NON EXPERIMENTAL JOURNAL Title : Zero Carbon Manufacturing Facility Towards Integrating Material, Energy and Waste Process

s Flows Author : P D Ball, S Evans, A Levers and D Ellison Journal: Journal of Engineering Manufacture 2009

General Overview The increases in the average temperature of Earths atmosphere and oceans or in short, global warming is a problem that affects the whole world. Developed and developing countries contributed a part to this problem through the manufacturing businesses. Several measures and legislation is created to achieve an environmental friendly manufacturing process. Zero carbon manufacturing facility is one of the suggested ways to a more environment friendly process. Zero carbon manufacturing facility means that a facility that leaves zero carbon footprint. Carbon footprint is a measure of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with an activity, group of activities or a product. Definitions of carbon footprints may vary in terms of which activities and greenhouse gases should be included within the scope of a carbon footprint assessment, and the level of detail [Abbott, 2000]. This paper was written to address the steps a manufacturer could take in order to create a zero carbon manufacturing facility, by integrating material, energy and waste process flows using available technologies and methods in reducing carbon imprint. The term zero carbon manufacturing is used here to include the production system, the supporting infrastructure (including offices and facilities), as well as the interface with the supply chain and community [Ball et. al, 2009].

Data Collection Method The research approach is exploratory and inductive using case work from which theory can be built and tested [Yin, 1994 cited in Ball et. al., 2009]. Based on the paper, all the data for this research was compiled using non experimental methods. Among the method used are expert interviews, such as practitioner and academician to get first hand accounts of what is happening inside a manufacturing facility. Besides that, visits to manufacturing companies and trade events are conducted by authors to view for themselves the production system, the supporting infrastructure (including offices and facilities), as well as the interface with the supply chain and community involved.

Data Analysis Method The authors have chosen modeling as a technique to suggest an integrated view of a zero carbon manufacturing facility. Unlike typical VSM modeling which applies the functional features of low carbon technologies, the authors of this paper are using the inputs and outputs of these technologies instead to create a model. Modeling only allows qualitative analysis. The analysis is done to achieve objective of the research, which are to establish current thinking on technological solutions and how they are integrated, establish the requirements of zero carbon manufacture, and ascertain the viability of using material, energy, and waste flow modeling as a basis for supporting zero carbon manufacturing facility design or improvements [Ball et. al, 2009]. Therefore, no quantitative calculation such as magnitude, quality and location of flow, can be done using the modeling approach. All the data in this paper was analyzed and mapped using Value Stream Mapping or in short, VSM. VSM is the discipline of mapping the material and information flows that are required to coordinate the activities performed by manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors, to deliver products to the customers [Irani et. al, 1999]. Currently, the VSM 2

concept is used to focus on primary material flow and though the waste from the process is observed, the complete cycle of waste is hard to document. Plus, it usually doesnt include energy flows and support processes. For this research paper, the authors widened the use of VSM concept to cover the complete cycle for a zero carbon manufacturing process, which includes the whole material, waste and energy flows plus all the support processes involved. By doing this, the authors can portray any output from any type flow will be used by another. Here each process is dependent and interrelated to the wider system and opportunities are sought to reuse and recycle materials within a system rather than allow them to leave as waste (noting that most recycling today is actually down-cycling, as the resulting material is of inferior quality [McDonough et. al., 2002 cited in Ball et. al., 2009] The value stream mapping is presented using IDEF0 modeling. IDEF0, also known as Integrated Definition method 0 is used to model the flows involved. IDEF0 is a structured analysis method for efficiently representing the complex relationship graphically and identifying the information and correlation between entities [Ang et. al., 1997 cited in Patil, 2005].

Figure 1 : Generic IDEF0 activity [Fulcher, 1999 cited in Patil 2005]

Elements in IDEF0 modeling (refer the figure above) consists of [Patil, 2005]: Inputs information or objects transformed by the activity Outputs information or objects that are created when the function is performed Controls the conditions or circumstances that govern the activitys performance Mechanisms the persons or devices that enable the activity As value stream mapping is a recognized method used as part of Six Sigma methodologies, there is a lot of software available to apply VSM. Among the various types of VSM software are VALSAT, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Visio, SmartDraw, iGrafx FlowCharter and Quality Companion by Minitab. These software ranges from those that can be used to simply design and construct the maps, to software that can carry out calculations and perform detailed analysis.

Suggestion for Alternative Data Analysis Method Based on the data collected and analysis done, another method that can be used for this paper besides value stream mapping is detailed process mapping. VSM is a tool to help operation managers and engineers (and others) understand how their flows currently operate and to help guide them through the process of analysis to improve those existing flows and design better ones in the future [Shook, n.d.]. It is called a value stream map because it shows the value-adding activities necessary to produce what is required, in the sequence in which they happen. Whilst, process mapping is use to analyze the resources required and work content (Input), the activities performed on the work (Throughputs), and the outcome (Output) [Spidel, 2008]. Detailed process mapping has all the process components the value stream map does, and it can be broken down in much greater detail [Stroud, 2011].

Since the authors for this paper do not intend to do a quantitative analysis and didnt use the functional features of low carbon technologies to build the process modeling, but concentrate on the input and output of these technologies instead, detailed process mapping is an alternative. A detailed process map, if done effectively, will show the actual process, including non-value added steps, and can be used to identify the waste in a process. Since it is quite similar, plus the parameters that are used (inputs and outputs of all the flows in zero carbon manufacturing) to create modeling of process is also the same, a detailed process mapping is a viable solution too. Like VSM, there are several modeling techniques that can be applied for process mapping. The most commonly followed techniques of process mapping are flowcharting, SIPOC and IDEF (usually IDEF0 or IDEF3, depending on what needs to be portrayed) [Khadye, 2006].

EXPERIMENTAL JOURNAL Title : Machinalibilty of Ti-6Al-4V Under Dry and Near Dry Condition Using Carbide Tools

Author : Ahmad Yasir M.S, Che Hassan C.H, Jaharah A.G, Nagi H.E, Yanuar B , Gusri A.I Journal: The Open Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Journal, 2009

General Overview This paper was written to study the machinability of a titanium alloy from the alpha beta group Ti-6Al-4V under dry and near dry (minimum quantity lubricant, MQL) conditions. Machining processes generates high temperature due to friction between workpiece and cutting tools. Machining temperature can be reduced by using cutting fluids, either lubricants or coolants. Cutting fluids not only reduce heat, it acts as lubrication and assist chip removal by flushing it. Minimum quantity lubrication or in short, MQL works with pressurized air, injecting a mixture of water and oil into the cutting region.

Data Collection Method The data was collected by machining experimentation on the titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V. The objective of this experiment is to study the generated cutting force, tool wear and tool life when machining the material under dry and near dry condition. The experiment was executed on a 3-axis CNC milling machine. The dimensions of the Ti-6Al-4V test piece are 100x100x160 mm. These test pieces were pre-machined 2mm of each surface before the experiment in order to remove the residual stress 6 and

aging at the outer layer. The cutting force was measured using a 3-axis dynamometer [Yasir et. al., 2009].

Data Analysis Method The design of experiment for this research was multi level factorial. The experiment done collected two and three level data for four factors involved in the study. The DOE of this research can be simplified using the following table by research authors;

Table 1: Factors and Levels for DOE [Yasir et. al., 2009] According to this paper, coolant was not used for dry machining. Machining under MQL or near dry condition was done at two levels of coolant flow rate of 50 and 100 mL/H. The effectiveness of mist coolant was tested at three different levels of cutting speed, 120, 135 and 150 m/min. The radial depth of cut was kept constant at 10mm. Experiment were stop at various time intervals to measure the tool wear. Measurements of tool wear were stopped, when either one of these criteria was obtained [Yasir et. al., 2009]: - the flank wear reached 0.3 mm - catastrophic tool failure - machining time reached 20 minutes

Based on my understanding, I believe all the data for this experiment was analyzed manually. All charts and graphs were probably plotted using Microsoft Excel. According to this paper, 3 outputs were studied; tool life, surface roughness and cutting force. Tool life experiment was recorded under four cutting condition; cutting speed, coolant flow rate, feed rate and depth of cut. All the data collected was presented in histogram for tool life (min) vs cutting speed(m/min), coolant flow rate(mL/H), feed rate (mm/tooth) and depth of cut(mm). Conclusion was drawn based on the histogram.

Graph 1: Example of histogram showing tool life (min) vs cutting speed(m/min), coolant flow rate(mL/H), feed rate (mm/tooth) and depth of cut(mm) [Yasir et. al., 2009]. Data on tool wear was plotted in two condition, flank wear and surface roughness. Both flank wear and surface roughness was plotted against all three cutting speed; 120, 135 and 150 m/min. In each graph, the data for every feed rate at all coolant flow rate was plotted. Conclusion on tool wear factors was made according to the graphs.

Graph 2: Example of chart showing surface roughness at 120m/min for different feed rate and coolant flow rate [Yasir et. al., 2009]. 8

The final output, cutting force data was shown in both histogram and graph. The histogram shows the cutting force of each 3 axis against cutting speed(m/min), coolant flow rate (mL/H), feed rate (mm/tooth) and depth of cut(mm). While the graphs projected cutting force at X- axis vs each cutting speed under different coolant condition. The author conclusion on cutting force effects was drawn based on both histogram and graph.

Suggestion for Alternative Data Analysis Method The mass data collected from this experiment was due to authors objective, to study all three output; tool wear, tool life and cutting force under four cutting factor; cutting speed, coolant flow rate, feed rate and depth of cut. For each condition, data was collected at two or three level. Based on the paper, my first suggestion is to further analyze the data using ANOVA (analysis of variance), as it will show detailed interaction between all the factor and level. Interactions are the extent to which the effects of one factor differ according to the levels of another factor [Dallal, 2008]. Using ANOVA, the percentage contribution of the various process parameters on the selected performance characteristic can be estimated. Based on percentage contribution, information about how significant is the effect of each controlled parameter on the quality characteristic of interest can be obtained. Besides that, F-ratios can be evaluated to check the adequacy of the parameters and their factor effects [Stockburger, 1998]. There are many software that offer ANOVA such as Design-Ease, Mini Tab, XLStat and many more. That said, all the data alternatively could be analyzed using Taguchi method. Taguchi method is a unique and powerful statistical experimental design technique, which greatly improves the engineering productivity [Phillips, 1989]. Taguchi classifies the objective functions as smaller the better type, larger the better type and nominal the best type characteristics. The optimal level for a process parameter is the level, which results in highest value of S/N (signal to noise) ratio in the experimental region. 9

References

Abbott, J., 2000. What Is A Carbon Footprint? Report Version 2, The Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management. Ang C. L., Luo, M., Khoo, L. P. and Gay, R. K.L., 1997. A Knowledge Based Approach to the Generation of IDEF0 Model. International Journal of Production Research, 35(5), p. 1385-1412. Ball, P. D., Evans, S., Levers, A. and Ellison, D, 2009. Zero Carbon Manufacturing Facility Towards Integrating Material, Energy and Waste Process Flows. Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 223(B), p. 1085-1096. Dallal, Gerard E., 2008. The Little Handbook of Statistical Practise . Boston. Available through: Tufts University <http://www.jerrydallal.com/LHSP/anova2.htm> [Accessed 28 October 2011]. Fulscher, J., 1999. Anatomy of a Process Mapping Workshop. Business Process Management Journal, 5(3), p. 208-237. Irani, S. A. and Zhou, J., 1999. Value Stream Mapping of a Complete Product . M.S. Thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Khadye, Vinayek, 2006. BPM Series: Process Mapping Basics Part II [online]. Available at : http://it.toolbox.com [Accessed on 26 October 2011]. McDonough, W. and Braungart, M., 2002. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking The Way We Make Things. New York, USA: North Point Press. Patil, Amar S., 2005. Incorporating Environmental Index as Waste into Value Stream Mapping. Wichita State University. Phillip, J. R, 1989. Taguchi Techniques for Quality Engineering, International ed., McGraw-Hill Company. Shook, John, n.d. Misunderstandings about Value-Stream Mapping, Flow Analysis, and Takt Time. Lean Enterprise Institute[online]. Available at: www.lean.org [Accessed on 26October 2011]. Spidel, Tom, 2008. Process Mapping. SOLE - The International Society of Logistics [online]. Available at : www.southernmarylandsole.com [Accessed on 27 October 2011]. 10

Stockburger, David W., 1998. Introductory Statistics: Concepts, Models and Applications. Missouri. Available through: Missouri State University <http://www.psychstat.missouristate.edu/introbook/sbk27m.htm> [Accessed 28 October 2011]. Stroud, J Delaine, 2011. More Value: Value Stream or Detailed Process Mapping? [online]. Available at: www.isixsigma.com [Accessed on 27 October 2011]. Yasir, Ahmad M.S., Ch Hassan, C.H., Jaharah, A.G., Nagi, H. E., Yanuar, B. and Gusri, A.I., 2009. Machinalibilty of Ti-6Al-4V Under Dry and Near Dry Condition Using Carbide Tools. The Open Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Journal, 2(1-91). Yin, R, 1994. Case Study Research Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications.

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