FI 2201 Electromagnetism

Alexander A. Iskandar, Ph.D.

Physics of Magnetism and Photonics Research Group

Electrostatics

ELECTRIC FIELDS, ITS DIVERGENCE AND CURL

Electric Fields
Recall the principle of action-at-a-distance. Point Charges r r Electric field E (r ) is calculated r from Coulomb force r r Fq E (r ) = q r Because of the linearity of the q1 ri governing equation, i.e. Coulombs q2 r Law, we can apply the linear qi ri r superposition to evaluate the field of a ri collection of point charges. r r r r = r r r r 1 n qi r E (r ) = i 4 0 i =1 ri 2
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism

Electric Fields
Continuos Charges r r Electric field E (r ) is calculated by dividing the charge distribution into infinitesimal charge elements and assume that each charge element is a point charge and apply the superposition principle : r r r 1 E (r ) = dq 4 0 r 2 For a line (1D) charge distribution r r r 1 (r ) E (r ) = r dl 2 4 0 r C For a surface (2D) charge distribution r r r 1 (r ) E (r ) = r 2 r da 4 0 S
Electromagnetism

dl
C

(r )
da

(r )
4

Alexander A. Iskandar

Electric Fields
Continuos Charges For a volume (3D) charge distribution r r r 1 (r ) E (r ) = r d 4 0 r2 V
V

(r )

Example : Prob. 2.7

Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 5

Divergence and Curl of Electric Field

Recall that the divergence and curl of vector fields identify the sources of those fields. r Thus if one knows a field F , one can calculate directly its source, from the fields divergence (if the source is a scalar) or curl (if the source is a vector). OR if one knows r a scalar function D, or a r the source, say C = 0 (just as it is for the curl C vector function for which r of F ), one can work out the field by solving the p g differential equation: q corresponding r F = D r r r F = C C = 0 In the following, we will consider the divergence and the curl of the electric fields in more detail.
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 6

Electric Field Lines

As we have learned from first year physics course, the electric field of a source (point charge or charge distribution) can graphically be presented by field lines

The length of the arrow represent the magnitude of the electric field.
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 7

Electric Field Lines

The density of the field lines represent proportionally the magnitude of the electric field.
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 8

Divergence of Electric Fields

A measure of the number of field lines passing perpendicularly through a surface S is called the flux :
r r E = E da
S

Thus for a closed surface integration, it will give a measure of the total sources or sinks inside the closed surface.
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 9

Divergence of Electric Fields

Let us calculate the simplest example of a point charge, and uses the simplest surface of a spherical surface centered at the point charge itself. r r E = E da
S

=
S

q 4 0 r q
2

r r 2 sin d d r q

4 0

(2)(2 ) =

Alexander A. Iskandar

Electromagnetism

10

Divergence of Electric Fields

For a collection of point charges, by the superposition principle r r r r r E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + L The flux through the closed Gaussian surface is n r r r r n r r n q E = E da = Ei da = Ei da = i i =1 S i =1 0 S S i =1 Or, r r Qenc E Gauss Law da =
S

Note that Qenc are the charges enclosed by the closed Gaussian surface, all other charges outside of the Gaussian surface do not contribute.
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 11

Divergence of Electric Fields

The previous Gauss Law in integral form can be written also as differential form using the divergence theorem : r r r E d a = E d
S V

And the enclosed charge can written as : r Qenc = (r ) d Thus combining the two relations : r E d = d V V 0 Since the volume of integration can be taken arbitrarily, then the integrands must be equal r E =
V

Alexander A. Iskandar

Electromagnetism

12

Divergence of Electric Fields

Next, let us derive the Gauss Law for arbitrary charge distribution. Recall the electric field of a charge distribution r (r ) is given by . r r r 1 (r ) E (r ) = r d 2 r 4 0 V Taking the divergence of this we have r r r 1 (r ) E (r ) = r d 2 r 4 0 V Since the divergence is a differentiation with respect to the r observation coord. r , while the integration is done for all source position, the divergence can be moved inside r r r 1 (r ) E (r ) = r d 2 r 4 0 V
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 13

Divergence of Electric Fields

Note that if we define the Cartesian coord. of r = r r as (X, Y, Z) then x X x X X = y = Y y Y = Y = r z Z z Z Z Hence, the previous relation can be written as r r r r 1 1 (r ) (r ) E (r ) = 2 r r 2 r d = d 4 0 4 0 r r V V Recall that r r r 2 = 4 (r ) r
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 14

r r

Divergence of Electric Fields

Thus, we have again the Gauss Law r r r 1 (r ) E (r ) = r 2 r d 4 0 r V
= = 1 4 0 r (r )

(r ) 4 (r ) d
V

The above equation can be read as follows : the source of electric field is an electric charge distribution, in particular we can have an electric charge monopole to produce the electric field.

Alexander A. Iskandar

Electromagnetism

15

Curl of Electric Fields

As in the last treatment of the divergence of the electric field, we calculate the curl of the electric field produced by a point charge as follows. The electric field of a point charge at the origin is given by r r 1 q E (r ) = r 4 0 r 2 Looking at the radially directed electric field lines produced by the point charge, we can deduce that the curl z b of electric field is zero zero. r r rb Take a line integral of E from a to b, in spherical coord. system the line element of y r ra x integration is r a r d + r sin d dx + dl = r
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 16

Curl of Electric Fields

The result is b r r E d l=

1 1 ra rb a Note that the choice of path from a to b is arbitrary, and the result only depend on the distance of points a to b from the origin. If the integral is a closed loop integration (ra = rb) then r r E dl = 0 q 1 q = dr = 2 4 0 a r 4 0 r a 4 0 q
b
C

And by Stokes theorem, we have r r E da = 0

S

r rb
r ra

Since the choice of surface S is arbitrary, a r then the integrand above has to be zero : E = 0
Alexander A. Iskandar Electromagnetism 17

Curl of Electric Fields

Next, lets calculate the curl of the general electric field r produced by a charge distribution (r ) r r 1 (r ) E = r d 2 4 0 r V But note the following, that if we define the Cartesian r r r coord. of r = r r as (X, Y, Z) then
x X x X X = y = Y y Y = Y = r z Z z Z Z

Hence,

r E =
Alexander A. Iskandar

1 4 0

(r )
V

r d r2
18

Electromagnetism

Curl of Electric Fields

Using the spherical coord. (r, , ) we have r r (0) sin (0 ) r 2 = r r sin 1 r + 2 r (0 ) + r (0 ) r sin r r r r Thus, r r 1 r E = (r ) r 2 d = 0 r 4 0 V

r 2 = 0 r

Note, that this curl-less property of the electric field means that the electric field is a conservative force.

Alexander A. Iskandar

Electromagnetism

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Curl of Electric Fields

Although the prove above was done with the source at the origin, however, since the important information is the distance from the source to the initial and final positions, this result also holds for arbitrarily chosen position of the origin of the coord. system. Furthermore, because of the linearity of the governing equation, we can apply principle of superposition : r r r r r E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + L Then

r n r r E = Ei = 0 Ei = 0
i =1

Alexander A. Iskandar

Electromagnetism

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