Water Conservation

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Water Conservation
Prepared by: Fatima Abdul-Hamid

(Information Services Department)
National Scientific & Technical Information Center Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
April, 2004
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................3 Water Conservation In-urban.............................................................................4 Water Conservation in- House...........................................................................8 Water Conservation Standards and Measures...............................................16 NSTIC- COLLECTION........................................................................................33
Bibliography: Water Conservation KISR/NSTIC-2004
INTRODUCTION
Water conservation aims at the optimal utilization of water resources for sustainable advantage. It involves establishing and implementing measures and standards for reducing the demand for water to stop human vulnerability to wasteful usage of water, and to charge for water at appropriate expenses. It requires coordination between water planners and management with land- use planners and economic and social planners to set up regulations concerning water resources management. Hence, efficient water management requires proper attention to the social, economic and environmental factors for sustainable management of water resources. Recently, State of Kuwait is witnessing extreme shortages in the water supply in various residential areas calling the governments concern. Information professionals of National Scientific & Technical Information Center at Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research prepared this bibliography on water conservation to provide experts in the field of water resources with the latest studies done the topic, and to expose them to the countries that experienced similar problem. Thus, the bibliography will be of great benefit to decision makers.
Water Conservation In-urban

Title: Tackling the issue of rural-urban water transfers in the Ta'iz region, Yemen. Author: Riaz, K. Source: Natural Resources Forum, 26 (2), pp. 89-100; 2002 . Abstract: The Ta'iz region of Yemen is facing serious water problems. Total water use has become unsustainable. While agriculture places a heavy demand on the region's water resources, supplies for the fast growing city and the industrial sector are severely rationed despite their much higher willingness to pay for water relative to the returns on most agricultural uses. The article considers several decentralized management options for enhancing sustainability and improving intersectoral water allocation. These include, taxing groundwater extractions, taxing inputs used in pumping groundwater, and implementing a tradable water rights regime. The first two options could lead to resource conservation but are politically difficult to implement and may not necessarily result in better intersectoral water allocation. The tradable water rights regime has potential for achieving the twin objectives of resource conservation and improved intersectoral resource allocation. If farmers' de facto water rights were legitimized, this option would be more acceptable to them. However, the following additional conditions need to be met for making the option viable: a set-aside allocation is made for lifeline supplies for the poor; the water law provides for separation of water rights from land rights; and community organizations are involved as co-managers of the region's water resources. Title: Designing cost effective water demand management programs in Australia. Author: White, S. B.; Fane, S. A. Editor: IWA Programme Committee Source: Water Science and Technology, 46 (6/7), pp. 225-232; 15 ref.; 2002. Abstract: This paper describes recent experience with integrated resource planning (IRP) and the application of least cost planning (LCP) for the evaluation of demand management strategies in urban water. Two Australian case studies, Sydney and Northern New South Wales (NSW), are used in illustration. LCP can determine the most cost effective means of providing water services or alternatively the cheapest forms of water conservation. LCP contrasts to a traditional approach of evaluation which looks only at means of increasing supply. A detailed investigation of water usage, known as end-use analysis, is required for LCP. End-use analysis allows both rigorous demand forecasting, and the development and evaluation of conservation strategies. These strategies include education campaigns, increasing water use efficiency and promoting waste water reuse or rainwater tanks. The optimal mix of conservation strategies and conventional capacity expansion is identified based on levelized unit cost. IRP uses LCP in the iterative process, evaluating and assessing options, investing in selected options, measuring the results, and then reevaluating options. The key to this process is the design of cost effective demand management programmes. IRP however includes a range of parameters beyond least economic cost in the planning process and programme designs, including uncertainty, benefit partitioning and implementation considerations.
Title: Urban water use conservation measures. Author: Kanakoudis, V.K. Source: Journal of Water Supply Research and Technology. Aqua, Vol. 51 (3), pp. 153-163 (11 p.), May 2002; 10 refs. Title: Ecology and equity: key determinants of sustainable water security. Author: Swaminathan, M. S. Source: Water Science and Technology, 43 (4), 35-44 pp.; 6 ref.; 2001. Abstract: Trends in water consumption indicate that demand for water for household and industrial uses in developing countries could double as a proportion of total water demand in the next 25 years. Scope for expansion of water supply will, at the same time, be limited because development of irrigation and urban water supplies is becoming increasingly expensive, and often involves high costs in terms of environmental degradation and human resettlement. Without fundamental reform of water management, the rapid growth in urban water demand will require large transfers of water from irrigated agriculture, thereby threatening food security. Hence, water supply and demand should be managed in an integrated fashion, simultaneously considering all uses and sources. This will call for the establishment of community centred food and water security systems and national water trusts. Once such systems and Trusts are established there could be a legally binding Global Water Convention on the model of the Global Convention on Climate and Biodiversity. The details of such a Global Water Conventions can be finalized at one of the future Stockholm Water Symposia. There are uncommon opportunities today for a water-secure world through synergy between technology, public policy and peoples' participation.
Title: Geographic information systems, decision support systems, and urban storm-water management. Author: Sample, D. J.; Heaney, J. P.; Wright, L. T.; Koustas, R. Editor: Field, R.; Tafuri, A. N.; Fan, C. Y. Source: Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 127 (3), 155-161 pp.; 33 ref.; 2001. Abstract: The application of geographic information system (GIS) technology to the field of urban storm-water modelling is reviewed. Then a GIS application in urban storm-water management is presented at a neighbourhood scale. The neighbourhood scale application includes a GIS, a database, a storm-water system design template, and an optimization capability for screening alternatives. The area and soil type based Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method was used for calculating runoff from GIS information. Using economic analysis to compare the cost of controls, including the opportunity cost of land for land intensive controls, the optimal mix of best management practice controls was found using linear programming. Finally, a single site example is presented illustrating the value of GIS tools to provide more complex on-site hydrological analysis. Title: Soil moisture sensors for urban landscape irrigation: effectiveness and reliability. Author: Qualls, R. J.; Scott, J. M.; DeOreo, W. B. Source: American Water Resources Association. Journal, 37 (3), 547-559 pp.; 41 ref.; 2001.
Abstract: Granular matrix soil moisture sensors were used to control urban landscape irrigation in Boulder, Colorado, USA, during 1997. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness and reliability of the technology for water conservation. The 23 test sites included a traffic median, a small city park, and 21 residential sites. The system limited actual applications to an average of 73% of the theoretical requirement. This resulted in an average saving of $331 per installed sensor. The sensors were highly reliable. All 23 sensors were placed in service at least three years prior to the 1997 study during earlier studies. Of these, only two had failed by the beginning of the 1997 study, both due to external factors. Including replacement of these failed sensors, the total repair cost for the 1997 irrigation season was less than $270. The effort required to maintain each system was small, only about 6-7 minutes per visit. Each site was visited weekly for this study, but less frequent visits could be made in practice. The sensors observed in this study performed well, significantly reduced water consumption, and were easy to monitor and maintain. Soil moisture sensors appear to be a useful and economical tool for urban water conservation.
Title: Water reforms and integrated urban water planning. Author: Anderson, J. Source: Water 21, pp. 16-18 (3 p.), Oct 2001. Title: Sustainable development indicators for urban water systems: a case study evaluation of King William's Town, South Africa, and the applied indicators. Author: Morrison, G.; Fatoki, O.S. (*); Zinn, E.; Jacobsson, D. Source: Water S A, Vol. 27 (2), pp. 219-232 (14 p.), Apr 2001; 22 refs. Title: Technical report - Water Research Commission, 2000. Source: Technical Report - Water Research Commission, 2000; Pretoria, South Africa: Water Research Commission; 160 p.; 2000. Abstract: This technical report, provided by the South African Water Research Commission, discusses topics concerning: Rural water supply and sanitation; Potable water and waste water treatment; Health-related water issues; Water services: Institutional and management issues; Groundwater; Membrane technology; Hydroclimatology; Catchment hydrology; Conservation of water ecosystems; Water policy; Hydraulics; Research Support systems; Information services and transfer of information and technology; and Integrated urban water, water quality, agricultural water, industrial water and mine-water management in South Africa. Title: Xeriscape conversion for urban water conservation. Author: DeOreo, W. B.; Mayer, P. W.; Rosales, J. Source: St Joseph, USA: American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 462-468 pp.; 2000 ASAE Publication 701P0004. Conference: National irrigation symposium. Proceedings of the 4th Decennial Symposium, Phoenix, Arizona, USA, November 14-16, 2000. Abstract: This paper presents results from the Southern Nevada Water Authority Xeriscape Conversion Study (XCS) aimed at quantifying water savings generated through
converting typical single-family turf and shrub landscapes to XeriscapeTM. The study was conducted in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA using 50 home samples from both Xeriscape and Turf homes. Water use data from the periods before and after implementation of Xeriscape conversion were used in conjunction with specific end use data collected from all homes during the summer of 1998 to evaluate the impacts of the Xeriscape conversion. During the baseline year (1995) the average outdoor water use patterns in the Turf and Xeriscape groups were similar, but not identical: 193 kgal (730 kl) for the Turf group and 166 kgal (628 kL) for the Xeriscape group. During the post Xeriscape year (1997) while the average outdoor use of the Turf group increased slightly (from 193 to 195 kgal) (730 to 738 kL) the average outdoor use of the Xeriscape group declined significantly (from 166 kgal to 100 kgal) (628 kL to 378 kL). The reduction in outdoor use among participants in the Xeriscape Conversion Study amounted to a decrease of 66 kgal (250 kL), or 41% in outdoor water use. The average net ET for turf grass in Las Vegas is 83 inches per year, which is equivalent to 50 gallons per square foot (gal/sf) (2037 L/m2). During the baseline year the average application rate of both groups was 49 gal/sf of irrigated landscape (1996 L/m2). In the year following the conversion the Xeriscape group applied less water to both turf and Xeriscape areas. They applied approximately 85% of ET to turf and 40% of ET to Xeriscape areas. The combination of these rates yielded the 41% overall savings in water use measured for the group. There was not a strong relationship between the area Xeriscaped and the water savings, but there was a stronger relationship between the intensity of the irrigation at each home during the baseline year and the savings achieved by the Xeriscape conversion. This implies that a significant portion of the savings observed in this study derived from elimination of wasteful irrigation on the remaining turf areas as well as the reduced water use in Xeriscape areas. Continued studies are underway to clarify the factors that affect the savings achieved in this study.
Water Conservation in- House
Title: Public Attitudes to In-House Water Recycling in England and Wales. Author: Jeffrey, P Source: Journal of the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, Vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 214-217. Aug 2002. Abstract: This study, which is based on responses from over 300 individuals in England and Wales, explores how a willingness to use a water-recycling system of specific configuration varies against a number of factors which are linked to system design, system scale, system context, and water-conservation behaviour. Findings show that there is broad willingness to accept in-house water recycling provided that public health is not compromised. Title: Casa del Agua: Water conservation demonstration house 1986 through 1998. Source: Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 37(5): pp. 12371248; October 2001. Abstract: Casa del Agua (Casa) in suburban Tucson, Arizona, was designed as a residential water conservation facility for applied research, demonstration of operational results, and transfer of technology to the general public. Starting in 1983, an existing residence was located, modified and retrofitted to acquire operational data on residential water use. Modifications included retrofitting existing landscapes and enlarging the rooftop to collect and harvest rainwater; separating blackwater and graywater lines; installing meters, low-water-use appliances and fixtures, and underground storage tanks for rainwater and graywater; and creating a public information center. Over the 13-plus years of actual operation, both the interior and exterior water use research results indicate large reductions in water use can be effected using water-saving devices and/or harvesting and reusing rainwater and graywater. Casa achieved over a 24 percent reduction in total water use and a 47 percent reduction in municipal water used compared to the typical Tucson residence. Overall water used was comprised of harvested rainwater (10 percent), recycled graywater (20 percent), and municipal water (70 percent). Casa's Information Center was visited by approximately 13,000 people from September 1985 through April 1999 and the research has been featured in local, national, and international media. Title: Household solutions to end-of-line re-use problems. Author: Patterson, RA Source: Water Supply, 17(3-4): pp. 511-518; 1999. Abstract: The re-use of water is important for both the on-site disposal of septic tank effluent and the irrigation projects from sewage treatment works. In each case, the wastewater from domestic residences into each system is a cocktail of chemicals over which there is no apparent control or regulation. The effects of the chemicals on the treatment process or the end-of-line re-use of the water appear irrelevant in the choice, purchasing, use and disposal of common household cleaning and personal hygiene products. This project
draws together data which show the chemical inputs to the domestic wastewater stream and the mainly inorganic compounds used for cleaning, such as laundry detergents. These products are labelled in a way that the community's ability to adequately improve the effluent quality is seriously impeded. As load based licences are introduced, it will be important for the community to reduce inorganic chemical loadings or face significant increases in licence charges. For on-site systems, the effective operation of the soil absorption field or the surface irrigation areas is correlated with the chemistry of the effluent and the impact of sodium salts, in particular, on soil hydraulic properties. The data show that the ability to reduce the chemical load of the domestic wastewater stream is influenced by catchment geology and water treatment processes as well as the use of a wide range of chemicals within the house. While water conservation is espoused, high pressure reticulated water systems reduce the impact that water saving devices may have. Retro-fitting pressure limiting valves is recommended. However, a commensurate reduction in chemical loading must be practised. The outcome is that while the criteria for load based licences penalise inland systems because of catchment geology, a genuine reduction in household chemical use is possible provided effective labelling is enacted. Households can be effective in reducing salt loads and have a positive impact on potential re-use options. Thus end-of-line solutions are solved at the household where product shifting can be both cost effective for sustainable effluent re-use projects and on-site wastewater management.
Title: Bitter lessons. Author: Desmier, R Source: Water, (62): pp. 8-9; 1999 Abstract: Some opportunities and incentives for water conservation in the brewing industry are outlined. While overall the ratio of water used per unit volume of product has fallen in the past 20 years from 9 1 to 6 1, smaller breweries still operate on an 8 1 ratio. Scope for economies in the use of water for pipe and vessel cleaning, for product heating and for process water cooling is discussed and some methods of achieving it by, for example, leak repair and strategically-sited water meters are detailed. The exceptionally high COD values (up to 100,000 mg per litre, as opposed to the 500 mg per litre typical of domestic wastewaters) entail either high-strength treatment charges if the wastes are discharged to the public sewer, or in-house treatment. Breweries sited near the coast, which have traditionally discharged effluents to the sea, will have to introduce treatment if they are not to contravene the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive . As some 70 per cent of the intake water eventually appears as effluent and its disposal normally costs more than its abstraction, incentives to recycle and reclaim (for example, selling yeasty water to food manufacturers or piggeries) are not lacking. The Department of the Environment is keen to see the water use product ratio reduced to about 3 5 1 as soon as possible.
Title: Conservation begins at home. Author: Fenwick, K Source: Resource, Vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 18-19. 1998. Notes: Publication focus: Experimental. Abstract: A year-long project which is to be carried out to monitor water-using appliances in the Plume Housing Association's development of 37 new metered houses in Essex is described. Of the 37 houses, all will have meters on the rising main, 22 will be used as a
control, 12 will have hot and cold meters to measure consumption at various locations and water-efficient appliances and 3 will be fitted with a grey water system. The selfcleaning grey-water system comprises an underground well butt and a loft-installed break tank and is claimed to reduce water consumption by about 40 per cent. Rainwater butts will supply water for gardening. If successful it is hoped that the project will influence future water-saving measures and contribute to the development of standards and regulations. Title: Saving water, saving money. Source: Water Bulletin, no. 788, pp. 8-9. 1998. Abstract: Two recent government initiatives to change consumers view on water use, included the Millennium Village, Greenwich, which would reduce water use by 30 per cent and a water-efficient house to be exhibited at the Ideal Home Exhibition. Since the droughts of 1992 and 1995, there had been a wide range of saving devices which had helped consumers (private and industry). Savings of typically around 50 per cent water consumption and waste could be saved by companies investing in water-saving strategies. Pay-back periods for most projects were between 1 and 2 years. Two demand management strategy documents produced by the National Rivers Authority in 1995 and 1997 (Saving Water and Saving Water: Taking Action) obtained information on experience from overseas. The U.S.A. had a well-documented approach to water conservation owing to most water being supplied by local municipalities with a strong sense of community involvement and their widespread metering policy. In the U.K., the most successful conservation measure to attract consumers attention was the Hippo Bag which had made people aware that they could save water and money by installing low flush toilets. Title: Lords inquiry told of problems in EC proposal on water resources. Source: ENDS Report, no. 270, pp. 31-33. 1997. Notes: Publication focus: Legislation. Abstract: Views of interested parties submitted in 1997 to a House of Lords inquiry into the implications of the draft EC Framework Directive on Water Resources are reported. The Directive proposes to replace sundry Directives referring to surface water and groundwater quality by a blanket requirement that all such waters should attain a 'good' quality rating by the year 2010, 'good' being the second of 5 quality classes, but not defined in detail. It also requires the standard to apply to whole river basins, not merely sub-basins, and the whole cost of water service provision to be paid for by customers, both by the same date. The costs of meeting unspecified standards by a definite date would cause Member States to press for a lowering of the standards. The timetable as a whole was considered unrealistic, particularly for the remediation of groundwater, and liable to detract from present endeavours to fulfil the demands of other objectives. The concept of uniform standards for an area with climatic, hydrological and biological diversity, and whose water resources were used for different purposes, was challenged. Environmentalists' views represented either broad or narrow interests. The recovery of costs from consumers begged the question of how to put a value on environmental improvement, and whether the imposition of such costs would raise the cost of water to a level unacceptable for the poorer consumer; perhaps a sliding block tariff would be needed, with the lowest charge for basic needs. Planning on a river basin-wide basis was
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not likely to over-trouble the U.K. The lack of attention given by the draft Directive to demand management as a tool for water resource conservation was regretted. Title: Supply pipes: pressure's on for a commonsense solution. Author: Thackray, J Source: Water Services, Vol. 100, no. 1208, 1014 p. 1996. Abstract: Questions of leakage from, and responsibility for repair of, service pipes are discussed. By the terms of the Water Act 1991, these lie outside the responsibility of the water utility; the position differs in the cases of other utilities, where suppliers are responsible for all ducting up to the first point of practicable use within the customer's building. While leakage rates on service pipes might be small (a figure of 1300 litres per h is suggested), the time taken to repair them, even when the water supplier is immediately notified, could be prolonged; the total volume of water lost could exceed that from a leak on a supplier's main, which will be repaired much sooner. With a view to being seen to be more conscious of the need to conserve water, some suppliers have decided to assume responsibility for the supply pipe: North West and Yorkshire have pilot schemes, and Cambridge is considering one. Others are adopting a more mercenary approach, such as installing a meter on the supply pipe, offering a leakage insurance policy, or offering fixed-price repair schemes. The House of Commons Environment Committee is considering the problem further. Title: MPs hear conflicting views on water resources. Source: ENDS Report, no. 257, pp. 30-32. 1996. Abstract: The House of Commons Environment Committee inquiry into water conservation and supply began on 5 June. Differences in the views of Ofwat, the Environment Agency, the water industry and other concerned bodies on the role of demand management, metering and leakage control in reducing pressure on water supplies are examined. The need for new reservoirs and the adequacy of the regulators' powers are also discussed. The following issues examined in the inquiry are considered: the regulation of the water industry, demand management against new reservoirs, garden watering, leakage targets, economic leakage, mains replacement and metering. Title: Desert House: a demonstration/experiment in efficient domestic water and energy use. Author: Karpiscal, MM; Brittain, RG; Foster, KE Source: Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 329-334. 1994. Abstract: An information centre and family house, designed according to the latest technology for improved water and energy efficiency, are described. Water conserving features included: low water-use plants; minimal turf area; mulching to reduce evaporation; drip irrigation; rainwater harvesting; low flow showers, taps and toilets; and reuse of grey water. The public would be able to tour the information centre and visit the house 1 afternoon per week. Savings of 40 per cent over a conventional house were anticipated. Title: A shot in the arm'. Author: Toms, N Source: Water Bulletin, no. 478, 11 p. 1991.
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Abstract: Anglian Water's efforts to meet its statutory environmental obligations had increased sewage work's compliance with consents to 95 per cent and reduced to 2 the number of non-compliant bathing waters. Its environmental policy went beyond this and included: landscaping of works and buildings; reduction of noise and odour from treatment plants; internal measures to make its actions more environmentally friendly; and awards for conservation. The new policy was commended by the chairman of the House of Commons select committee on the environment. Title: Demonstrating residential water conservation and reuse in the Sonoran desert: Casa del Agua and Desert House. Author: Karpiscak, MM; Brittain, RG; Gerba, CP; Foster, KE Source: Water Science & Technology, Vol. 24, no. 9, pp. 323-330. 1991. Abstract: Details are given of 2 projects in Arizona to demonstrate the feasibility of systems for reclamation and reuse of water in individual homes. These included the installation of water-conserving fixtures, collection of rainwater, and reuse of grey water (waste water from baths, showers, sinks and clothes washers). Rain water was filtered before storage and used for toilet flushing, car washing, in chlorinated swimming pools, and surface irrigation. Grey water was settled and passed into a slow sand filter planted with tomatoes and/or peppers, before storage and use for sub-surface irrigation. Such measures could reduce the requirements for potable water by 50 per cent. Some of the planning considerations for water conservation, rainwater harvesting, and grey water reuse in desert areas are listed. Title: Practical approach towards energy conservation, economy and effluent control in a process-house (part IV) Author: Shah, HA; Sharma, MA; Doshi, SM; Pillay, GR Source: Colourage, Vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 15-20. 1989. Abstract: An overview is presented on the effect of textile mills' activity on the environment (in general terms of air, water and noise) with particular reference to wastewater treatment practices at a composite cotton textile mill in Bombay. An effluent treatment plant was constructed to meet legislative requirements, from which it was evident that for mills discharging effluent into public sewers, a primary treatment plant was adequate. Title: The W-Index for residential water conservation. Author: DeCook, KJ; Foster, KE; Karpiscak, MM Source: Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 1295-1301. 1988. Abstract: The 'W-Index' was a number, derived from water-saving features installed in a home, including water harvesting and recycling systems. Evaluation of houses in Tucson, Arizona, indicated that a non-conserving type would use 148 gallons per person.day, while a fully-conserving model would use 35 gallons per person.day, and have a W-Index value of W-160. Current new homes in Tucson had ratings ranging of W-75 to W-100. The water conservation demonstration home Casa del Agua was rated at W-139 (see preceding abstract). The index could be used to promote water conservation goals.
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Title: Casa del Agua: a residential water conservation and reuse demonstration project in Tucson, Arizona. Author: Foster, KE; Karpiscak, MM; Brittain, RG Source: Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 1201-1206. 1988. Abstract: To demonstrate the benefits of water conservation in Tucson, Arizona, where projected population growth was expected to outstrip groundwater resources, a typical singlefamily house was equipped with fixtures and systems embodying low water use and reuse. The house, named 'Casa del Agua', used only 47 per cent of the average volume of water supplied in Tucson, and total water use, including municipal water supply, rainwater and grey water, was reduced by 33 per cent. Usage figures for municipallysupplied and total water used were 53 and 74 gallons per person.day, respectively. Title: Water supply and distribution for developing countries. Author: Laburn, RJ Source: Seminar on technology transfer in water supply and sanitation in developing areas - Bophuthatswana. Mmabatho, 10-12 June , Paper No.5.2. 8 pp. 1986. Abstract: The increasing demand for water in South Africa and the overall scarcity of resources required long term planning to provide a more equitable distribution to developed and developing areas. Design criteria for per capita consumption, peak loads for reservoirs and pipelines and water pressure at standpipes and houses should be reduced to more realistic levels where possible. The costs of providing water supply schemes could be met in part and water conservation could be encouraged by metering in towns and cities and introducing tariffs in rural areas. Title: Dumping of waste at sea. Source: H.M. Stationery Office. London, House of Lord's Select Committee on the European Communities, 17th Report, (39646). 234 pp. 1986. Abstract: The findings of the Committee of the House of Lords appointed to consider Community proposals with reference to the proposed EC Directive on the Dumping of Waste at Sea 8805/85 is presented. The content of the proposal is discussed in relation to current U.K. legislation, including the Control of Pollution Act, Part II and also the existing practices relating to waste disposal, particularly at dump sites in the North sea, the attitude of other European countries and the provisions of the Oslo and other international conventions concerning dumping at sea. A verbatim account is provided of oral evidence from numerous representatives of the U.K. Government and British industrial and commercial bodies, together with written submissions from public bodies and commercial organizations, conservation and fishery interests. Title: Recent trends of water conservation in drought prone areas. Author: Chandra, S Source: Journal of Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 66, no. CI1, pp. 1-11. 1985. Abstract: The work of the second Irrigation Commission in India is described. The need for water conservation in drought prone areas is explained. Water conservation techniques are briefly described including rainwater harvesting, land alteration, chemical treatment of soil, soil covers, using runoff water in agriculture, rainfall cistern systems using runoff
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collected from house roofs and weather modification. Water losses from large waterbodies could be minimized by using chemicals, evaporation retardation and general runoff control techniques. The proper exploitation of groundwater resources involved the use of artificial recharge, percolation tanks, and subsurface moisture barriers. Water demand from agriculture could be reduced by adjusting the cropping pattern, improving irrigation practices, reducing seepage and reducing evapotranspiration. Other sources of water could be used to increase water supply in drought prone areas such as water reuse, interbasin water transfer, conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater and the use of saline water. Important factors to be considered in the selection of appropriate techniques are rainfall, climate, economic considerations, socioeconomic factors and the capabilities of existing supplies. Limitations and future research needs are also discussed. A bibliography of 37 references is appended. Title: Restoration of failing on-site wastewater disposal systems using water conservation. Author: Sharpe, WE; Cole, CA; Fritton, DD Source: Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 858-866. 1984. Abstract: In many areas of the U.S.A., on-site sewage disposal, usually comprising septic tanks and soil absorption, were a cost-effective alternative to municipal sewerage systems, but problems might arise where the system was overloaded and soil clogging occurred. A study was, therefore, carried out to assess the efficiency of existing water conservation devices for overcoming such problems. Tabulated data are given on the houses and devices used, water use before and after installation of the devices, and the effect of the devices on performance of the seepage beds. The study showed that devices giving maximal water conservation (air-assisted toilets, front-loading automatic washing machines, low-flow shower heads, and tap flow control aerators) reduced the severity of malfunction of the disposal systems. Water conservation devices giving a lower reduction in water use were less successful in overcoming the problem, except where an alternative soil absorption system was used. Title: Residential water conservation. Author: Flack, JE Source: Journal of Water Resources. Planning and Management Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, no. WR1, pp. 85-95. 1981. Abstract: Beginning with a discussion of the benefits from lowering water demand, the author describes various conservation programmes and options for decreasing demand. Various statistics on baseline in-house domestic use, unmetered, metered and metered with watersaving household devices, and also changes in demand when pricing policies are implemented are given, also annual savings (in volume) according to the various conservation techniques. The several provisos which need to be considered in any future policy changes are noted. Title: A recycle system for conservation of water in residences. Author: Mclaughlin, ER Source: Wat. Sewage Wks, Vol. 115, pp. 175-176. 1968. Abstract: A detailed description is given of an installation for the recycling of water in domestic
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use. A storage tank, filter, pump and pressure tank were installed in a private house and water from the laundry and shower areas was re-cycled and used to flush the W. C. bowl. It was estimated that the total household water consumption could be reduced by about 39 per cent by this system.
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Water Conservation Standards and Measures
Title: Benefits of the United States nationwide plumbing efficiency standards. Author: Dickinson, MA; Maddaus, LA; Maddaus, WO Source: Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 3rd World Water Congress: Efficient Water Supply and Water Reuse. pp. 231-237. Vol. 3, no. 3., 2003. Abstract: In 2000, the American Water Works Association (AWWA) and California Urban Water Conservation Council partnered to study the merits of the United States National Plumbing Efficiency Standards. The study develops information on the value of the national plumbing standards, based on a nationwide survey of water supply utilities. Using base year 1999 water production levels, the study found forecasted water production due to the national plumbing code reduced by 5 per cent in 2010, climbing to 8 per cent water savings by 2020. Average utility savings of US$26 per person extrapolated to the United States as a whole amount to about US$7.5 billion in reduced infrastructure costs due to the national plumbing code. Including energy benefits from hot water savings, the total dollar savings to communities is higher at US$35 billion in the United States. This paper highlights an example methodology into the overall assessment of water and cost savings from water conservation programs. This methodology, more fully presented in the original report document, is particularly useful for water agencies quantifying benefits when seeking to avoid acquiring new source water supplys and/or defer building capital projects. Title: Minimum performance standards for showerheads in Australia: The benefits and the barriers. Author: Day, D; White, S Source: Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 3rd World Water Congress: Efficient Water Supply and Water Reuse. pp. 239-245. Vol. 3, no. 3., 2003. Abstract: This paper discusses the potential merits and opportunities of introducing national minimum performance standards (MPS) for water efficient appliances, in particular showerheads. At a national level the introduction of MPS for showerheads by 2005 is expected to result in a reduction in the demand for water by over 79 GL/annum by 2015. The reduction in energy consumption associated with reduced water heating needs by water efficient showerheads is 7.7 million GJ/annum, while greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced by 1.3 million tonnes CO sub(2)/annum, by 2015. This initiative will generate benefits to an array of stakeholders. These benefits include: increased allocation of water for environmental flows, reduced demand on groundwater sources, reduced wastewater flows and associated pollution, and financial benefits to water utilities, particularly if the utility is experiencing water supply or wastewater treatment constraints. Regulation will also protect the investment (estimated to be of the order of $16 million) that a number of water utilities are making in incentive and retrofit programs. The most effective form of regulation to achieve the greatest outcomes in terms of reducing water and energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions is a regulation that controls the supply of showerheads on the basis of flow rate. The MPS being proposed is 9 L/minute, and regulation would involve mandatory labelling of showerheads and compliance with
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the AAA-rating. The legislative options and challenge of introducing such a requirement within the current regulatory environment are discussed. Title: The California Urban Water Conservation Council: A consensus partnership for water conservation. Author: Dickinson, MA Source: Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 3rd World Water Congress: Efficient Water Supply and Water Reuse. pp. 281-288. Vol. 3, no. 3. Abstract: California, perhaps more than any other of the United States, has been a leader in water efficiency experiments. It adopted uniform efficient plumbing standards in 1978 for showerheads and faucets and the same for water closets in 1992. Comprehensive water management planning was adopted in 1983 for all water agencies serving more than 3,000 connections or 3,000 people, and in 1991, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed by major water utilities and environmental groups statewide-pledging to implement standardized water efficiency programs called "Best Management Practices" in an attempt to help save the dying Bay-Delta Estuary. The California Urban Water Conservation Council, created by this Memorandum, is a non-profit NGO formed to oversee the Best Management Practices and to enforce the terms of the Memorandum. Since the historic signing of this Memorandum ten years ago, the Council has become a national example of consensus partnership on water efficiency. Water utilities and environmental groups work together on defining programs for water conservation, not as adversaries fighting each other in the press or in the courtroom. Technical assistance provided by Council staff helps utilities plan and implement conservation projects. This paper will outline national programs and will focus specifically on the Council partnership, which has resulted in benefits to water utilities, environmental groups, and state governmental agencies alike. Title: The New German Standard ATV-DVWK-A 138 and its Qualitative Requirements Practical Consequences. Das neue Arbeitsblatt ATV-DVWK-A 138 und seine qualitativen Anforderungen - Auswirkungen auf die Praxis. Author: Becker, M; Raasch, U; Spengler, B Source: KA - Wasserwirtschaft, Abwasser, Abfall, 49(6): pp. 857-866; June 2002 . Abstract: As a sustainable drainage concept, natural stormwater management is becoming more and more important from an environmental engineering point of view. To take sufficient account of soil conservation and groundwater pollution control requirements, the type and amount of pollutants from paved areas that enter the infiltration plant must be quantifiable. The new German Standard ATV-DVWK-A 138 is the first paper that goes beyond general recommendations and specifies objectives and requirements. Its application to schemes, which were implemented in the last few years, shows which strategies can be used to comply with these requirements. (German)
Title: The use of levelised cost in comparing supply and demand side options. Author: Fane, S; Robinson, J; White, S Source: Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 3rd World Water Congress: Efficient Water Supply and Water Reuse. pp. 185-192. Vol. 3, no. 3., 2003. Conference: 3. World Water Congress of the International Water Association, Melbourne (Australia), 7-12 Apr 2002
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Abstract: This paper explores the use of levelised cost in planning for infrastructure networks. Levelised cost provides a useful measure comparing supply or conservation options on varying scales on an equivalent basis. Comparison is made to annualised cost, a metric often used as a means of comparing different supply side options. Urban water supply is used as the primary example, however levelised cost is equally applicable to other infrastructure networks, such as electricity or gas. The levelised cost is calculated as the ratio of the present value of projected capital and operating cost of an option to the present value of the projected annual demand supplied or saved by the option. The paper demonstrates that levelised cost is the constant unit cost of supply, provided by an option at present value. It is also the average incremental cost of the option at the point of implementation. When translated to a unit cost, annualised cost does not account for unutilised capacity in large scale schemes, systematically under-representing actual costs. By using levelised cost this inherent bias is removed. Use of levelised cost would facilitate the inclusion of smaller scale and more incremental supply options into infrastructure networks providing both economic and environmental benefits. Title: A methodology to determine the effectiveness of water demand management measures in South Africa. Author: Johnson, E; Bhagwan, J Source: Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 3rd World Water Congress: Efficient Water Supply and Water Reuse. pp. 223-229. Vol. 3, no. 3., 2003. Abstract: The aim of this project was to develop a methodology to determine the effectiveness of Water Demand Management (WDM) and Water Conservation (WC) measures in developing regions and countries. The project, which was sponsored by South Africa's Water Research Commission, involved a critical examination of those applicable local (South African) conditions that guide the development of the methodology. Some of the specific challenges identified included the practical definition of linkage between the principle of increasing the supply of water through the implementation of WDM/WC measures and the unlimited needs of users, a strong culture of non-payment for water which limits the impact of economic measures, the overall lack of programmes for the repair and maintenance of water infrastructure as well as the increasing shortage of skilled human resources. Several existing related methodologies were examined in order to provide a historic and conceptual framework for the research. Selected WDM/WC case studies, both locally in South Africa and internationally, have provided useful insight during the development of the methodology. A pragmatic and easy to understand consolidated methodology has been developed that takes cognisance of the objectives of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM). The methodology is a consultative and consensus based approach assisted by numerous graphic based techniques, tools and examples. Title: Water utility communication practices--what contributes to success? Author: Bishop, B Source: Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 95, no. 1, [np]. Jan 2003. Abstract: Water utilities in the United States must communicate with a variety of stakeholders, including customers, the media, boards, and citizens' groups. Often, they must
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disseminate negative, unpleasant, or unwelcome information about rate hikes, conservation measures, water source pollution, expensive infrastructure projects, and management or ownership changes. The biggest challenge facing water providers today is finding effective ways to convey their variety of messages to this range of audiences. To better understand the communication practices of US water suppliers, a national survey of 175 utilities was conducted to obtain hard data about the toughest topics, toughest audiences, communication techniques used, and utilities' perception about the success of their communication efforts. Survey responses indicated that water quality was the toughest topic and residential customers were the toughest audience. Of the approximately 60 communication techniques used, news releases were the most common. As to success, nearly three quarters of respondents rated their communication efforts as very or moderately successful. Statistical analysis of survey responses showed that successful communication efforts were correlated with 10 principles of authentic communication: communication must be truthful, fundamental, comprehensive, relevant, clear, consistent, accessible, timely, compassionate, and allow feedback. By adopting these proven principles as best practices, water providers can become more effective in communicating with their various constituencies on today's increasingly complex water issues. Title: Physical and economic efficiency of water use in the river basin: Implications for efficient water management. Author: Cai, X; Rosegrant, MW; Ringler, C Source: Water Resources Research, Vol. 39, no. 1, [np]. Jan 2003. Abstract: With growing water scarcity and increasing competition across water-using sectors, the need for water savings and more efficient water use has increased in importance in water resources management. Improvement in the physical efficiency of water use is related to water conservation through increasing the fraction of water beneficially used over water applied, while enhancing economic efficiency is a broader concept, seeking the highest economic value of water use through both physical and managerial measures. Physical and economic efficiency measures are both useful indicators for water management at the irrigation system and river basin level. However, the relationship between physical efficiency and economic efficiency is not always clear, and the values of these measures may indicate different directions for water policy and investments in irrigation. Open research questions include, for example, the following: How does the change in responsiveness of water allocation and irrigation technology to economic incentives affect physical and economic irrigation efficiency? What is the impact of a change in irrigation system efficiency on basin physical and economic efficiency? How do changes in water withdrawals affect basin physical and economic efficiency under a given water requirement? To explore these issues, an integrated economic-hydrologic river basin model is applied to the Maipo River Basin in Chile. A series of modeling scenarios is defined, and policy implications based on changes in physical and economic efficiencies for basin-wide irrigation water management are analyzed.
Title: Workshop 2 (synthesis): Water pollution abatement within the industrial sector. Author: Matsui, S; Oatridge, J; Blomqvist, A Source: Water Science & Technology, Balancing Competing Water Uses - Present Status and New Prospects. pp. 115-117. Vol. 47, no. 6.
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Abstract: This workshop aimed at demonstrating and discussing how effective abatement of water pollution can be achieved through introducing cleaner technologies, recycling and reuse of water, and implementing new public policy measures. Title: A GIS planning model for urban oil spill management. Author: Li, J Editor(s): Grabow, WOK; Dohman, M; Gilbert, J; Haas, C; House, M; Lesouef, A; Nielsen, J; van der Vlies, AW; Villesot, D; Wanner, J; Watanabe, Y; Milburn, A; Nagle, PT; Purdon, CD Source: Water Science & Technology, 43(5): pp. 239-244; 2001. Abstract: Oil spills in industrialized cities pose a significant threat to their urban water environment. The largest city in Canada, the city of Toronto, has an average 300-500 oil spills per year with an average total volume of about 160,000 L/year. About 45% of the spills was eventually cleaned up. Given the enormous amount of remaining oil entering into the fragile urban ecosystem, it is important to develop an effective pollution prevention and control plan for the city. A Geographic Information System (GIS) planning model has been developed to characterize oil spills and determine preventive and control measures available in the city. A database of oil spill records from 1988 to 1997 was compiled and geo-referenced. Attributes to each record such as spill volume, oil type, location, road type, sector, source, cleanup percentage, and environmental impacts were created. GIS layers of woodlots, wetlands, watercourses, Environmental Sensitive Areas, and Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest were obtained from the local Conservation Authority. By overlaying the spill characteristics with the GIS layers, evaluation of preventive and control solutions close to these environmental features was conducted. It was found that employee training and preventive maintenance should be improved as the principal cause of spills was attributed to human errors and equipment failure. Additionally, the cost of using oil separators at strategic spill locations was found to be $1.4 million. The GIS model provides an efficient planning tool for urban oil spill management. Additionally, the graphical capability of GIS allows users to integrate environmental features and spill characteristics in the management analysis. Title: Water Resources Development in the Sao Francisco River Basin (Brazil): Conflicts and Management Perspectives. Author: Ioris, AAR Source: Water International, 26(1): pp. 24-39; March 2001. Abstract: Water scarcity is matter of growing concern in Brazil, especially in the semi-arid, inland area of the Northeast, where the Sao Francisco River flows. This paper concentrates on the relations between the concrete experience of water resources development and the remaining demands for efficient water management in that river basin. The emphasis is on its Sub-Middle section, which since 1948 has been the preferential area for irrigation projects and hydropower generation. Recent modifications in the Brazilian legislation provide for a new approach to water resources policy, which is in favor of more decentralized and proactive forms of water management. In spite of such institutional evolution, conservative political groups in the Sao Francisco River Basin have put obstacles before the transformation of established practices. In addition, there are other structural limitations contributing to hinder the adoption of a more comprehensive framework of water management. Resulting water conflicts have raised increasing
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demands for proper attention to the social, economic and environmental requirements of the sustainable management of water. The requisites for that go beyond the water question itself because they involve broader political and socio-economic controversies. At the local level, priority must be given to measures aimed at achieving water efficiency and conservation. It is fundamental to address the reduction of human vulnerability to climatic risks and to adopt alternatives of better utilization of water resources. Title: Management of Groundwater Resources in a Coastal Belt Aquifer System of Saudi Arabia. Author: Abderrahman, WA; Rasheeduddin, M Source: Water International, 26(1): pp. 40-50; March 2001. Abstract: Effective management of groundwater is an important tool for long-term sustainability of its productivity and quality. Numerical simulation techniques have been proven effective in defining the groundwater conditions under different management alternatives. A groundwater flow model of a multi-aquifer system in the coastal belt of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia has been developed using numerical simulation techniques. The simulated system included the Alat, the Khobar, and the Umm Er Radhuma aquifers with intervening Alat marl and Rus aquitards. Calibrated hydraulic properties have indicated that the aquifers are highly fissured at the structural highs such as Dammam dome and Qatif anticline. The calibrated model was subsequently utilized to predict the responses of aquifers over a planning horizon of 22 years (1998-2020) under various pumping alternatives. The model results indicated that the Khobar and the Alat aquifers are very productive along the Dammam-Qatif belt, and less productive at Abqaiq region. The Umm Er Radhuma aquifer has demonstrated relatively low declines in water levels throughout the study area indicating very high productivity. Continuation of the present pumping trends will continue to lower water levels. Implementation of water conservation measures in municipal purposes alone will reduce the expected drawdown by about 50 percent. Title: Upconing and Saline Water Intrusion and the Need for Water Conservation in the Lower Part of Wadi Fatimah, Western Saudi Arabia. Author: Sharaf, MA; Hussein, MT; Al-Bassam, AM Source: International Journal of Water Resources Development, 17(2): pp. 211-226; June 2001. Abstract: Shallow aquifers were exploited in western Saudi Arabia a long time ago in history. In the last five decades, and under the conditions of an increasing supply of water, many new wells were drilled at relatively deeper intervals than the hand-dug wells of the time. In the downstream part of Wadi Fatimah, and over time, more saline water has been brought up in a number of wells. Overexploitation of groundwater for industrial and agricultural purposes has led to the appearance of two phenomena responsible for the salinization--upconing and saline water intrusion. Upconing occurs in separate pockets while saline water encroachment affects the lower part of Wadi Fatimah and the area towards the Red Sea coast. This article deals with the identification and delineation of areas affected by each of the two phenomena. The methodologies used in this work are mainly hydrogeological and hydrochemical. Resistivity surveys helped in delineating the fresh water-saline water interface. Methods to control upconing and saline water intrusion
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are suggested to safeguard the aquifer from further contamination. Effective conservation measures are recommended for the protection of groundwater resources in Wadi Fatimah. Title: Separating wastewater systems is key in protecting source waters. Author: Kim, J-Y; Park, H Source: Journal of the American Water Works Association, 93(1): pp. 54-65; January 2001. Abstract: South Korea is typical of a country that is suffering from water shortages and water quality deterioration, and the situation is expected to get worse in the future. Some options for dealing with these problems have been suggested (Park, 1997, 1998). These options emphasize developing the means and the policies to conserve existing water supply sources--especially in terms of quality--and to develop alternative water sources. Possible alternatives include construction or enlargement of dam reservoirs, development of groundwater resources, seawater desalination, water reuse, and weather modification efforts. Because rapid urbanization and industrialization in South Korea during the last three decades have outpaced the construction of an environmental infrastructure, most surface waters in the country are seriously polluted by domestic and industrial waste. In some locations, severe eutrophication has even been observed. In addition, because about 93% of South Korean water supplies are taken from rivers, water quality protection of rivers has become the primary issue in the area of source water conservation. Many source water intakes may be closed down in the near future unless some mitigation measures are taken immediately. A typical example of this situation is the Paldang Reservoir, which is located in the middle reach of the Han River. This reservoir is the major water supply source for more than 20 million inhabitants in the Seoul-Kyunggi metropolitan region. Title: A stream visual assessment protocol (SVAP) for riparian landowners. Author: Bjorkland, R; Pringle, CM; Newton, B Source: Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 68(2): pp. 99-125; 1 May 2001. Abstract: A user-friendly Stream Visual Assessment Protocol (SVAP) was recently developed in a joint effort by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the University of Georgia. SVAP was designed to be an introductory screening-level assessment method for people unfamiliar with stream assessments. It was designed for use by NRCS field staff who work with agricultural landowners. NRCS is in a key position to influence conservation practices since the organization works with private stakeholders, maintaining more than 2000 field offices throughout the U.S. with a central office in each state. The SVAP measures a maximum of 15 elements and is based on visual inspection of the physical and biological characteristics of instream and riparian environments. Each element is assigned a numerical score relative to reference conditions and an overall score for the stream reach is calculated. A qualitative description of the stream reach is made based on overall numerical score. While SVAP is not intended to replace more robust stream assessment protocols, it provides quick and reliable information for use in NRCS farm assistance programs. It is also an educational tool through which landowners can learn about conservation of aquatic resources. An abridged copy of SVAP is attached as an appendix to this article and the complete document can be found on the web at
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Title: Integrated measures for preservation, restoration and improvement of the environmental conditions of the Lagoon Olho d'Agua basin. Author: Florencio, L; Kato, MT; de Lima, ES Source: Environment International, 26(7-8): pp. 551-555; June 2001. Abstract: The Lagoon Olho d'Agua in Pernambuco State, northeast Brazil has received increasing environmental concern due to significant stress from pollution in the catchment. The existing environmental problems are the result of great pressure from a broad range of human activities, especially in the last 10 years. Serious pollution exists mainly from some industrial and urban activities, which increased intensively after the eighties. There is a strong social and economical pressure for housing and construction near the lagoon, due to the available land nearby beaches and estuarine zone, and recently by growing tourism activities. Uncontrolled land use by low-income communities and the pressure for construction by developers have led to landfilling and to deterioration of water quality in the lagoon catchment. Improvement of the environmental conditions in the catchment needs integrated measures. Guidelines and some specific actions involving several institutions have been established and refer to sanitation and urban infrastructure as the main priorities. A main target is the construction of low-cost sewage system with smaller and decentralised treatment plants. Title: Water recycling at the Millennium Dome. Author: Hills, S; Smith, A; Hardy, P; Birks, R Editor(s): Brissaud, F; Bontoux, J; Mujeriego, R; Bahri, A; Nurizzo, C; Asano, T Source: Water Science & Technology, 43(10): pp. 287-294; 2001. Abstract: Thames Water is working with the New Millennium Experience Company to provide a water recycling system for the Millennium Dome which will supply 500m super(3)/d of reclaimed water for WC and urinal flushing. The system will treat water from three sources: rainwater - from the Dome roof; greywater - from handbasins in the toilet blocks; groundwater - from beneath the Dome site. The treatment technologies will range from "natural" reedbeds for the rainwater, to more sophisticated options, including biological aerated filters and membranes for the greywater and groundwater. Pilot scale trials were used to design the optimum configuration. In addition to the recycling system, water efficient devices will be installed in three of the core toilet blocks as part of a programme of research into the effectiveness of conservation measures. Data on water usage and customer behaviour will be collected via a comprehensive metering system. Information from the Dome project on the economics and efficiency of on-site recycling at large scale and data on water efficient devices, customer perception and behaviour will be of great value to the water industry. For Thames Water, the project provides vital input to the development of future water resource strategies. Title: Hydrologic response of a watershed to land use changes: a remote sensing and GIS approach. Author: Sharma, T; Kiran, PVS; Singh, TP; Trivedi, AV; Navalgund, RR Source: International Journal of Remote Sensing, 22(11): pp. 2095-2108; July 2001. Abstract: In the arid and semi-arid tropics, low annual rainfall together with high intensity rains has resulted in excess runoff, soil erosion and low moisture intake leading to poor crop yields. Therefore, adoption of soil and water conservation measures is necessary for the
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optimal utilization of natural resources and to increase the productivity of land on a sustainable basis. Remote sensing and GIS techniques can be used for generating development plans for the watershed area in consonance with the production potential and limitation of terrain resources, and can also be used for assessing the impact of these measures before actual implementation in the field. This paper describes a case study for the Jasdan taluka (district) of Rajkot in Gujarat, India. The aims are to prioritize watersheds on the basis of runoff generated, expressed as yield, due to existing land use conditions; to suggest soil and water conservation measures; and to evaluate the hydrologic response of these measures on runoff. The Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (CN) method was used for computing the runoff; subsequently runoff yield in percentage was calculated for prioritizing the watersheds. Satellite and other collateral data were used to identify the problems and potential in the watersheds and recommend measures for soil and water conservation. The impact of these measures was assessed by computing runoff under alternative land use and management practices. It was found that the runoff yield decreased by 42.88% of the pre-conservation value for the watershed. Title: Upgrading Well Water Disinfection Systems. Author: Walsh, R Source: Water Engineering & Management, 148(8): pp. 14-16; August 2001. Abstract: The City of Albuquerque depends on groundwater from 93 deep aquifer wells to supply drinking water to more than 400,000 users. The city is fortunate to have this source of water relatively free of bacteria. However, it must use disinfection systems to meet EPA and local regulations for water quality in its extensive storage and distribution facilities. The total production capacity of all wells is 294 million gallons a day (mgd), but conservation measures resulted in peak usage last year of only 169 mgd. Disinfection takes place at reservoirs that receive water from well fields containing from one to eight wells. Until recently, chlorine gas from 150-lb containers was being used for disinfection. Because of the inherent hazards of handling chlorine gas, plus more stringent regulations on its use, the Albuquerque Water Utility Division (AWUD) undertook an investigation of viable alternative disinfection technologies. The conclusion was to switch to on-site generation of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl).
Title: Social Cost-benefit Analysis of a Watershed Development Project Karnataka, India. Author: Ninan, KN; Lakshmikanthamma, S Source: Ambio, 30(3): pp. 157-161; May 2001. Abstract: Watershed Development Programmes (WDPs) have been initiated in India to improve and sustain productivity and the production potential of the dry and semiarid regions of the country at higher levels, through adoption of appropriate production and conservation techniques. The aim is also to meet the needs of rural communities for food, fuel, fodder, and timber and, thereby, reduce pressure on natural forests. In view of their potential for growth, for improving income, and the natural resource base of the disadvantaged regions of the country, WDPs are being accorded importance in the development plans for India and by donor agencies. This paper presents a social cost-benefit appraisal of a watershed development project in Karnataka, India. Using alternate viability measures, i.e. Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and rigorous tests and sensitivity analyses, the results show that if expected full benefits are realized, the benefits derived from the watershed project are quite high, with the IRRs
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ranging from 19 to 96%. If, however, expected full benefits were to fall short by 25%, and net costs of (including the opportunity cost of grazing benefits foregone by the villagers on account of establishing community woodlots on degraded forestlands and village commons used earlier for free grazing of their cattle) the project will report losses. Even these losses can be contained if the direct benefits from some community woodlots, for which information was not available, and other indirect benefits, mostly of an environmental nature, are included. The findings of this study suggest that watershed development projects initiated to improve the economy and ecology of India's dry and semiarid regions are economically viable and socially desirable. Title: Water Pricing in Irrigated Agriculture. Author: Abu-Zeid, M Source: International Journal of Water Resources Development, 17(4): pp. 527-538; December 2001. Abstract: Access to water is viewed as a basic human right, a social necessity and a critical environmental resource in spite of the fact that water also has its own financial and economic values. Thus, the selection of set prices and pricing mechanisms addressing these contradicting views is remarkably complicated. On the other hand, water pricing is typically viewed as a good means to cover initial costs and sustain resources invested in water systems development, especially irrigated agriculture. Additionally, the cost of water services needs to be reasonable enough and linked to the amount of water consumed to encourage conservation. This paper illustrates criteria for equitable cost sharing, which include economic justification, efficiency and equity as well as users' acceptance. Elements of agricultural water pricing are also discussed. These elements comprise: the cost of water services, which is the total cost associated with irrigated agricultural systems development; the value of water, which reflects water's economic, social, environmental, cultural and religious values in the society; and the cost recovery mechanisms, which are the organizational and administrative measures to implement agreed upon policies to value water and services and make the collections. Title: The cost-effectiveness of water conservation. Author: Platt, JL; DelForge, MC Source: Journal of the American Water Works Association, 93(3): pp. 73-83; March 2001. Abstract: Water conservation is sometimes discounted by municipalities as a "feel-good" endeavor that yields few concrete benefits and reduces revenues. In Cary, N.C., however, a comprehensive and carefully planned water conservation program is providing real solutions to the town's real problems. With its population doubling in the past 10 years, Cary officials knew they had to come up with current and long-term strategies to meet the demand for water. They turned to conservation as a way to create a new "source" of water by reducing demand and waste and thus extending existing supplies. After analyzing the costs and benefits of various conservation measures, the town developed a long-term plan incorporating such key components as public education, landscape and irrigation ordinances, a conservation rate structure, and increased efficiency in town water use. Cary's conservation efforts are already paying off and promise additional savings in the future. Reduced demand should enable the town to postpone two planned plant expansions by a total of 10 years, at a cost of $138/mil gal ($37/ML) of water saved. Cary's experience is not unique. A 1999 study indicates that conservation can help most
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utilities reduce water demand by 15-30%, potentially saving millions of taxpayer dollars and delaying or even eliminating future facility expansions. Title: Water abstraction: reforms in the pipeline? Author: Lomas, O; Devine, R; Smith, C Source: Industrial Environmental Management, 12(7): pp. 12-14; December 2001. Abstract: Change in the water industry is firmly back on the government's agenda and its current proposals to reform the water abstraction regime are an important part of this. The intention is to redress the balance between historical water abstraction uses that were granted unlimited in time and amount, and the need to secure more sustainable water supplies, and to protect aquatic habitats damaged or threatened by over-abstraction. Changes to the water abstraction regime have been encouraged by the EU Water Framework Directive and there are new proposals to reduce abstractions through both national and local measures. There are also concurrent moves to introduce competition and trading in abstraction licences. Despite the limited information currently available, it is essential for the abstraction industry to address the issue so as to identify what exactly is down the pipeline. Title: Strategies for Transforming Fine Scale Knowledge to Management Usability. Author: Wirtz, KW Source: Marine Pollution Bulletin, 43(7-12): pp. 209-214; December 2001. Abstract: Simulation tools used for management purposes should fulfill several conditions by being computationally fast, user-friendly, realistic, generic and reliable. These traits are often counteracting since they simultaneously demand for model complexity as well as simplicity. Here we develop a strategy to overcome this general problem of environmental modelling for management use. Major ingredients are model analysis and reduction as new core components of the modelling process. In detail, a set of combined methods is proposed. Within a large class of models the set allows for automatically exploring model behaviour and for aggregating fine scale process knowledge together with spatio temporal resolution. Applications to a huge aquatic European regional seas ecosystem model (ERSEM), a complex photosynthesis model (PGEN) as well as a simple diagenetic model are presented. The analysis and aggregation methods provide first steps towards a new generation of decision support tools able to cope with an increase in scientific knowledge as well as management demands. Title: Challenges and opportunities for water resources management in southeast Asia. Defis et opportunites pour la gestion de la ressource en eau en Asie du Sud-Est. Author: Gupta, AD Source: Hydrological Sciences Journal/Journal des Sciences Hydrologiques, 46(6): pp. 923-936; December 2001. Abstract: The issues of water resources management are addressed with specific reference to the available water resources and water demand for the Chao Phraya River basin in Thailand. The water resources management practices in most of the countries in southeast Asia have been generally on a sectoral level without consideration of any intersectoral interference and trade-off. A change of paradigm is needed with a holistic approach giving due regard to the requirement of equitable distribution of water, adequate
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governance, efficient economic performance and maintenance of environmental quality. Technological intervention, probable institutional reforms, community participation, water conservation and re-use, water policy and legal frameworks are some of the feasible measures that provide opportunities to evolve a systematic approach to water resources management. (German) Title: Irrigation in the American West: Area, Water and Economic Activity. Author: Gollehon, N; Quinby, W Source: International Journal of Water Resources Development, 16(2): pp. 187-195; June 2000. Abstract: This article examines irrigation in the American West based on consistent Federal data sources. Irrigation is discussed using three measures: irrigated area, water use in irrigation, and the sales value of crops produced. We find that irrigation accounts for about three-quarters of the value of crops sold from about one-quarter of the harvested cropland in the West. In accomplishing the higher sales, irrigated agriculture accounts for three-quarters of the water withdrawn and most of the water use in the West. Title: Public Perceptions of the Environmental Changes to the Thames Estuary in London, U.K. Author: Tunstall, S Source: Journal of Coastal Research, 16(2): pp. 269-277; 2000 . Abstract: This paper compares the ways in which managers and members of the public viewed one example of coastal and estuarine resources in the U.K., the tidal River Thames in London. It is based on semi-structured interviews with 14 managers, eight focus group discussions with members of the public and a mail questionnaire survey completed by 110 representatives of tenants and residents associations in Thames-side Boroughs. Members of the public were well aware of the reduction in flood risk achieved through the implementation of a comprehensive flood defense strategy for London. However public awareness of improvements in water quality, habitats and fisheries and understanding of the ecological importance of the intertidal zone remained generally low. In London, there is a need to promote public awareness and appreciation of estuarine and coastal resources, particularly estuarine ecology. This is essential if members of the public are to be enabled to take an informed part in environmental decision making on issues such as land claim, development and conservation and if estuarine resources are not to be undervalued in benefit assessments involving public valuations. Title: Weather effects on daily water use in New York City. Author: Protopapas, AL; Katchamart, S; Platonova, A Source: Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 5(3): pp. 332-338; July 2000. Abstract: New York City transports drinking water from distant surface reservoirs. Accurate understanding of the city's water demand pattern is needed to identify possible conservation measures and plan future water supply projects. Previous studies of other U.S. cities have suggested that weather conditions affect daily water use. This hypothesis is studied through the daily water use data for New York City from 1982 to 1991. It is found that, during the winter months, weather has little effect on water use, while during summer periods, precipitation causes a decrease in daily water use. Graphs of heat
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functions (daily water demand deviations from its annual average value versus daily average temperature) show that above 78 degree F, water demand increases linearly with average daily temperature. Title: Integrating yield and shortage management under multiple uncertainties. Author: Jenkins, MW; Lund, JR Source: Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 126(5): pp. 288-297; October 2000. Abstract: An economic-engineering modeling approach is presented for integrating urban water supply reliability analysis with shortage management options such as dry year option and spot market water transfers, water reuse, and long- and short-term water conservation. The integrated model uses a probability plotting position formula to link supply-side yield simulation to probabilistic shortage management optimization. The approach can help joint planning of supply and demand management and estimate the economic value of expanding infrastructure and changing institutional constraints. Results from a case study show that jointly managing supply capacity and operating rule decisions with shortage management decisions within a risk analysis framework can create significant economic savings. The importance of hydrologic and institutional uncertainties is explored. Tuning supply system and reservoir operating policies to match the seasonal and cost characteristics of available shortage management measures is shown to be essential to least-cost planning.
Title: Distributed agro-hydrological modeling of an irrigation system in western Turkey. Author: Droogers, P; Bastiaanssen, WGM; Beyazgul, M; Kayam, Y; Kite, GW; Murray-Rust, H Source: Agricultural Water Management, 43(2): pp. 183-202; 1 March 2000. Abstract: A clear understanding of all the components of the water balance is essential to analyze possible measures of water savings in irrigated agriculture. However, most components of the water balance are not easily measurable either in terms of the required time interval or the complexity of the processes. For an irrigated area in the Western part of Turkey, the physically based one-dimensional agro-hydrological model SWAP for water transport and crop growth was applied in a distributed manner to reveal all the terms of the water balance. A combination of point data and distributed areal data was used as input for the model. The emphasis was put on the conversion from available data to required data. Simulations were carried out for the period 1985-1996 and detailed analyses were performed for two successive years, a pre-drought year, 1988, and a dry year, 1989. Irrigation deliveries were reduced substantially in 1989, resulting in a modified water balance. Lateral fluxes to drains were reduced, bottom fluxes were changed from groundwater recharge to capillary rise, evapotranspiration was lower, and, most importantly, relative yield was reduced. All these changes were obtained for specific sites by combining existing soil data with cropping patterns. It was concluded that the use of the SWAP model in a distributed way is a useful tool to analyze all the components of the water balance for a whole irrigation system.
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Title: Water Demand Management and Islamic Water Management Principles: A Case Study. Author: Abderrahman, WA Source: International Journal of Water Resources Development, 16(4): pp. 465-473; December 2000. Abstract: Most of Saudi Arabia is arid and water resources are limited; it has experienced extensive and rapid developments in industrial, agricultural, domestic and construction sectors during the last two decades. Saudi Arabia follows the sacred principles of the Islamic law `Shari'a', whereby water is considered the common entitlement of all people, and the main component of the sustainability of the nation's life and security. To protect the community of interest which constitutes the traditional basis of Muslim customary water law, the government has control over water resources development, management and planning for the benefit of the whole community. The traditional methods for satisfying the limited water demand in the past have been modified to meet the drastic rise in water demand. Large desalination plants on the Gulf and Red Sea coasts have been constructed to produce sweet drinking water, and thousands of deep and shallow wells have been drilled with government support for agricultural purposes. Specialized water offices for water production, distribution and treatment have been established. Legislation and laws have been developed to organize water-management issues. To protect the interests of the community and its natural resources, several measures were introduced to reduce national water demand and to augment the available water resources. Support for wheat cultivation was reduced to about 25% of the previous level to mimimize irrigation water use. Modern irrigation techniques have been practised to reduce water losses and demand. New water pricing policies, leakage detection and control and promotion of public awareness of water conservation have been practised, significantly during the last decade. The Council of Muslim Leading Scholars gave a pioneering example of the wisdom of Islam by issuing a special Fatwa to regulate the reuse of treated effluents for different purposes. This has promoted wastewater recycling by the public. The Islamic water management principles used in Saudi Arabia can be taken as a model to improve water demand management in other countries. Title: Accounting for lost water. Author: Buie, LM Source: Journal of the American Water Works Association, 92(7): pp. 67-71; July 2000. Abstract: Unaccounted-for water losses can be costly for utilities - a price the consumer ultimately pays. Fortunately, there are ways to identify and reduce lost water, to realize efficiencies and cost savings in water production and distribution, and, possibly, to increase revenues. As with many other water providers, DeKalb County (Ga.) realized that a large percentage of water was not accounted for but had not pinpointed the causes or determined how to measure these losses. With mounting pressure from the state environmental organization to reduce the amount of water being lost, DeKalb County decided to study the issue in order to identify the causes as well as reduce the losses. The results of this study offer other water providers techniques and opportunities to conserve water, realize efficiencies in operations, and make more effective use of resources. As more water providers identify the causes of lost water, the general acceptance of water losses and often unsupported conclusions concerning how water is lost should become
29
less acceptable. The observations and conclusions provided in this article can serve to sharpen water suppliers' awareness and identify ways to correct or prevent issues of lost and unaccounted-for water that all water providers are certain to face in some measure. Title: Innovations in Water Management. New Responses to Municipal Demands in the Lower Colorado River Basin, USA. Author: Muys, JC Source: Water International, 25(4): pp. 526-533; December 2000. Abstract: The water allocations made to the lower Colorado River Basin under the 1922 Colorado River Compact, as well as the later contractual allocations made by the Secretary of the Interior under the Boulder Canyon Project Act to the States of Arizona, California, and Nevada, and water agencies in those states, were based on significant overestimates of future water supply. Based on the priority system in each state, the burden of the current shortages has fallen principally on municipal water users. This paper reviews the steps they have taken through innovative conservation measures, water transfers and water banking to deal with the shortage situation. It also briefly discusses the status of nativeAmerican rights in the lower Colorado River Basin in such efforts and the possibility of fixed term leases of water from Upper Basin States or users to Lower Basin municipal users. Title: Water conservation and demand management potential in southern Africa: an untapped river. Author: Rothert, S Source: International Journal of Water, 1(1): pp. 118-144; 2000. Abstract: With a population of 190 million, half of whom do not have access to adequate water services, and a climate prone to droughts and floods, the southern Africa region faces an enormous challenge in how to allocate, use and protect its limited water resources. Like many regions around the world, little effort has been given in the past to utilizing water in an efficient manner, despite the critical role it plays in society. While many countries in southern Africa have initiated efforts aimed at creating enabling policies and legislation, very few urban or agricultural water conservation and demand-side management strategies have been implemented. This paper shows that existing water supplies could meet much of the unmet urban and agricultural water demand if water managers in the region widely implement effective water conservation and demand management measures. Title: Water demand management and conservation including water losses control. Special Contribution. Author: van der Zwan, JT Source: Water Supply, 18(1-2): pp. 175-176; 2000. Abstract: Historically governments and water supply companies were focusing on water supply management predominantly with the emphasis on the supply side. The perceived water needs must be met in time straight and simply. Therefore, new resources were developed and the related new capital-intensive supply structures were constructed. Nowadays there is a tendency to approach water supply more as an active means to meet the demands of
30
different categories of water users. The needs are not only different and variable but also changeable. One talks about water demand management with an emphasis on the demand side. In contrast to conventional approaches water demand management is more aggressive in its use of economics to influence the origin of water demand. Water should be treated as a scarce, and therefore economic, good. It should be carefully managed, priced in accordance with its costs and allocated in accordance with sector priorities. Water demand management depends on raising public awareness, and on adoption of a series of structural and operational Title: Water demand management and conservation including water losses control. Special Contribution. Author: Wyatt, RW Source: Water Supply, 18(1-2): pp. 177-178; 2000. Abstract: The UK is characterised by marked variations in its regional climates, and also in the distribution of the population, so that the significance of demand management and conservation measures as a means of balancing water supply and demand varies considerably across the country. Average annual precipitation can reach localised extremes of up to 5000 mm in the more mountainous areas of the UK. More typically, in the areas of higher population density, annual rainfall is much lower and varies considerably, from over 1000 mm in Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales, North West and South West England down to 500 mm or less in South East England. For comparison, Glasgow's average annual rainfall (approximately 1000 mm) is similar to that of Buenos Aires and New York, while London's (approximately 600 mm) is on a par with Cape Town and San Francisco. Seasonally, and typically, rainfall is almost equally distributed between summer (April-September) and winter (October-March). Title: Water demand management and conservation including water losses control. National Report Australia. Author: White, S Source: Water Supply, 18(1-2): pp. 180-181; 2000. Abstract: Since the 1980s there have been numerous examples of the use of demand management techniques in the Australian urban water industry. Most of these have involved installation of meters, pricing reform, education programmes and measures to reduce unaccounted-for-water, particularly active leakage detection and repair. More recently there has been an emphasis in some areas on the use of integrated resource planning, where investment in improving the water efficiency of customers is evaluated alongside supply options and implemented where feasible. A selection of these programmes is described in this report. The Australian urban water industry is currently undergoing a period of structural change, including requirements by national and state governments to separate water service providers from water resource regulators, the corporatisation of many water service providers and the provision of many services by the private sector. In this environment, the role of demand management and water efficiency in relation to commercial objectives has required clarification, and in some areas this process has commenced. Some programmes have been undertaken on the initiative of individual water service providers, due to cost effectiveness from the supplier's perspective, or as a result of community expectations.
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Title: Water demand management and conservation including water losses control. National Report Malaysia. Author: Azahari, N Source: Water Supply, 18(1-2): pp. 195-196; 2000. Abstract: Water is indispensable for the existence of all living things. The amount of water on earth never increases, although its occurrence varies throughout the earth depending on the climate, topography and geology of a region. Rainfall is the main precipitation that contributes the water resource to most of the catchment areas, and for a particular catchment area rainfall distribution varies yearly. Man, to a certain extent is to be blamed for localised weather change due to continuous logging activities and flattening of hills for development. Tampering with the catchment area effects its hydrology and capacity to store rainfall and hence its ability to adequately feed the rivers which supply the muchneeded water for human consumption and other uses. This not only calls for stringent water resource management but also water demand management. To limit the continuously rising water demand, several measures have been introduced such as compulsory water metering, increasing water tariff, recycling of water used by industries, efficient use of water for appliances and efficient distribution network management, operation and maintenance. Here our focus is on the control of water losses in the distribution system but first a brief examination of non-revenue water (NRW) in Malaysia would be useful. Title: Drought or supply shortage management. Author: Miyazaki, K Source: Water Supply, 18(1-2): pp. 372-376; 2000. Abstract: Fukuoka City in Japan has been devoted to creating a `water conservation-conscious city' since the serious drought it suffered in 1978 through efforts to save every drop of precious water by promoting water resources development and effective use of water. Thanks to such highly effective measures, the city is in the top level of effective usage of water resources in the country. Taking this opportunity, it is our pleasure to present an outline report on our projects we have had for creating a water conservation-type city and their effects and on the projects we are currently engaged in.
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NSTIC- COLLECTION
NSTIC-BOOKS
CALL NUMBER: TD388 M33 1987 AUTHOR: Maddaus, William O. TITLE: Water conservation / William O. Maddaus. PUBLICATION: Denver, CO : American Water Works Association, c1987.
CALL NUMBER: S623 L36 1989 TITLE: Land husbandry : a framework for soil and water conservation / by T.F. Shaxson ... [et al.]. PUBLICATION: Ankeny, Iowa : Soil and Water Conservation Society, c1989.
CALL NUMBER: S623 S572 1993 TITLE: Soil and water conservation engineering / Glenn O. Schwab ... [et al.]. PUBLICATION: New York : Wiley, c1993.
CALL NUMBER: TC401 W3626 1993 TITLE: Water management in the '90s : a time for innovation : proceedings of the 20th anniversary conference / sponsored by the Water Resources Planning and Management Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers ; co-sponsored by the American Consulting Engineers Council ... [et al.] ; hosted by the Tacoma-Olympia Section, ASCE, Seattle, Washington, May 1-5, 1993 ; edited by Katherine Hon. PUBLICATION: New York, N.Y. : American Society of Civil Engineers, c1993.
CALL NUMBER: S599 A1 S62 1993 TITLE: Soil and water quality : an agenda for agriculture / Committee on Long-Range Soil and Water Conservation, Board on Agriculture, National Research Council. PUBLICATION: Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 1993.
CALL NUMBER: TD388 A1 C67 1990 AUTHOR: CONSERV 90 (1990 : Phoenix, Ariz.) TITLE: Proceedings of CONSERV 90 : the national conference and exposition offering water supply solutions for the 1990s : August 12-16, 1990, Phoenix Civic Plaza, Phoenix, Arizona. PUBLICATION: [Dublin, Ohio] : National Water Well Association, [1990]
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CALL NUMBER: TD223 F58 1982 AUTHOR: Flack, J. Ernest (John Ernest), 1929TITLE: Urban water conservation : increasing efficiency-in-use residential water demand : a report / prepared for the Engineering Foundation and endorsed by the Water Resources Planning and Management Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers by J. Ernest Flack. PUBLICATION: New York, N.Y. : American Society of Civil Engineers, c1982.
CALL NUMBER: KIFE 00063 AUTHOR: Wiswanathan, M. N. TITLE: Some perspectives of water conservation in the State of Kuwait / M. N. Wiswanathan. CALL NUMBER: GB1159 O5 Q5 1986 AUTHOR: Quinn, Owen. TITLE: Regional hydrogeological evaluation of the Najd / by Owen Quinn. PUBLICATION: Oman : Council for Conservation of Environment and Water Resources, 1986. CALL NUMBER: TD388 W38 1994 TITLE: Water use and reuse / edited by David Newton and George Solt. PUBLICATION: Ruby, Warwickshire, UK : Institution of Chemical Engineers, c1994. CALL NUMBER: JOURNAL TITLE: Journal of soil and water conservation. CALL NUMBER: TD345 P67 1997 AUTHOR: Postel, Sandra. TITLE: Last oasis : facing water scarcity / Sandra Postel ; with a new introduction. CALL NUMBER: TD345 S55 1998 AUTHOR: Simon, Paul, 1928-. TITLE: Tapped out : the coming world crisis in water and what we can do about it / Paul Simon.
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KISR-REPORTS
CALL NUMBER: RFP 105 KISR 1605 AUTHOR: Saeedy, H. S. TITLE: Domestic water supply plumbing and water conservation code of practice for Kuwait / H. S. Saeedy, F. A. Abdal, J. Carew, Building Department, Engineering Division. PUBLICATION: Kuwait : KISR, 1985.
CALL NUMBER: AG 5 KISR/ PPI/028/ FRA-RF- R-7902 AUTHOR: El-Mansy, H. TITLE: Conservation, revegetation and management of the very arid zones of Kuwait / H. El-Mansy, F. Taha, Agro-Production Department, Food Resources Division. PUBLICATION: Kuwait : KISR, 1979.
CALL NUMBER: AG 67 KISR 4615 AUTHOR: Food resources Division. Aridland Agriculture Department. TITLE: Master plan for development of Kuwait's agricultural sector (1995-2015), Appendix III, Task report, Volume 4, Resources : Land/soil, water, environment and range / Aridland Agricultural Department, Food Resources Division. PUBLICATION: Kuwait : KISR, 1995.
CALL NUMBER: WT 003G KISR 6454 AUTHOR: Al-Odwani, A. TITLE: Car-wash water reclamation / A. Al-Odwani, M. Ahmed, A. Al-Hijji. PUBLICATION: Kuwait : KISR, 2002.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Prepared by: Fatima Abdul-Hamid

Bibliography: Water Conservation KISR/NSTIC-2004

Bibliography: Water Conservation KISR/NSTIC-2004