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Abstract
Coal and gas outbursts are a complex catastrophic unstable phenomenon that involve the ejection of large volumes of coal, and are
often accompanied by gas, such as methane, carbon dioxide or a mixture of the two. Coal and gas outbursts are prevalent in deep and
gassy mines where face advance rates are rapid, and where gas drainage is either poor or absent. The occurrence of progressively larger
coal and gas outbursts, and the potential for the catastrophic collapse of coal pillars, is of increasing importance as mining is extended
deeper in seams rich in methane and other hydrocarbons. A unique coupled gas flow and solid deformation numerical model, viz.,
RFPA2D-GasFlow, has been developed and is applied to simulate the evolutionary process of such catastrophic coal failures in
underground collieries. The finite element model, which incorporates the physics of gas flow in the coal seam, the physics of coal
deformation and instantaneous failure, and the cross-couplings between them, is proposed. The model also incorporates small-scale
variability in deformation modulus and strength of the coal and surrounding rock. The variability in modulus and strength is distributed
via a fine-scale resolution model according to the Weibull distribution, where the distribution parameter determines the level of
heterogeneity. This numerical model is applied to simulate the whole process of coal and gas outbursts, including stress concentration,
coal fracturing, gas pressure-driven expansion, and outburst. The instantaneous outburst process and associated stress fields, gas
pressure gradients and displacement vectors are presented step by step. The numerical simulations indicate that the instantaneous
outburst is a complex phenomenon involving interactions between gas pressure, stress and the physico-mechanical properties of the coal,
and it can occur under a variety of conditions. Successful numerical simulation of the whole coal and gas outburst process provides the
basis for identifying the outburst mechanisms, parameterizing the causative processes, and to defining potential precursors of failure.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Coal and gas outburst; Underground mining; Failure process; Numerical simulation
1365-1609/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2006.01.001
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Fig. 2. ‘Spherical shell losing stability’ model during outbursts (after Jiang [9]).
folds, and the intensely deformed zones of strike-slip, and appears to flow, although some incidents are merely
thrust, reverse, and normal faults. These narrow deformed large face slumps or floor heaves and associated gas release.
zones, whether in mesoscopic or mine-scale geological In addition, the mechanical and seepage properties of gassy
structures, form the loci for stress and gas concentration. coal specimens, such as deformation and strength behavior,
Similar studies in China revealed that outbursts nearly and the evolution of coal permeability, are also covered in
always occurred in long, narrow outburst zones along the this paper. The rapid advance of computer technology has
intensely deformed zones of strike-slip, reverse or normal enabled applied mathematicians, engineers and scientists to
faults, within which coal has been physically altered into make significant progress in the solution of intractable-
cataclastic, granular, or mylonitic microstructures [13]. The coupled mining and rock mechanics-associated problems.
other occurrences are associated with bedding-plane faults Thus, in this paper, a quantitative model, RFPA2D-
and intense folds, which may produce these microstruc- GasFlow model, is proposed to describe the coupled gas-
tures in broader zones. In either case, the outburst-prone flow and rock failure problems associated with coal/rock
zones generally cover no more than 20–30% of the mine and gas outbursts, and correspondingly, an advanced
area. Some fault zones do not exhibit altered microstruc- powerful numerical tool, RFPA2D-GasFlow code, has
ture, and these are not prone to outburst. Thus, the been developed on the basis of the RFPA2D-Flow code
presence of these altered microstructures is considered as to investigate the mechanism of the complex outbursts and
the first essential factor for outburst occurrence, and to try to gain an insight into the coupling mechanism
outburst-prone districts could be predicted by studying the between gas flow and coal/rock deformation.
spatial distribution of altered coal and geological struc-
tures. It has also been found that outburst danger increases
with the intensity of deformation and alteration of the coal
microstructure. Many studies have compared coal actually 2. Theoretical model
expelled from an outburst cavity to coal in situ with similar
microstructure, based on their physical and morphological When formulating the model in mathematical language,
characteristics. To date no significant difference has been various levels of complexity can be incorporated into each
found [14,15]. component, with the accuracy and versatility of the model
There has been a fairly widely accepted view that a depending on the refinement of the components descrip-
deeper understanding of outbursts mechanism and reliable tion. For coal and gas outbursts in mining or drilling, gas
methods for the prediction of outbursts must be not only migration problems in gas drainage, and gas disposal in
based upon long years of practical experience in mines, but engineering practice, which can all be attributed to fluid
also on scientific research and experimentation. Despite flow and deformation problems in porous media, the
extensive research about violent coal and gas outbursts coupled effect of the medium deformation and fluid flow
occurring in coal mines, surprisingly little progress have may be important for understanding the mechanism of coal
been achieved in the past 150 years towards understanding and gas outbursts and the methane gas flow during gas
or prediction. Especially, a quantitative model that drainage. As pointed by Paterson [5], for a model that can
describes progressive failure process as well as violent be used to predict outbursts, three components must be
outbursts process in coal mines has not appeared. It is the accounted for: (i) a gas flow description, (ii) a stress
aim of this paper to present such a model and to show how description, and (iii) a failure description. Hereby, the
the model explains the observations associated with out- descriptions of gas flow, stress and failure in the RFPA2D-
bursts. For example, the coal is often in pulverized form GasFlow model are presented in this section.
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2.1. Flow of gas Substitution of Eq. (5) into (4) leads to:
s0ij;j þ f i þ ðapdij Þ;j ¼ 0. (6)
The fundamental assumption behind the outburst model
presented here is that the coal is saturated with gas; thus, Thus, the equilibrium equation is expressed according to
the equations for two phase flow in porous media should the effective stress principle.
be used. In 1856, Henry Philibert Gaspard Darcy [16] first According to the continuous conditions, for a perfectly
developed the equation to describe fluid flow through a elastic isotropic continuum, the geometrical equation can
porous media. Based on Darcy’s Law, Zhou [17] further be expressed as
developed the gas filtration equation followed by a linear 1
law. eij ¼ ðui;j þ uj;i Þ, (7)
2
dP where eij is the strain tensor, (i; j ¼ 1; 2; 3), ev is the
qi ¼ lij , (1)
dn volumetric strain, ev ¼ e11 þ e22 þ e33 , and u is the dis-
where, qi denotes gas filtration rate (i ¼ 1; 2; 3) in m/s; lij placement of an element.
is the coefficient of gas filtration (i; j ¼ 1; 2; 3) in The constitutive equation for the deformation fields can
m2/(MPa2 s); and P is the square of gas pressure in MPa2. be expressed for elastic isotropic materials as
Generally, gas exists within coal in two distinct forms: s0ij ¼ Kdij ev þ 2Geij , (8)
usually referred to as free gas and adsorbed gas. The
adsorbed gas typically accounts for over 95% of the gas where G is the shear modulus and K is Lame’s constant.
within a coal seam, depending on the pressure at which the On the basis of the above, the equilibrium, the
gas is adsorbed, while the free gas, only a small fraction of continuity, and the constitutive equations, the governing
the total gas, is stored in the pore or cleat space, either free equations for the mathematical model of coal/rock
or in solution. The total gas content in coal can be deformation considering the gas pressure in coal/rock can
approximated by the empirical equation [17,18] be represented as
pffiffiffi ðK þ GÞuj;ji þ Gui;jj þ f i þ ðapÞ;i ¼ 0. (9)
X ¼ A p, (2)
where X is the gas content in gassy coal in m3/m3; A is the
empirical coefficient of the gas content in m3/(m3 MPa1/2), 2.3. Failure of the solid
and p is the gas pressure in MPa.
According to the basic seepage theory of gas flow in Finally, the failure description of the RFPA2D-GasFlow
porous media, the following equation for the isothermal model is given here. In the RFPA2D-GasFlow code, we rely
filtration gas flow in gassy coal and rock can be obtained: on the finite element method to perform the stress analysis
qP in the model. The model is discretized into a large number
aP r 2 P ¼ , (3) of small elements to take into account the local variations
qt
of the material heterogeneity. The basic elements of the
where aP ¼ 4lA1 P3=4 . RFPA2D-GasFlow model can be generalized as follows:
2.2. Deformation of the solid (1) By introducing the heterogeneity of rock properties
into the model, the model can simulate the non-linear
Secondly, we consider the stress description, which can deformation of a quasi-brittle rock with an ideal brittle
be formulated in a number of ways. For a stress analysis in constitutive law for the local material;
terms of effective stress, the stress equilibrium equations (2) By recording the event-rate of failed elements, the
take the form [19]: model can simulate seismicity and fracturing events
associated with the progressive fracture process;
sij;j þ f i ¼ 0, (4)
(3) By introducing a reduction of the material mechanical
where sij is the stress tensor, (i; j ¼ 1; 2; 3) in MPa, fi is the parameters (strength, elastic modulus, etc.) after
body forces per unit volume in MPa. elemental failure, the model can simulate strain-soft-
We now use the generalized effective stress principle ening and discontinuum mechanics problems in a
based on Terzaghi’s law [20] in the stress equilibrium continuum mechanics mode;
equations from one- to two-phased materials: (4) By introducing the relational equation for stress and
gas permeability, the model can simulate the stress-
sij ¼ s0ij þ apdij , (5)
induced variation of gas permeability, especially the
where sij is the solid total stress tensor, sij0 is the solid sudden jump of gas permeability in the post-failure
effective stress tensor, p is the gas pressure, and a is a regime.
positive constant equal to 1 when individual grains are
much more incompressible than the grain skeleton, dij is the For the details of the heterogeneity and failure event-rate
Kronecker delta function. of the material, the reader can refer to published papers
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[21,22]. Here the other two aspects of the failure descrip- Similarly, for tension, the maximum tensile stress
tion, damage induced stiffness degradation and damage- criterion is chosen as the strength criterion for the elements:
induced permeability increase, are presented as below. s3 p f t , (13)
In the model, only an elastic constitutive law with linear
behavior has been introduced for all elements, which have where ft is the threshold for the tensile strength of elements.
been assigned different strength and elastic constant Correspondingly, the damage variable D in tension can
parameters depending on the heterogeneity of the rock be expressed as
8
materials. The elastic constitutive relation for an element > 0; et0 pe;
under uniaxial compressive stress and tensile stress is <
f tr
D ¼ 1 E 0 e ; etu peoet0 ; (14)
illustrated in Fig. 3. When the stress in the element satisfies >
: 1;
the strength criterion (such as the Coulomb–Mohr epetu ;
criterion), the element becomes damaged. In elastic damage
where ftr is the residual tensile strength of the elements;
mechanics, the elastic modulus of the element may degrade
et0 and etu are the tensile threshold strain of damage
gradually as damage progresses. If the element and its elements and the final tensile strain of the failed elements,
damage are assumed to be isotropic, the elastic modulus of respectively.
the damaged element is defined as follows:
E ¼ E 0 ð1 DÞ, (10) 2.4. Evolution of permeability
where D represents the damage variable, E and E0 are the
elastic moduli of the damaged and undamaged elements, For damage-induced permeability change, most of the
respectively. The parameters E, E0 and D are all scalar. theories are only valid in the pre-failure regions. During
For compression, Mohr–Coulomb criterion is chosen as elastic deformations, the rock permeability decreases when
the strength criterion for the elements: the rock compacts, and increases when the rock expands.
However, a dramatic and remarkable increase in rock
1 þ sin f permeability can be expected as a result of the generation
s1 s3 Xf c , (11)
1 sin f of numerous microfractures on reaching the peak load.
where s1, s3, are the maximum principal stress and Then, the permeability may gradually drop again should
minimum principal stress, respectively; f is the internal the failed rock be further compacted, or the permeability
friction angle and fc is the threshold of the compressive may increase continuously should the failed rock be further
strength of elements. extended. The gas permeability coefficient in uniaxial
Correspondingly, the damage variable D in compression compression and tension can be described in the following
can be expressed as equations [23].
( The gas permeability of the elements in compression can
0; eoec0 ; be described as
D¼ fcr (12) (
1 E 0 e ; ec0 pe;
l0 ebðs1 apÞ ; D ¼ 0;
l¼ (15)
where fcr is the residual compressive strength of elements, e xl0 ebðs1 apÞ ; D40;
and ec0 are the compressive strain and the compressive
threshold strain of the elements, respectively. where l0 is the initial gas permeability for unloaded coal
and rock, b is the coupling factor of stress to pore pressure,
a is the coefficient of pore pressure, and x is the coefficient
of sudden jump of gas permeability for loaded elements in
1 compression.
Compression For elements in tension, the gas permeability–stress
fc equation is expressed as
Elastic 8
> l ebðs3 apÞ ; D ¼ 0;
< 0
bðs3 apÞ 0oDo1;
Degraded l¼ xl 0 e ; (16)
>
: x0 l0 ebðs3 pÞ ;
fcr D ¼ 1;
tu t0
3 c0 cu 1
-ftr where x0 is the coefficient of sudden jump of gas
permeability for failed elements in tension.
The other parameters are the same as the earlier
equations. In this way, the damage-induced stiffness
Tension -ft
degradation and damage-induced permeability variation
are presented in the RFPA2D-GasFlow model.
Fig. 3. Elastic damage constitutive law for element under uniaxial In the simulations using the RFPA2D-GasFlow code, the
compression and tension. numerical sample is loaded either in a displacement control
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910 T. Xu et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 43 (2006) 905–919
Normalized Stress
permeability in the elements are calculated; then, the stress
field and flow field are examined and those elements, which 0.6
are strained beyond the pre-defined strength threshold level
are broken irreversibly. If some elements have failed, then 0.4
the model with new parameters for some of its elements
moves to a new equilibrium. The next load increment is 0.2
added only when there are no more elements strained
0
beyond the strength threshold level at an equilibrium strain 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
field. Thus, numerical loading on the model can be (a) Normalized Strain
performed in this way—as a direct analog to the
laboratory-testing machine
here. A radial numerical model, 10m 10 mm, was 10 nm–10 mm. As a result of the geometry of the cleat
constructed with a cavity borehole of 0.5 m in diameter in (the fracturing) structure, the permeability of coal is
the center (Fig. 5). The numerical model was discretized anisotropic. Furthermore, the permeability of coal is stress
into a 200 200 (40,000 elements) mesh. The initial gas dependent. An increased confining stress causes the cleats
pressure in the coalbed was 3 MPa, the borehole pressure to close, reducing the absolute permeability: reductions of
was equal to the atmospheric pressure. The gas flow two-orders of magnitude have been observed. So, the
process in the coalbed and the changing curves of gas evolution of the permeability of gassy coal was numerically
pressure with duration are illustrated in Figs. 6a and b, investigated to gain an insight into its effect on coal and gas
respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 6b that the gas outbursts.
pressure around the borehole gradually decreases with
duration and finally stabilizes in a new equilibrium state.
This tallies well with the theoretical predictions [17]. 4.1. Mechanical properties
As can be seen, the numerically simulated results of the
failure process of coal and the gas flow in the coalbed show 4.1.1. Numerical model
that the RFPA2D-GasFlow is an appropriate tool for The mesh for the plane strain numerical sample consists
studying coupled gas flow during the coal or rock failure of 200 100 elements with a geometry of 100 mm 50 mm
process, as well as outbursts. Furthermore, the numerical in size (as shown in Fig. 7), and all the elements have the
results can be displayed as an ‘animation’ to provide an same size (and are square in shape). The pore pressure in
improved perception and understanding of the deforma- the rock specimen is denoted as P, and the confining
tion and failure mechanisms of the progressive failure pressure and axial pressure acted on the numerical rock
process of coal, as well as outbursts. specimen are respectively denoted as s0 and s1. In order to
incorporate the heterogeneity of the rock specimen, the
widely used Weibull distribution [25] was introduced to
4. Numerical simulation of the failure of gassy coal describe the material properties of the elements, such as
failure strength, Young’s modulus, and Poisson’s ratio at
For a number of reasons, gassy coal is far from being a the mesoscopic level. The input material mechanical
straightforward material to model. Coal has a dual property parameters used for the numerical model rock
porosity nature: it has a micropore system with pore specimen are listed in Table 1 below.
diameters in the range 0.5–1.0 nm and a macropore system An external displacement at a constant rate of 0.002 mm/
with pores somewhat larger, in the range about step in the axial direction was applied to the rock specimen
2.5
2
p/MPa
1.5
1 t=1d
t=12d
0.5 t=40d
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
(b) r/m
Fig. 8. Macroscopic failure patterns of model specimens with given pore pressure of 1 MPa under various confining pressures.
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20
Table 2
15 Mechanical and seepage parameters
10
Parameters Rock
5
Homogeneity index, m 1.5, 3, 5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Mean elastic modulus, E0, GPa 50
σ/MPa Mean compressive strength, s0, MPa 100
Internal friction angle, f1 30
Fig. 11. Simulated failure envelope for model rock specimens. Ratio of compressive to tensile strength, C/T 10
Possion’s ratio, m 0.3
Gas permeability K, m2 (MPa2 d) 0.1
Coefficient of gas content A, m3 (m3 MP1/2) 2
rock failure in nature, can be described and revealed Coefficient of pore pressure, a 0.5
through some simple linear rules at the mesoscopic level. In Coefficient of stress influence, b 0.1
addition, it is noticed that the residual strength (or friction) Confining pressure, MPa 0
Inlet pressure, P1, MPa 2
of rock, is also dependent on the confining pressure, and
Outlet pressure, P2, MPa 0.1
increases with confining pressure.
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60
m=1.5
50
m=3
40
Stress/MPa
m=5
30
20
10
0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002
(a) Strain
0.25
Permeability/(m2/(MPa2d))
0.2
0.15
0.1 m=1.5
m=3
0.05
m=5
0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012 0.0014 0.0016
(b) Strain
Fig. 13. (a) Simulated stress–strain curves and (b) the corresponding permeability–strain curves.
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vector for a model specimen (m ¼ 1:1) under compression deviation of stress–strain curve and permeability–strain
are shown in Figs. 14a, b and c, and the corresponding curve from linearity and an increase of the AE events rate.
stress–strain curve, AE characteristics and permeability– A sharp increase in the AE events rate and the permeability
strain curve are shown in Fig. 15. due to the macroscopic fracturing plane can be observed
It can be seen from Fig. 15 that the stress–strain curve after the peak strength is reached. Finally, the eventual
and permeability–strain curve linearly develop with a small failure of the specimen is characterized by disintegration of
increase in axial stress and, at the same time, AE events the specimen into pieces by a combination of axial splitting
linked to damage randomly occur throughout the speci- and local shearing or faulting, with the AE events rate
men. Further increases in the axial strain lead to the sharply decreasing, the stress–strain curve approaching a
Fig. 14. (a) Simulated rock failure process and (b) gas pressure gradients for rock specimen (m ¼ 1:5).
8 0.18
7 0.16
Stress/Mpa Normalized AE/counts
Permeability/(m2/(MPa2•d))
0.14
6
0.12
5 Normalized AE
Permeability-strain
0.1
4
Stress-strain 0.08
3
0.06
2 0.04
1 0.02
0 0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001
Strain
Fig. 15. Numerically simulated stress–strain curves, normalized AE counts, and the corresponding permeability–strain curves for rock specimen with
homogeneity index, m ¼ 1:5.
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Fig. 17. Numerically simulated coal and gas instantaneous outbursts process and numerically simulated shear stress distributions during instantaneous
outbursts (Steps 1–9 stand for the ninth calculated failure step in the first time step for modeling the outbursts process. The steps continue in incremental
time steps indicating the failure of coal or rock with duration).
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saturated in the cracks is far beyond the pressure in the sample is thus obtained. The simulated permeability
freshly exposed coalface, which causes the ejection of variations in stressed heterogeneous rocks agree well with
the fractured and splitting coals, i.e. coal and gas the observed results in the laboratory.
outbursts. Finally, instantaneous outbursts induced by crosscut
driving were numerically simulated. Numerical results
As listed above, the stress concentration, coal/rock reproduced the whole process of microcracking, propaga-
fracture and splitting induced by stress, crack propagation tion, coalescence and ejection of coal or rock. In addition,
driven by gas pressure, and ejection of coals induced by gas the associated stress fields, displacement vectors, gas
pressure are the four major stages of coal and gas outbursts pressure and microseismicities during the outbursts were
derived from the numerical simulations in this paper. The clearly visualized. It is noted that the numerical simulations
numerical simulated results reveal that in situ stress, gas obtained using RFPA2D-GasFlow in this paper capture
pressure and the physico-mechanical properties of coal and most of the experimental and in situ-observed phenomena,
rock are the main contributing factors affecting coal and especially the outburst cavity in a coal and gas outburst.
gas outbursts. In addition, numerical simulated results not The successful reproducion of the experimentally and in
only trace the initiation, propagation and coalescence of situ observed outburst failure phenomena with a numerical
cracks in coals, but also present the associated evolution of method implies that our understanding of the mechanisms
the stress field in the coal seam and the roof and floor of the of coal and gas outbursts has reached a more reasonable
rock strata, i.e., the stress redistribution in the coal seam level which, in turn, will help us to make further progress in
and rock roof and floor at every stage. better understanding of the mechanism of instantaneous
outbursts and controlling and preventing their occurrence
6. Discussion and conclusions as induced by underground mining.
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