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Tectonic plates Definition: They are the crusts that float on the mantle Plate tectonics Definition: The process by which the crustal plates are being moved by
convection currents

How does plate moves? :

The force that brings about the motion of the crustal plates comes from the tremendous heat found in the Earths interior This heat causes the rocks in the mantle to melt and become molten rocks called magma When magma is heated, it expands rises and generates convection currents, which push the plates away from each other When it cools, the magma sinks and brings the plates towards each other This constant rising and sinking of the magma results in the movement of the plates over the Earths surface

Divergent plate movement

Constructive plate boundaries Tensional force

Oceanic-oceanic crusts
Ridges (Mid-Atlantic Ridge) Divergent plate movement causes fractures and cracks to develop at the plate boundary Magma from the mantle begins to flow out from the cracks When this magma solidifies, new crust is formed at the plate boundary The constant flow magma along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge causes new crusts to form continuously and the old crust to be pushed further and further away from the plate boundary Lava fountains in the middle of ridges

Continental-continental crusts
Rift valleys (East African Rift Valley) Magma rises and squeezes through the widening cracks, sometimes to erupt and form volcanoes

The rising magma puts more pressure on the crust to produce additional fractures and, ultimately, the rift zone

Convergent plate movement

Destructive plate boundaries Compressional force

Oceanic-continental crusts
Processes and Landforms Created Subduction
When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the thin and dense oceanic plate will bend underneath the thicker but less dense continental plate Gradually, the oceanic plate is pushed down into the depth of the molten upper mantle where it is melted into molten rock.

Fold Mountains (Andes)

The less dense continental plate moves over the denser oceanic plate The crusts at the plate boundary gradually folds, rises and crumples to form fold mountains

Volcanoes
The crust eventually melts as it moves deeper into the hot mantle Magma is formed, which due to its lower density, rises to the surface, leading to volcanic eruptions It is therefore quite common to find active volcanoes where convergent plate movement takes place Definition: A mountain or a hill formed of materials from the Earths interior that have been ejected under pressure from a vent

Trench Definition: The oceanic plate is sub ducted forming a depression, which is a trench. (PeruChile)

Earthquakes: Created when there is a sudden jerk in the movement of plates.

Oceanic-oceanic crusts
Oceanic trenches (Marianas Trench)
Definition: The convergence of two oceanic plates usually results in one being subducted under the other, leaving a depression, known as a trench

Volcanic island arcs (Hawaiian Islands)

Volcanoes also result from the subduction process The continuous eruption of lava and volcanic debris along the subduction zone accumulates on the ocean floor Over millions of years, the resultant undersea volcanoes rise to form volcanic island arcs

Earthquakes
Moderate to strong earthquakes are also frequent due to the stress created by the interaction of the two plates

Continental-continental crusts
Fold mountains (Himalayas)
Subduction does not take place, as continental rocks are relatively light The crust may be folded at the collision zone to form spectacular overland mountain ranges Found along convergent plate boundaries where two plates collide

Transform plate movement

Definition: Lateral movement of the plates as they slide past each other Conservative plate boundaries Frictional force Fault lines (St Andreas Fault, San Francisco) Boundaries where such plate movements take place are known as transform fault margins

Earthquakes

At the transform plate margins, huge landmasses moving in opposite directions result in tremendous friction and give rise to earthquakes.

Folding
When two plates collide, the compressional force puts the rock layers that form the Earths crust under great pressure Eventually, the bend and fold Folding found along convergent plate boundaries where two plates collide Usually found in sedimentary rocks because these rocks are softer and more flexible than other types of rocks Have the ability to deform under pressure

Faulting
When plates move, parts of the Earths crust may be subjected to compressional force or tensional force, which pulls the Earths crust apart These forces can cause the crust to fracture or tear apart The type of rock is a key factor that determines whether the rock will respond to pressure by folding or faulting While folding tends to be common in sedimentary rocks because of their flexibility, faulting is common in rocks that are brittle such as igneous and metamorphic rocks These rocks tend to fracture and break under pressure Unlike folding which tends to release stress gradually, faulting tends to store up stress and then release it suddenly

Vulcanicity
Another major tectonic process The upward movement of magma to the Earths surface forms volcanoes overtime Volcanoes are usually found along or near the plate boundaries Generally, a volcano is built up by the emission of lava and ashes from a vent in the Earths crust

Classification of volcanoes
By frequency of eruption
Active volcano
Constant emission of lava, ash, dust and smoke Strong sulfur smell

Dormant volcano
Has not erupted for hundreds of years May erupt any time in the future

Extinct volcano
Has no record of eruption in recorded history No sign of possible eruption

By shape
Shield volcano (Mauna Loa, Hawaii)
Cone-shaped with gentle slopes Consists of many layers of lava due to repeated flows Hot and fluid basic lava flows from a central vent Spreads over a wide area Cools and solidifies slowly Frequent eruptions but usually quiet and gentle with large quantities of fluid basic lava

Stratovolcano (Mt. Mayon, Philippines)

Large and con-shaped, with steep slopes Alternate eruptions of viscous acidic lava, ash and cinder Viscous acidic lava flows from a central vent Cools and solidifies quickly Lava may even cool and solidify as it flows up the vent When lava solidifies and blocks the vent, gases, and pressure, build up inside the volcano A massive and violent explosion may occur The entire top of a volcano may be blown off Lava may escape through the sides of the cone( Secondary Vent and Secondary cone)

Formation of volcanoes
Composite volcano
Viscous(Thick and not fluid) lava solidifying in the central pipe Gas pressure builds up as magma cannot escape When pressure cannot be suppressed, eruption occurs Ash and cinders thrown into the air falls back near vent Lava flows over the ash and cinders Repeated eruptions form alternating layers of ash and cinders and lava.

Shield volcano
Basic lava is less viscous Hence spreads over a large area before solidifying Acid lava dome volcano Acid lava is more viscous Hence cools quickly before it can travel far ( Larger Surface Area)

Caldera
An enlarged crater Formation Collapse of volcano into magma chamber Eruption of volcano Crater lakes Definition: Crater filled with water Rainwater filling up crater and empty magma chamber over.

Usefulness of volcanoes
Fertile volcanic soils Valuable minerals and precious stones are found in volcanic rocks Interesting volcanic landforms can lead to the development of the tourism industry, which is an important source of revenue Geothermal energy is an important source of clean energy for generating electricity