14.

MACHINING OPERATIONS

14.1 Non-Traditional Machining Methods In traditional methods of machining, material is removed from the work piece by means of a tool of superior hardness. However, this concept of a hard tool cutting a softer work piece cannot be applied to certain machining processes developed in the last few decades. Known scientific principles have been intensively developed and applied to material removal processes of unconventional nature in manufacturing industry. Chemical, electro-chemical and thermo-electric sources of energy are tapped and used in machining processes which, in certain circumstances, provide either technological or economic advantages over traditional methods. In particular, it is feasible (i) (ii) To machine the "exotic" materials developed for high performance applications in the aerospace industry, e.g. very high-tensile alloy steels and heat resisting alloys; and To produce design features, which are costly and difficult or even impossible to make by traditional methods.

One very important feature of many of these newer processes is that the hardness of the work piece material is of no significance from the machining point of view for it does not increase wear of the "tool", where one is needed, nor does it reduce the rate of metal removal. Indeed, hardened components are sometimes found to "machine" more readily than materials in a relatively soft condition. A number of industries have taken advantage of this characteristic. It is especially valuable in tool making, for the manufacture of dies and moulds, where greatly improved accuracy is achieved by finish machining after hardening, and expensive manually (hand-working) is reduced or eliminated. Machining processes are categorized in the table before according to the fundamental energy source, with the exception of machining based on chemical sources.

TABLE: Categories of Machining Fundamental Energy Mechanical Source Principles of material Shear Erosion removal techniques Medium Abrasive employed for Cutting particles removal of Tool at high material velocity ConvenUltrasonic Process tional Machining Machining

Thermo- Electric Vaporization

Electro-Chemical

Ion displacement (a) Electronshigh voltage discharge Electrodischarge Machining (b) Radiation amplified light Laser High density current-electrolyte Electro-chemical Machining

14.2 Production Costs Production engineering is an economic function, since manufacture must be carried out at the lowest cost consistent with the quality and functional needs of the product. The cost of an article has three main elements: (i) material cost, (ii) labour cost, (iii) overhead costs, and, Additionally, if special tooling is required for production purposes, a proportion of this cost is recovered in the cost of each article. The overheads of a factory may be defined as "all the costs of running the factory, less the cost of direct labour and direct materials". The cost of direct materials is the cost of the raw materials from which parts in the finished product are made, plus the cost of purchased parts, e.g. ball bearings; direct labour costs are the wages paid to employees who work on the product or one of its components to change the raw material into the finished article. Overheads include items such as rent, lighting, power, general supplies, wages of maintenance staff, typists, draughts men, salaries of departmental heads, managers, directors, etc. These are spread over the products of a firm by a method chosen because it gives the fairest spread of costs. A number of different methods are available for this purpose, but in general the proportion of overheads borne by a product may be considered as being proportional to the labour cost of manufacture. The labour cost for a machining operation depends upon the wage rate of the worker and the time spent on the operation; overheads are then added, perhaps on a percentage basis, e.g. If an operation takes 12 minutes and is performed by an operator earning KES 200/= per hour, then Labour cost = 12/60 x 200 = KES 40/= If the overhead rate is assumed to be 400 %, then Overhead cost = 40 x 400/100 = KES 160/=, hence Total cost = Labour cost + Overhead cost = 40 + 160 = KES 200/= The above example shows that any savings made in the cost of direct labour bring a reduction in the overheads added to the cost of the job, hence reducing the final cost of the product and its selling price, or alternatively, increasing the profit margin. The percentage quoted above is not unrealistic for the overheads of some machine shops, but it will vary considerably according to the industry and its product. For example, a simple product-say a metal belt buckle-can be made by a firm with a simple organization and low overheads because there will be low costs of design and development, little advertising and a small sales department, etc. In contrast, an assembly used for an important function on an aircraft will require much time spent in research and design, careful checking and stressing of the detail designs to ensure against failure in service, metallurgical examination of materials used, rigid control over manufacture and inspection, and perhaps the maintenance of a world-wide servicing organization for the benefit of the users of the aircraft. In circumstances such as these it is understandable that the overheads will be much higher than for a firm making a simpler, less sophisticated product. 14.3 Times for Machining Processes The time for performing a machining operation comprises: (i) manipulating time (including loading time); (ii) cutting time, i.e. time the tool is actually in contact with the component.

Of these two elements, cutting time is more readily determined; it requires a knowledge of the machining method, tool and work piece materials, and speeds and feeds of the machine used. This information can be factually established and the data used to calculate a cutting time. Time spent in setting and manipulating the machine depends on many indeterminate factors such as the degree of skill, dexterity and speed of the operator. As a result, it cannot be calculated. The nearest approach to a rational basis for forecasting handling times is by the use of charts giving specimen times (often called synthetic times) for elemental tasks performed by the operator. Floor-to-Floor Time (FFT): This is the time which elapses between picking-up a component to load for a machining operation and depositing it after unloading. A floor-to-floor time, therefore, includes time for loading, manipulation, metal cutting and unloading the component. Allowances for tool changing, fatigue and for personal delays are added to the FFT to give the basic production time for the operation. Calculation of Cutting Time The determination of a cutting time depends on the correct selection of values for the two variables, cutting speed and feed rate, each of which depends on other factors such as depth of cut, rigidity of setup, power available, etc. Once the variables have been established, the calculation is straightforward. Tool and machine-tool manufacturers publish tables of recommended speeds and feeds to be used with their equipment; and in practice tables such as these should be consulted when estimating a cutting time. Calculations for the cutting times of a wide range of basic machining processes can be covered by grouping according to the cutting action as follows: (a) continuous (rotary), e.g. turning, drilling; (b) intermittent (rotary), e.g. milling, hobbing; (c) Intermittent (reciprocating), e.g. planning, slotting. The calculation of cutting time for many operations covered by the above groups can be carried out by identical procedures, e.g. the calculation for such diverse operations as turning, reaming and tapping uses the same principle in each case. 14.4 Economic Comparison of Alternative Processes A valuable use of an estimate is in making a comparison between the manufacturing costs of two or more rival production methods and selecting the most profitable; or alternatively, determining at what quantity one method ceases and another begins to be the cheapest process. This is termed the "breakeven point". A typical example of a break-even point is in deciding at what quantity to change from machining a component (say) on a centre lathe to machining it on a capstan lathe. The advantages of a centre lathe are its universality and adaptability in turning a wide variety of components to a good degree of accuracy, but inevitably there are some turned components which can be produced equally well on capstan or turret lathes. The advantages of these latter machines can be summarized as follows: (a) After the initial set-up the time spent in tool changing is reduced (there are 11 tool positions available, and combined tooling can be mounted on the turret faces). For small quantity work a simple basic set-up should be used. (b) Trips for auto-feed and fixed stops on cross-slide and longitudinal saddle movements ensure consistent work, reduce gauging and eliminate the use of a rule. (c) Accurate diameters are achieved by tool-setting, e.g. roller box or-if the cross slide is being used-by means of large dials, indicator tabs, or a dial gauge.

14.5 Design for Machining Machining is used to produce shapes and a degree of accuracy that cannot be directly obtained by primary manipulation methods such as forging, casting and powder metallurgy. It is also used to produce parts by machining from billets or from bar stock. The problems identified in conventional machining are those associated with mechanical metal removal (for example, turning, milling, drilling and grinding). Some of these problems are overcome by the newer, more costly and less commonly used thermal and chemical methods of metal removal. There are three problem areas that affect the shape of the product: (a) The limitations of shape imposed by the need to relate the product to the relative work piece and cutting tool movements provided by the machine, the accuracy that can be obtained and the cost of the operation. (b) The limitations of shape imposed by the need to locate seat and clamp the work piece during machining. (c) The limitations of shape imposed by the need to provide the cutting tool with space for approach and over-run. In addition to allowing for these limitations, the design must be such that the cost of machining is minimized. This can be achieved by keeping the shape as simple as possible and by keeping down the amount of metal that must be removed and the number of machine settings that are required. 14.6 Design to cut costs Machining costs can be minimized by reducing the setting costs. For example the time taken to drill a blind hole is almost the same time taken to drill through. Unless a blind hole is essential it would be better to alter the design to drill through and eliminate the equipment and time to set the machine to give the required depth of the blind hole. A change of setting during an operation increases the time taken and may also lead to errors. The need to re-position the work piece or to split an operation can be eliminated by making features lie in the same plane, or at least in parallel planes. Similarly, holes produced by a drilling machine should be of the same diameter to avoid tool changes, have parallel axes to avoid re-positioning the work piece, and be to the same depth to avoid the need to alter the depth control device. Costs can also be reduced by minimizing the surface area to be machined and the amount of metal to be removed from them. Minimizing the area of location surfaces more nearly satisfies the principles of location because large areas are more prone to geometric errors during machining or when the part is in service. It is often necessary to machine the work piece adjacent to a drilled hole to provide a seating surface for a bolt head or other component. This can either be done by localizing the machining or by localizing the metal that surrounds the hole. The amount of metal to be removed depends upon the accuracy of the primary manufacturing process. For example casting is more accurate than forging, and die-casting is more accurate than sand-casting (to the point of eliminating the need for machining to obtain the desired degree of accuracy). The decision regarding the choice of manufacturing method must be made with due regard to other factors. For example, forging produces a stronger part than does casting, sand-casting can be used to manipulate metals of higher melting point than can die-casting, and die-casting is only economically justified when the rate of production is high and the total quantity required is very large.

15.

PRODUCT QUALITY AND QUALITY CONTROL

Broadly defined, quality refers to the ability of a product or service to consistently meet or exceed customers needs and expectations i.e. quality is fitness for use. Three types of quality can be considered - quality of design, quality of conformance, and quality of performance. a) Quality of design has to do with intentional differences between goods and services with the same basic purpose. A given level of design quality may satisfy some consumers and may not satisfy others. Designing quality into a product or service is extremely important. A good product design will prevent problems in manufacturing and will result in satisfied customers. The product design will specify a set of tolerances (specifications) that must be met if the product is to operate/perform acceptably. [This is the Design Stage]. b) Quality of conformance has to do with the ability of a process (for instance, a manufacturing process) to meet the specifications set forth by the design. The types and quality of raw materials, the design and efficiency of the production process, the amount of training given to workers, the care and attention paid by workers and the extent to which quality control practices are employed will all affect the ability to meet the design specifications. [This is the Process Stage]. c) Quality of performance has to do with how well the product or service actually performs in the marketplace. The quality of performance in the marketplace will determine the ultimate market share of the product or service. Quality of performance studies can reveal two kinds of quality problems. A quality problem will exist when the product design (the set of quality characteristics and specifications set forth in the design) does not exceed the needs of the consumer. However, even if the product design is well conceived, a quality problem will exist if the production process produces quality characteristics that exhibit too much variation. [This is the Operation/Performance Stage]. 15.1 Dimensions of Quality The term quality is used in a variety of ways. Sometimes it refers to the grade of a product; at other times, it refers to materials, workmanship, or special features, such as "waterproof or subtle aroma." And sometimes it is related to price, as in "cheap" or "expensive." The implication in these various connotations of quality is that customers value certain aspects of a product or service, and therefore associate those aspects with the quality that they perceive a product or service has. In fact, it may be obvious that from a customer perspective, quality does not pertain to a single aspect of a product or service, but to a number of different dimensions or characteristics of the product or service. Since the consumers needs and expectations define quality, consumers consider a number of different product quality dimensions or characteristics in assessing their needs. However, these dimensions of quality may vary somewhat from product to product, or between a product and service and include: 1. Performance: The fundamental product operating characteristics. For a VCR, we would look at picture clarity, audio quality, ease of programming, and so forth. 2. Special Features: "Add-ons" that enhance the basic functions of the product. For example the remote control, on-screen programming, digital special effects, picture-in-picture, and super-VHS. 3. Reliability: A measure of the likelihood that the product will fail in a given timeframe.

4. Conformance: The extent to which the product meets design specifications. In order to operate properly, the electronic components and circuits in the VCR must meet various design requirements. If they conform to the requirements, the VCR will operate as designed. 5. Durability: How long the product lasts or how long the product can be repaired before replacement is preferred to further repair. 6. Serviceability: How easy it is to service/repair the product, how long it takes, and how well the service is performed. 7. Aesthetics: The product's appearance, flavour, odour, sound, or feel to the touch. 8. After Sale Service: The handling of complaints or checking on customer satisfaction. 9. Perceived quality and Other perceptions: The reputation and goodwill of the firm producing the product, effectiveness of the firm's advertising, and other things that affect the consumer's perception of product quality. When referring to a product, a customer sometimes judges the first five dimensions by its fitness for use. The marketing research arm of a company must determine what the customer is looking for in terms of each of these dimensions. Consumer research is used to develop a product or service concept - a combination of design characteristics that will hopefully exceed the expectations of a large number of consumers. This concept will be translated into a design. The design will include specifications which, if met, will satisfy consumer wants and needs. A production process is then developed that will be capable of meeting the design specifications. In order to do this, variables that can be used to control the process must be identified, and the relationships between input variables and final quality characteristics must be understood. The manufacturer will wish to express quality characteristics as measurable variables that can be tracked and used to monitor and improve the performance of the process. Service call analysis will often lead to product or service redesigns in order to improve the product or service concept. Again, it is extremely important that the initial design be a good one so that excessive redesigns and customer dissatisfaction may be avoided. Finally, it should be realized that a company may wish to develop a competitive strategy by concentrating on selected dimensions of quality. For example, in the consumer electronics market, the Japanese first developed a marketing and competitive strategy based on selling electronic gear that was more reliable, more durable, and better conformed to design specifications than competing products produced in the United States and elsewhere. Then, after capturing the market based on this strategy, the Japanese maintained their lead in the marketplace by improving performance, offering new features, improving serviceability, and so forth. 15.2 Determinants of Quality The degree to which a product or a service successfully satisfies its intended purpose has four primary determinants. They are: 1. Design 2. How well it conforms to the design 3. Ease of use 4. Service after delivery 1. Design: The design phase is the starting point for the level of quality eventually achieved. Design involves decisions about the specific characteristics of a product or service such as size, shape, and

location. Quality of design refers to the intention of designers to include or exclude certain features in a product or service. For example, many different models of automobiles are on the market today. They differ in terms of size, appearance, roominess, fuel economy, comfort, and materials used. These differences reflect choices made by designers that determine the quality of design. Design decisions must take into account customer wants, production or service capabilities, safety and liability (both during production and after delivery), costs, and other similar considerations. Customer wants may be determined from information provided by marketing, perhaps through the use of consumer surveys or other market research. Marketing may organize focus groups of consumers to express their views on a product or service (what they like and don't like, and what they would like to have). Designers must work closely with representatives of operations to ascertain that designs are manufacturable; that is, that production or service has the equipment, capacity, and skills necessary to produce or provide a particular design. A poor design can result in difficulties in production or service. For example, materials might be difficult to obtain, specifications difficult to meet, or procedures difficult to follow. Moreover, if a design is inadequate or inappropriate for the circumstances, the best workmanship in the world may not be enough to achieve the desired quality. Also, we cannot expect a worker to achieve good results if the given tools or procedures are inadequate. Similarly, a superior design usually cannot offset poor workmanship. 2. Quality of conformance refers to the degree to which goods and services conform to (i.e., achieve) the intent of the designers. This is affected by factors such as the capability of equipment used; the skills, training, and motivation of workers; the extent to which the design lends itself to production; the monitoring process to assess conformance; and the taking of corrective action (e.g., through problem solving) when necessary. 3. Ease of use: The determination of quality does not stop once the product or service has been sold or delivered. Ease of use and user instructions are important. They increase the chances but do not guarantee that a product will be used for its intended purposes and in such a way that it will continue to function properly and safely. Much consumer education takes the form of printed instructions and labelling. Thus, manufacturers must ensure that directions for unpacking, assembling, using, maintaining, and adjusting the product - and what to do if something goes wrong - are clearly visible and easily understood. 4. Service after delivery: For a variety of reasons, products do not always perform as expected, and services do not always yield the desired results. Whatever the reason, it is important from a quality standpoint to remedy the situation - through recall and repair of the product, adjustment, replacement or buyback, or re-evaluation of a service - and do whatever is necessary to bring the product or service up to standard. 15.3 The Consequences of Poor Quality Some of the major ways that quality affects an organization are: i) Loss of business, ii) Liability, iii) Productivity, iv) Costs i. Loss of business: Poor designs or defective products or services can result in loss of business. Failure to devote adequate attention to quality can damage a profit-oriented organization's image and

lead to a decreased share of the market, or it can lead to increased criticism and/or controls for a government agency or non-profit organization. ii. Liability: Organizations must pay special attention to their potential liability due to damages or injuries resulting from either faulty design or poor workmanship. This applies to both products and services. Thus, a poorly designed steering arm on a car might cause the driver to lose control of the car, but so could improper assembly of the steering arm. iii. Productivity: Productivity and quality are often closely related. Poor quality can adversely affect productivity during the manufacturing process if parts are defective and have to be reworked or if an assembler has to try a number of parts before finding one that fits properly. Similarly, poor quality in tools and equipment can lead to injuries and defective output, which must be reworked or scrapped, thereby reducing the amount of usable output for a given amount of input. Conversely, improving and maintaining good quality can have a positive effect on productivity. iv. Costs: Poor quality increases certain costs incurred by the organization. These include scrap and rework costs, warranty costs, replacement and repair costs after purchase, and any other costs expended for transportation, inspection in the field, and payments to customers or discounts used to offset the inferior quality. In some instances, substantial costs, such as liability claims and legal expenses, can be incurred. Other costs can also be substantial: Rework costs involve the salaries of workers and the additional resources needed to perform the rework (e.g., equipment, energy, and raw materials). Beyond those costs are items such as inspection of reworked parts, disruption of schedules, the added costs of parts and materials in inventory waiting for reworked parts, and the paperwork needed to keep track of the items until they can be reintegrated into the process. Aside from these out-of-pocket costs is opportunity costs related to sales lost to competitors because dissatisfied customers switch their business. 15.4 The Costs of Product Quality Any serious attempt to deal with quality issues must take into account the costs associated with quality. Those costs can be classified into three categories: Prevention costs, Appraisal costs, and Failure costs (internal or external failures). a) Prevention costs relate to attempts to prevent defects from occurring. They include costs such as planning and administration systems, working with vendors, training, quality control procedures, and extra attention in both the design and production phases to decrease the probability of defective workmanship. b) Appraisal costs relate to inspection, testing, and other activities intended to uncover defective products or services, or to assure that there are no defectives. They include the cost of inspectors, testing, test equipment, labs, quality audits, and field testing. c) Failure costs are incurred by defective parts or products, or faulty services. These can be classified into two: Internal failures are those discovered during the production process; they occur for a variety of reasons, including defective material from vendors, incorrect machine settings, faulty equipment, incorrect methods, incorrect processing, carelessness, and faulty or improper

material handling procedures. The costs of internal failures include lost production time, scrap, and rework, investigation costs, possible equipment damage, and possible employee injury. External failures are those discovered after delivery to the customer; these are defectives or poor service that go undetected by the producer. Resulting costs include warranty work, handling of complaints, replacements, liability/litigation, and loss of customer goodwill.

There are three basic assumptions that justify an analysis of the costs of quality; these are: Failures are caused. Prevention is cheaper. Performance can be measured. Spend more money on prevention and you should be able to reduce appraisal and failure costs. The rule of thumb says that for every shilling you spend in prevention, you can save Ksh.10 in failure and appraisal Costs. Often, increases in productivity occur as a by-product of efforts to reduce the cost of quality. 15.5 Quality at the Source Quality at the source means that each worker is a quality inspector for his or her own work. This view changes the often adversarial practice of having a QC inspector, typically from the QC department, making decisions about good or bad quality. This philosophy, as currently practiced, extends beyond the worker to include the work group, all departments, and to the suppliers of parts and services to the organization. To make quality at the source effective requires a host of philosophical changes and actions on the part of all members of the organization. As usual, it starts with top management's commitment to empower workers to make quality decisions. This commitment must be backed up by training in the tools to both prevent defects and to fix them when they occur. It also requires a change in role of the quality control department from that of being a police officer to that of being a provider of technical assistance in designing the methods and tools to prevent defects. Inspections within the process itself can be used not only to identify defects but also to correct them before the product goes to the next stage of production. 15.6 Product Quality and Specification Quality in its broadest sense means degree of excellence. We have all compared a good quality product with an inferior one. The former looks good, is adequately strong, functions efficiently and reliably, and is well made. Is the quality a result of the design, or a result of the manufacture? Well, of course, there is some of each present, and we can say that there are two factors which have an effect upon quality: 1. Design - quality can be specified by a designer on his drawing. 2. Measurement - quality can be measured and controlled on the shop floor. The other thing about our good quality product is that it costs more than the inferior model, but we think this state of affairs is satisfactory because we get reliability and a long product life for our money. Quality is connected with cost, and the two must be balanced. When we refer to quality we shall be referring to those characteristics of a product specified at the design stage, such as degree of finish, material and shape, types of fit, and degree of accuracy of dimension; remembering that the whole is also a question of economics. The modern conception of the creation and control of quality, by definition, means the development and realization of specifications necessary to produce economically, and in adequate degree, the appearance, efficiency, inter-changeability and life which will ensure the product's present and future market. This definition emphasizes the creation of quality by design, and by measurement. It also

draws our attention to the importance of a specification, if we wish to economically manufacture a product, having the quality level we desire, to suit the market. Specification: A specification is a detailed description, and in order for the description to be specific it must be precise. A specification can be drawn up after the design drawings have been completed, and will be necessary before manufacture can take place. Basically, the designer's first considerations are that the product should be functional and very often that it should also have aesthetic appeal. On the other hand, the production engineer's first consideration is that the method of manufacture shall be efficient and economically sound; he is concerned with men, machines, material and money. There is sometimes a conflict between the designer's aims and the production engineer's aims. A specification should enable a part shown upon an engineering design drawing to be produced on the shop floor with all the required features accurately reproduced. The designers drawing should contain enough information to enable the part to be produced in quantity to the precise quality level required. Therefore, the production engineer must produce a working drawing and specification which is without ambiguity in order to achieve the desired result. It is important that everyone concerned in the manufacturing organization uses the same standards in order that the language of the specification is understood by all. The factors affecting quality that need to be more precisely specified are: a) Material - It should specify the properties the material must possess. b) Surface finish - The degree of surface roughness should be specified; this specification of surface finish will lead the production engineer to the most appropriate process which can be utilized. c) Dimensions - Precise dimensional limits should be specified, bearing in mind that the imposition of unnecessarily tight limits increases the cost of the product. d) Geometric relationships - If the concentricity of diameters relative to each other is important, then this must be specified, as must any other geometric relationship of the component features. This could, and often does, affect the method of manufacture. The permitted amount of tolerance for the geometrical relationships must also be specified in the same way as dimensional tolerances are specified. 15.7 Quality Control (QC) in Production The typical manufacturing QC department has a variety of functions to perform. These include testing designs for their reliability in the lab and the field; gathering performance data on products in the field and resolving quality problems in the field; planning and budgeting the QC program in the plant; and, finally, designing and overseeing quality control systems and inspection procedures, and actually carrying out inspection activities requiring special technical knowledge to perform. The tools of the QC department fall under the heading of Statistical Quality Control (SQC). 15.7.1 Quality Assurance The purpose of quality control is to assure that processes are performing in an acceptable manner. This is accomplished by monitoring process output using statistical techniques. If the results are acceptable, no further action is required; unacceptable results call for corrective action. The best companies emphasize designing quality into the process, thereby greatly reducing the need for inspection or control efforts. Quality assurance that relies primarily on inspection after production is referred to as acceptance sampling. Quality assurance efforts that occur during production are referred to as statistical process control. a) Inspection

Monitoring in the production process can occur at three points: before production, during production, and after production. The logic of checking conformance before production is to make sure that inputs are acceptable. The logic of checking conformance during production is to make sure that the conversion of inputs into outputs is proceeding in an acceptable manner. The logic of checking conformance of output is to make a final verification of conformance before passing goods on to customers. Monitoring before and after production involves acceptance sampling procedures; monitoring during the production process is referred to as process control. To determine whether a process is functioning as intended or to verify that a shipment of raw materials or final products does not contain more than a specified percentage of defectives, it is necessary to physically examine at least some of the items in question. The purpose of inspection is to provide information on the degree to which items conform to a standard. The basic issues are: How much to inspect and how often. At what points in the process inspection should occur. Whether to inspect in a centralized or on-site location. Whether to inspect attributes or variables. Because inspection costs are often significant, the questions of whether one needs to inspect every item or whether a small sample of items will suffice naturally arise. Moreover, although inspections could be made at numerous points in the production process, it is not generally cost-effective to make inspections at every point. Hence, the question comes up of which points one should make inspections. Once these points have been identified, a decision must be made whether to remove the items from the production line and take them to a lab, where specialized equipment might be available to run certain tests, or to test them where they are being made.

Inputs

Transformation

Outputs

Acceptance Sampling

Process Control

Acceptance Sampling

Fig: Acceptance Sampling and Process Control b) How Much to Inspect and How Often The amount of inspection can range from no inspection whatsoever to inspecting each item numerous times. Low-cost, high-volume items such as paper clips, roofing nails, and wooden pencils often require little inspection because (1) the cost associated with passing defectives is quite low and (2) the processes that produce these items are usually highly reliable, so that defectives are rare. Conversely, high-cost, low-volume items that have large costs associated with passing defectives often require more intensive inspections. Thus critical components of a manned-flight space vehicle are closely scrutinized because the risk to human safety and the high cost of mission failure. In high-volume systems, automated inspection is one option that may be employed. The majority of quality control applications lies somewhere between the two extremes. Most require some inspection, but it is neither possible nor economically feasible to critically examine every part or activity for control purposes. The cost of inspection, resulting interruptions of a process or delays caused by inspection, and the manner of testing typically outweigh the benefits of 100 percent inspection. However, the cost of letting undetected defectives slip through is sufficiently high that inspection cannot be completely ignored. The amount of inspection needed is governed by the costs of

inspection and the expected costs of passing defective items; if inspection activities increase, inspection costs increase, but the costs of undetected defectives decrease. The goal of course is to minimize the sum of these two costs. In other words, it may not pay to attempt to catch every defective, particularly if the cost of inspection exceeds the penalties associated with letting some defectives get through. As a rule, operations with a high proportion of human involvement necessitate more inspection effort than mechanical operations, which tend to be more reliable. The frequency of inspection depends largely on the rate at which a process may go out of control or the number of lots being inspected. A stable process will require only infrequent checks whereas an unstable one or one that has recently given trouble will require more frequent checks. Likewise, many small lots will require more samples than a few large lots because it is important to obtain sample data from each lot. c) Where to Inspect in the Process Many operations have numerous possible inspection points. Because each inspection adds to the cost of the product or service, it is important to restrict inspection efforts to the point where they can do the most good. In manufacturing, some of the typical inspection points are: 1. Raw materials and purchased parts. There is little sense in paying for goods that do not meet quality standards and in expending time and effort on material that is bad to begin with. 2. Finished products. Customer satisfaction and the firm's image are at stake here, and repairing or replacing products in the field is usually much more costly than when it is done at the factory. Likewise, the seller is usually responsible for shipping costs on returns, and payments may be held up pending delivery of satisfactory goods. 3. Before a costly operation. The point is to not waste costly labor or machine time on items that are already defective. 4. Before an irreversible process. In many cases, items can be reworked up to a certain point; beyond that point they cannot. For example, pottery can be reworked prior to firing. After that, defectives must be discarded or sold as seconds at a lower price. 5. Before a covering process. Painting, plating, and assemblies often mask defects. In the service sector, inspection points are incoming purchased materials and supplies, personnel, service interfaces (e.g., service counter), and outgoing completed work (i.e. repaired appliances, automobiles). d) Centralized versus On-Site Inspection Some situations require that inspections be performed on site. At other times, specialized tests can best be performed in a lab (e.g., medical tests, analyzing food samples, testing metals for hardness, running viscosity tests on lubricants). The central issue in the decision concerning on-site or lab inspections is whether the advantages of specialized lab tests are worth the time and interruption needed to obtain results. Reasons favouring on-site inspection include quicker decisions and avoidance of introduction of extraneous factors (e.g., damage or other alteration of samples during transportation to the lab). On the other hand, specialized equipment and a more favourable testing environment (less noise and confusion, lack of vibrations, absence of dust, and workers helping with inspections) offer strong arguments for using a lab. Some companies rely on self-inspections by operators if errors can be traced back to specific operators. This places responsibility for errors at their source. 15.7.2 Statistical Quality Control The subject of statistical quality control can be divided into acceptance sampling and process control. Acceptance sampling involves testing a random sample of existing goods and deciding whether to accept an entire lot based on the quality of the random sample. Process control involves testing a

random sample of output from a process to determine whether the process is producing items within a pre-selected range. When the tested output exceeds that range, it is a signal to adjust the production process to force the output back into the acceptable range. This is accomplished by adjusting the process itself. Acceptance sampling is frequently used in a purchasing or receiving situation, while process control is used in a production situation of any type. Quality control for both acceptance sampling and process control measures either attributes or variables. Goods or services may be observed to be either good or bad, or functioning or malfunctioning. For example, a lawnmower either runs or it doesnt; it attains a certain level of torque and horsepower or it doesn't. This type of measurement is known as sampling by attributes. Alternatively, a lawnmower's torque and horsepower can be measured as an amount of deviation from a set standard. This type of measurement is known as sampling by variables. i) Statistical Process Control Quality control is concerned with the quality of conformance of a process: Does the output of a process conform to the intent of design? Toward that end, statistical process control is used to evaluate the output of a process to determine its acceptability. To do this periodic samples are taken from the process and compared with a predetermined standard. If the sample results are not acceptable, the process is stopped and corrective action is taken. If the sample results are acceptable, the process is allowed to continue. Two statistical tools are used for quality control: control charts and run tests. Often, they are used together. Sampling and corrective action are only a part of the control process. Effective control requires the following steps: Define, Measure, Compare to a standard, Evaluate, Take corrective action if necessary, and Evaluate corrective action. The first step means to define in sufficient detail what is to be controlled. It is not enough, for example, to simply refer to a painted surface. The paint can have a number of important characteristics such as its thickness, hardness, and resistance to fading or chipping. Different characteristics may require different approaches for control purposes. Only those characteristics that can be counted or measured are candidates for control. Thus, it is important to consider how measurement will be accomplished. There must be a standard of comparison that can be used to evaluate the measurements. This will relate to the level of quality being sought. A definition of out of control must be established. Even a process that is functioning as it should will not yield output that conforms exactly to a standard, simply because of the natural (i.e., random) variations inherent in all processes, manual or mechanical - a certain amount of variation is inevitable. The main task of quality control is to distinguish random from non-random variability, because nonrandom variability means that a process is out of control. When a process is judged out of control, corrective action must be taken. This involves uncovering the cause of non-random variability (e.g., worn equipment, incorrect methods, failure to follow specified procedures) and correcting it. To ensure that corrective action is effective, the output of a process must be monitored for a sufficient period of time to verify that the problem has been eliminated. In a nutshell, control is achieved by

inspecting a portion of the goods or services, comparing the results to a predetermined standard, evaluating departures from the standard, taking corrective action when necessary, and following up to ensure that problems have been corrected. ii) Variations and Control All processes that provide a good or a service exhibit a certain amount of "natural variation in their output. The variations are created by the combined influences of countless minor factors, each one so unimportant that even if it could be identified and eliminated, the decrease in process variability would be negligible. In effect, this variability is inherent in the process. It is often referred to as chance or random variation. The amount of inherent variability differs from process to process. For instance, older machines generally exhibit a higher degree of natural variability than newer machines, partly because of worn parts and partly because newer machines may incorporate design improvements that lessen the variability in their output. A second kind of variability in process output is called assignable variation, or special variation. Unlike natural variation, the main sources of assignable variation can usually be identified (assigned to a specific cause) and eliminated. Tool wear, equipments that need adjustment, defective materials, and human factors (carelessness, fatigue, failure to follow correct procedures, and so on) are typical sources of assignable variation. When samples of process output are taken, and sample statistics such as the sample mean or range are computed, they exhibit the same kind of variability; that is, there is variation in the values of sample means, and variation in the values of sample ranges. The variability of a sample statistic can be described by its sampling distribution, which is a theoretical distribution that describes the random variability of sample statistics. The goal of sampling is to determine whether nonrandom - and thus, correctible - sources of variation are present in the output of a process. The sampling distribution provides the theoretical basis for accomplishing this. iii) Tolerances, Control Limits, and Process Variability The variability of process output is normally described by the following three different terms: Tolerances are specifications established by engineering design or customer requirements. They indicate a range of values in which individual units of output must fall in order to be acceptable. Control Limits are statistical limits that reflect the extent to which sample statistics such as means and ranges can vary due to randomness alone. Process variability reflects the natural or inherent (i.e., random) variability in a process. It is measured in terms of the process standard deviation.

Contro1 limits and process variability are directly related: control limits are based on sampling variability, and sampling variability is a function of process variability. On the other hand, there is no direct link between tolerances and either control limits or process variability. Tolerances are specified in terms of a product or service, not in terms of the process by which the product of service is generated. Hence, in a given instance, the output of a process may or may not conform to specifications, even though the process may be statistically in control. 15.7.3 Acceptance Sampling Acceptance sampling is a form of inspection that is applied to lots or batches of items either before or after a process instead of during the process. In the majority of cases, the lots represent incoming purchased items or final products awaiting shipment to warehouses or customers. The purpose of acceptance sampling is to decide whether a lot satisfies predetermined standards. Lots that are judged

to satisfy standards are passed or accepted; those that do not are rejected. Rejected lots may be subjected to 100 percent inspection, or purchased goods may be returned to the supplier for credit or replacement (especially if destructive testing is involved). Acceptance sampling procedures are most useful when one or more of the following conditions exist: A large number of items must be processed in a short time. The cost consequences of passing defectives are low. Destructive testing is required. Fatigue or boredom caused by inspecting large numbers of items leads to inspection errors. Acceptance sampling procedures can be applied to both attribute and variable inspection. However, inspection of attributes is more widely used.