free compacts. With this a also die and maintenance costs are higher.
depth of the mold. Shapes are confined to simple contours without undercuts in surface parallel to the axis. Dimensional Tolerances. Possible to hold ver}^ close tolerances in cross-sectional dimensions. Tolerances in axial dimensions must be more liberal than those in cross sections, because all
the variables add up in the length of the briquette or the sintered piece. Tolerances for concentricity depend largely upon the clearance that must be provided between the force and the mold, since this clearance is likely to be all on one side when the compacting pressure
Eccentricity can be corrected by operatioas subsequent to sintering, such as swaging or but this means additional cost. Physical Properties. Tensile strengths depend upon unit pressures employed to briquette the powders, the length of heat-treatment, and the care exercised in control of powder. With heat-treating and quenching, it is possible to produce from alloy powders, gears that have higher strength, wear, and impact resistance than case hardened low carbon steel. Strength and density may also be improved by re-pressing or cold-working if the sintered piece
is
applied.
rolling,
is
sufficiently malleable.
Design Advantages.
Parts having selected properties can be made.
Two
or
more metal pow-
ders can be used to produce alloys which retain proportionately the individual characteristics of each Many special properties can be obtained by incorporating nonmetallic ingredients constituent.
with the metal powder, but this I'educes strength. Economical for the production of parts which if made by other methods would involve considerable cost for machining operations in comparison with the cost of the material, or where scrap The more complicated the machining required by a piece made by other losses would be high. methods, the smaller the quantity that would have to be produced from metal powders in order to
carry the expense for tools and equipment.

PARTS MADE FROM METAL POWDERS
These surfaces must be smooi-h and free y
yjSharp corners
/
277
from
burrs,
all others
approx
,
0.005 R
0.333 0.35$
0.557 0.562
0.095d/a
0.998,
0.325^
0345
0.201
-
0.1665
0.455 0.208
0.080 0.090
"0.1695 0.0395 0.0445
fZ^'fS chamfer optional

I
0.1550 0.1575
-^
0.459^-X'
0.448 0.458
0.500 R' 0.503
as
\T'
V
0.090 max flat
V\o.26t-^
^'^0.281
J ^
V 0.151 âi6l 0.161
0.683 spherical dia 05.55
\'
When measured
on 0.6850
assemble dia hole
ball musi in 0. 999
0.008 RmoK
musf be concentric
O.D.
wlih
I.R.
io within O.OOZ
RADIO TUNING BRAKE
CLUTCH RELEASE SHAFT BEARING

with
0.0015 1.R.- Pitch circle with 10.0.00257.1?:
Note: There can be no burr, ridge or seam oijuncfion of cylindrical and flai
outside surface
0.302 0.322'
i
O.D.
/
I.D.
Grind
I
O.D. -
Burnish tooth profile

0.015x4Schamf.OD
J2x45chamf/.D. both ends., 0.025 boih ends

j2 drilled hole - ^ in tooth space
'
^
^x45chamfer
i. r.45
0.0435 0.0485
chamfer''
I 0.0565
0.0515
^0.145 hole 0.148
0.4815 burnish 0.4825
0.015x45"
chamfer
Ends must be square

with axis within 0.001 Total ind. reading on
1.2485 ^ '1.2505" A 0.615
^0.635
*
SPRING HOUSING
l'45l5
end of tooth
Inspection data
^^''
End grind'
parallel ja^
0250 roll's Qjiofi
^'^''^f'?"
over two feeth
0.0003 max variation of oj526 dim. on any one gear. Tooth strength of 1200 lb shear load min.
SPUR PINION
Note: fractional dimensions
1 0.010
1.480
Face flat within 0.002 ^0.755 indicofor reading < ^ -^
-^0.020
32^'^^
t^
0.1552 0.1572
chamt
C-
0010 R
0529
Hat
^0.534.
^0.840^
16x45 chamfer
DRIVE GEAR FOR AGITATOR SHAFTON
500 pitch dia Tooth shape within 1 0.00 Pitch line must run concentric with bore within 0.002
1
15 teeth 10 dia pitch
20 PA
CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING
WASHING MACHINE

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HANDBOOK

Editor of Product Engineering

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, NEW YORK AND LONDON

HANDBOOK OP MECHANICAL DESIGN

McGraw-Hill Book Company,

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

in any form without permission of

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK,

feature, a two-page spread illustrating standard constructions, possible variations

Griffith of Atlas Imperial

Charts and Tables for General Arithmetical Calculations

Laminated Molded Materials.

Thin Aluminum Sheet

Loads and Lengths.

Power Transmission Elements and Mechanisms

Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending.

Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection.

Drwes and Controls

Permanent Mold Casting.

Welding. Die Casting.

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHARTS AND TABLES

in this chapter include only those pertaining to

general arithmetical calculations, as hsted below.

machine elements or structures

and tables be found in the

chapters devoted to the design of those elements or structures.

of Inertia, Radius of Gyration,

Radii of Gyration Transferring to Parallel Axis

Forces in Toggle Joint

CyUndrical Pieces Unit and Total Weight

Weight and Volume

Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

a straight hne through the two

at the intersection of this line with the third scale.

and 45-deg. bend, length

of arc is 4.7 in.

CHARTS AND TABLES

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

of the sheet, the developed length

For any radius of bend greater than 2T, the length

For any radius of bend between IT and 2T, the

For a sharp corner or a radius up to T: T

For double bends as shown

AND DEVELOPED LENGTHS

CHARTS AND TABLES

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHARTS AND TABLES

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

0.01745 R^arc cos

Note: The ang/e

through the two kno'wn points.

at the intersection of this line with the third scale.

CHARTS AND TABLES

HORIZONTAL ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT ENDS

Notes: Shift decimal point on volume

diameter scale; one point for a one-point shift on length scale.

HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT BOTTOMS

Draw a straight line through the two known

intersection of this line with the third scale.

CHARTS AND TABLES