MusicalInnovation,Queerness,andPowerBefore1750 AlexBlack December4,2012

Therelationshipbetweenmusicandsexualityhasbeenapointofdiscussionfor musicians,musichistorians,andscholarssincethetimeoftheancientgreeks.More specifically,sexualitythatexistsoutsidetheheterosexualnorminthispaperdescribedas queernesshasacomplexandlongstandingrelationshipwithmusic.Throughouthistory, musicthatchallengedestablishednormshasoftenbeenlinkedtoformsofhumansexuality consideredtobecorruptordegeneratebythoseinpowerhomosexuality,sodomyand effeminacyhavehistoricallybeenconsideredapotentialresultofmusicalpracticesdeemed radicalorunnatural.Despitethefactthattherelativelymodernconceptoffixedsexualidentity maynotdirectlyapplytotheperiodinquestioninthiscasemusicbefore1750itisclearthat thehistoricalrecordneverthelesscontainsalongstringofreferencestomusiciansandmusical practicesthatexistoutsidetheheteronormativestandardandcouldthereforebeconsidered queer(asdefinedforthepurposesofthisanalysisbelow).Fromthesamesexdesiresof musiciansOrpheusandSapphoinantiquitytotheconservativebacklashagainsttheperceived homoeroticismofearlypolyphony,andlatertothecomplexsociosexualphenomenonofthe castrato,thispaperseekstoferretoutinstancesofqueernessinmusicalpracticebefore1750 andbegintobuildabetterunderstandingofthehistoricrelationshipbetweenmusical development,queerness,andsystemsofpower. Beforegettingstarted,theissueofterminology,particularlytheuseoflabelsthatmaybe anachronistic,shouldbeaddressed.AsHolsingernotesinMusic,Body,andDesireinMedieval Culture,itcanbeproblematictousetermslikehomosexualitywhendiscussingtimeperiodsin whichsuchmodesofselfidentificationdidntexist(152).Indeed,manycriticshavebroughtto

lightavastarrayofhomoeroticacts,pleasures,anddesiresthatdonotseemtohavebeen conditionedbydiscretesexualidentitiesandcannoteasilybeassimilatedtoasociocultural divisionbetweenhomosexualityandheterosexuality(bothdecidedlymodernterms)(Holsinger 152).Thefactthatpeopledidntidentifythemselvesortheirbehaviorintermsofamutually exclusivehomosexualheterosexualbinary,however,doesnotmeanthatalternativesexual practicesfromtheperiodshouldbeoverlooked.Discardingthelabelsofhomosexualand heterosexualinfavorofthemoreinclusive,flexibletermqueerallowsforthesidesteppingof anachronisticlabelingaswellastheinclusionofpracticesthatwouldsitwithsomeuncertainty underthemodernlabelhomosexual.Forthepurposesofthisinvestigation,IuseDavid Halpernsdefinitionofqueerasapositionatoddswiththenormal,thelegitimate,thedominant [...]anidentitywithoutanessence[...]apositionalitythatisnotrestrictedtolesbiansandgay menbutisinfactavailabletoanyonewhoisorwhofeelsmarginalizedbecauseofherofhis sexualpractice(Peraino5).Bydiscussingalternativesexualitiesasqueerwithoutlabeling themasexplicitlyhomosexual,weavoidimposingmodernlabelsonunwittingsubjectsfrom bygoneeras. Theearliestexamplesofqueernessinrelationtomusicdatebacktoantiquity,tothe ancientGreeksandRomans.AsPerainonotesinListeningtotheSirens:MusicalTechnologies ofQueerIdentityfromHomertoHedwig,asurveyofqueermusicalfiguresofancientGreece shouldincludethetwofamousmusiciansOrpheusandSappho(24).Orpheusistraditionally consideredthesonofApollo,andalthoughnotagod,hedidpossessthepowertoswaythe heartsofmenandgodswithhissingingandlyreplaying.DespitehismarriagetoEurydice, accountsofOrpheusasaboyloverarewelldocumented,asinOvidsMetamorphoses(ca.8 C.E.),whereoneofmanyepisodesendswiththeerotictransformationofOrpheus: Andnowbecauseithadendedbadlyforhim,orbecausehehadvowedtobefaithful, Orpheusfledtheloveoffemales.Yetmanywomenlongedforunionswiththebard,and

manygrievedwhenherejectedthem.HeeventaughtthemenofThracetoturntheir desiretotendermalesandsotopluckthefirstblossomsboysofferinthatbrief springtimebeforetheybecomeyoungmen(Peraino25). TheassociationbetweenOrpheussmusicalprowessandhisabilitiestopersuadementoadopt boyloveisperhapsmostinterestinginthatithighlightsarelationshipbetweenmusicand sexualitythatisechoedbyscholarsthroughouttheagesnamely,thatcertainmusicalpractice canresultincorruptanddegeneratesexualpractice. Sapphosinclusioninadiscussionofqueernessinmusicissomewhatmoretenuous. WritinglyricalpoetryfromtheislandofLesbos,Sapphocomposedsongsthatfocusedon emotionalanderoticbondsamongwomen.Maleauthorityfiguresarenotablyfewinherlyrics (Peraino26).WhilethissubjectmatteralonedoesnttellusmuchaboutSapphossexuallife,a papyrusfragmentfromthethirdorsecondcenturyB.C.E.reportsarumorthatshewasreferred toinhertimeasagunaikerastria,atermthatmeansfemaleloverofwomen(Peraino27). Rumorandspeculationaside,Sapphosreputationasaloverofwomenhassurvivedtothe presentday,andherlyrics,intimate,emotional,anddistinctivelyhomoerotic,havegivenherthe statusofOrpheusamongscholarsofclassicalpoetry,andparticularlyamongherpresentday lesbianreadership(Peraino25). Greekscholarsgavemuchthoughttotheeffectofmusiconethos,specificallythe potentialpowerofmusictoinfluencelistenersemotions,behaviors,andmorals.Plato,in particular,arguedthatmusicwasbeneficialtolistenersandanimportantfactorinthe maintenanceofahealthysociety(Peraino29).Interestingly,whilePlatoarguedthatcertain musicwasbeneficialtotheindividualandthestate,helamentedcertainnewermusical practicesthatemergedduringhislifetimeasdetrimentalandcorrupting.Hereisthefirst instanceweseeofaperceivedlinkbetweennovelmusicaldevelopmentsandthemoral corruptionofsocietyinthemindsofscholars:

Platowas,itseems,deeplyaffectedbyarevolutioninmusicalstylethatoccurredinthe decadesaround400B.C.E.inAthens,whenabarrageofradicalnoveltiesexplodedon thescene,tothedespairofconservativetastes.Thisrevolutionseemstohavebeen partofabroadculturalandsocialpoliticaldislocationofthearistocracy(ofwhichPlato wasamember)(Peraino29). ForPlato,ashiftingsocialclimatethatsawincreasedpublicperformanceofmusicby unspecializedmusicianswhomixedmusicalstylesandmodeswasnotonlyathreattothe aristocraticorderhesatcomfortablyatop,butalsoathreattothemoralethosoflistenersthat couldresultinthedegradationanddownfallofsociety(Peraino29).If,ascanbeassumed, sexualpracticesthatdeviatedfromtheheteronormativestandardwouldbeanelementofsuch degradationinsociety,onecouldassumebyPlatoslogicthatrevolutionarymusicalinnovation couldleadtoqueersexualpractices.Thoughnotalwaysexplicitlylinkedtohomosexuality, musichasoftenbeenconsideredadangeroussubstance,anagentofmoralambiguityalways indangerofbestowingdeviantstatusuponitspractitioners.BothPlatoandAristotlesawitin theseterms(Brett11).Interestingly,andprobablynotbycoincidence,Platosthoughtsonthe possiblydeleteriouseffectsofmusiconethoswereechoedroughly15centurieslaterinthe backlashbysomeconservativescholarsagainsttheperceivedhomoeroticismofearly polyphony. ManymedievalscholarsechoedPlatoandAristotlesargumentsthatmusicthatfollowed acertainnaturalorderwassuperiortomusicthatcorruptedthatnaturalorderandresultedin degradedmoralsandbehaviors.Formany12thcenturyscholars,monophonicchantwasthe purestmusicalexpressionofnaturalorderanddevotiontoGod.Theemergenceandgrowing popularityofpolyphonyinthe12thcentury,then,wascauseforbothanxietyandalarmamong conservativescholarswhodeemeditbarbaricandlamenteditshomoerotic,effeminizing effectsonlisteners(Holsinger156).InDeplanctuNaturae(ComplaintofNatureca.

11601170),AlanofLille,writingfromNotreDameinParis,makesatellinganalogyaboutthe brayingofadonkey:There,theass,offendingourearswithhisidlebraying,asthoughasinger oforganum,byantiphrasis,introducedbarbarismsintomusic(Holsinger139).Theanalogyis revealingbecauseinotherworksAlanusedthetermbarbarismasasynonymforgender inversioninhumansexualrelationstheimplicationbeingthatthesingeroforganum,byadding harmony,isinvertinggenderrolesanddefyingnaturalorder(Holsinger139).ForAlan,then, singerswhoproducebarbarisminmusicthroughtheirantiphrasticspectaclescreatein polyphonyitselfamusicalsimulacrumofsodomiticalinversion(Holsinger140). Theexamplemayseemastretch,butthewritingsofotherscholarsatthetimemake clearthattheperceivedeffeminizationandhomoeroticismofpolyphonywasaseriousconcern. TakeRobertofCourson,forexample,aprominentthinkerwhowrotearound1200thatthe servicesofMastersoforganumwhosetminstrelishandeffeminatethingsbeforeyoungand ignorantmeninordertofeminizetheirmindsareillicit(Holsinger157).ForCourson,hearing organumcouldleadtosodomyandevenmaleprostitution(Holsinger157).Inaevenmore detailedattackofpolyphony,JohnofSalisburywroteafteravisittoParis(ca1140s): IntheverysightofGod[...]thesingersattempt,withthelewdnessofalascivious singingvoiceandasingularlyfoppishmanner,tofeminizealltheirspellboundlittle followerswiththegirlishwaytheyrenderthenotesandendthephrases.Couldyoubut heartheeffeteemotingsoftheirbeforesingingandtheiraftersinging,theirsingingand theircountersinging,theirinbetweensingingandtheirilladvisedsinging[...]Indeed, whensuchpracticesgotoofar,theycanmoreeasilyoccasionanitchingoftheloins thanasenseofdevotioninthemind. ForJohn,notonlyhasaradicalmusicaldevelopmentimperiledthedevotionandmoralcharacter ofthelistener,butalsocreatedadangerousvisualandphysicalexperiencethespectacleof mensingingbefore,after,against,andinbetweenoneanotherasaperformanceofsexual

inversion,anerotic(mis)useofthemalebodydirectlyanalogoustothesexualperformances thatinspiredtwelfthandthirteenthcenturypolemicsagainstsodomy(Holsinger159). Inhisanalysisofscholarlyoutrageoverpolyphony,Holsingernotesthatsuchpolemics haveoftenbeendismissedasquaintlyconservativebitsoftrivia(160)thatmaynotrepresent widerthinking,howeverhealsoassertsthatthehistrionicaccountsofAlanofLille,Robertof Courson,andJohnofSalisburyrevealcertainprevalentassumptionsabouttheerotic implicationsoftwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturypolyphony,assumptionsthatwerebyno meanslimitedtoitsdetractors(161).Beyondtheradicalnoveltyandarrestingbeauty(or distractingbeauty,assomewouldhaveit)ofearlypolyphony,whatwasitaboutmensinging harmonytogetherthatcausedsuchmoraloutrageamongconservatives?Holsingerwould arguethatthediscourseofmusictheoristsofthetimewasanimportantcontributingfactor.In thewritingsofmanymedievalmusicscholars,melodiclineswereanthropomorphizedand personifiedasmenengagedinasortofdance.Inthegroupoftwelfthcenturytreatisesknown asAdorganumfaciendum,thecantusandorganumlinesarerepeatedlypersonifiedasmale companionswhokisswhencomingtogetheratunisons,andwhoareengagedinboutsof dominanceatdissonances(Holsinger161).Takingintoaccountthepersonificationofthevoices andhomoeroticlanguageofmusicdiscourseofthetime,itseasytoseehowmalepolyphony couldhaveveryrealqueerphysicalimplicationsinthemindsofscholars. Iftheemergenceofpolyphonyinthetwelfthcenturywascauseforalarmandanxiety overtheperceivedtransgressionofsexualnorms,theequallytransgressiveriseofthecastrato inbaroqueoperareceivedaverydifferentresponsecriticalacclaim,sexualdesire,andrelative noninterferencefromthoseinpower.Althoughitisnotwithinthescopeofthispapertoprovide adetailedoutlinethehistoryandtraditionofthecastrato,thephenomenondoesmeritattention asanimportantelementinestablishinglinksbetweenmusicandqueernessduringtheBaroque era.Whatdidthecastratosuniqueconditionmeanintermsofgenderidentityandsexual

practice,bothforthecastratohimselfandthereligiousandpoliticalauthority? AccordingtoFreitasinTheEroticismofEmasculation:ConfrontingtheBaroqueBodyof theCastrato,themodernmalefemalegenderbinaryonlyemergedinthe18thcentury.During thebaroqueperiod,genderwasviewedalongacontinuumratherthanabinary:insteadof explainingmaleandfemalebodiesasthetwodistinctformsofthehumanspecies,theearly moderntraditionconsideredmantobethemoreperfectmanifestationofthesinglebodythat bothmenandwomenshared(Freitas203).Asconceptualizedatthetime,asortofvertical continuumexisted,wheremenexistedatthetopandwomenatthebottom.Thecastrato, foreverpreservedthroughcastrationasaprepubescentboy,occupiedtheverymiddleofthe spectrum,andbythatvirtuepossessedthebesttraitsofbothmaleandfemale(Freitas233). ForFreitas,thecastratosuniquelocationonthisgendercontinuumaffordedhimhismystique anddesirability: ThecastratoregularlyplayedtheamorousmaleleadinItalianbaroqueoperasatleastin partbecausehisspecialsexualstatushisboyishsuspensionbetweenthepolesof masculinityandfemininitywasfoundalluringandwhollyappropriatetomeninlove.He wasanextravagantembodimentoftheseductiveboyandpresumeddevoteeof sensuality:Thathewasalsoconsidered(probablyrightly)tobesexuallyactive,only addedtohisappeal(233). Thesexualambiguityofthecastrato,then,waswellsuitedtobaroqueopera,andcastrati possessedauniquecombinationofbaroqueidealsthatmadethemwellsuitedforleadingroles: theinnocenceofboyhood,thesusceptibilitytoloveofwomen,andthevirtuosityandsexual prowessofmen(Freitas247). ThesexualprowessofcastratiwaswidelyreputedduringTheBaroque,and contemporariesclearlyseemtohaveperceivedthesexualactivityofcastratiasreal,andthus threatening(Freitas224).Asfarasactualsexualpractice,therearenumerousaccountsof

castratiengagedinbothheterosexualandhomosexualpractices.Theexistenceofheterosexual activitybycastrati,althoughlesswelldocumented,canbeconcludedfromthebanonmarriage betweencastratiandwomen.Despiteargumentsbycastratithattheabilitytoejaculate constitutedjustificationformarriage,PopeSixtusVwrotein1587thatasopposedtotrueseed, thecastratipouroutacertainliquidperhapssimilartosemen,althoughbynomeanssuitableto generationandcauseofmatrimony(Freitas230).ThePapaldecisiontobanmarriagebetween castratiandwomenwouldseemtoindicatethatthechurchsrelationshipwithhighprofile castratiintheoperawasrelativelycutanddryratherthanworryoverthemoraleffectthatthe sexuallyambiguouscastratossingingwouldhaveonthelistener,thereligiousauthorityappears tohavedealtwiththemusiciansonamorepracticalbasis. Homosexualpracticesamongcastratiweremuchmorewidelydocumented,includinga numberofverypublicaffairswithnoblemen.NotesFreitas: Inanagewhenpederastywasthehomosexualnorm,the(adult)castratotooktheroleof theboy.Consideringhowmuchparticipantswouldhavewantedtohidetheiractivities, thenumberofdocumentedliaisonsbetweennoblemenandcastratiissurprising. [Castrato]MarcAntonioPasqualinisintimacywithCardinalAntonioBarberiniintheearly 1640siswellknown:Contemporarytestimonyleaveslittledoubtthattheveritable passionthecardinalfeltextendedtomorethanPasqualinisbeautifulvoice.Inaneven clearercase,GrandPrinceFerdinandodeMedici[...]carriedonaratheropenaffair withthecastratoFrancesco(Cecchino)deCastris,whohimselfreplacedFerdinandos previouscastratofavorite,Petrillo(216). Highprofilecastrati,then,attractedtheaffectionsoftheelitelikethechurch,thepolitical authorityappearstohavehadfewqualmswiththeeffectsofthesingersontheethosof listeners.Thekindofauthoritarianoutrageexpressedduringthemedievalperiodoverthe perceivedhomoeroticismofearlypolyphony,then,waslargelyabsentduringthereignofthe

castrato,despitethefactthatcastratipresentedsimilarissuesofgenderinversion.Whereas theradicalmusicaldevelopmentsofearlypolyphonyweresexualizedinordertoportraythemas dangerousanddegenerate,theradicalmusicalpracticeofemployingcastratiinleadingoperatic roleswasinmanywayscelebratedforitssexualambiguity.Itbecomesclearthenthatthe relationshipsbetweenmusicalinvention,queerness,andauthorityarecomplicatedanddonot alwaysplayoutalongparallellines. Thedifferentreactionsbyauthorityfigurestothehomoeroticismofmedievalpolyphony andthesexualambiguityofbaroquecastratihighlightthecomplexrelationshipbetweenmusical invention,queerness,andpowerarelationshipthatcontinuestoevolvetothepresentday. Thispaperisinnowaymeanttobeacompletedocumentationofqueernessinrelationtomusic before1750,andthereisnodoubtthatmanyintersectionsofqueerpracticesandmusical activityduringthisperiodwillhaveescapedthescopeofthisresearch.WhatIhaveattempted toidentify,however,isacomplexandlongstandingrelationshipbetweenmusicandqueerness thatdatesbacktoantiquity.Moreimportantly,Ihaveattemptedtodemonstratethatradical developmentsinmusicwereoftenunderstoodinsexualizedtermsbythoseinpower,andthat scholarsduringthisperiod,fromPlatoJohnofSalisbury,arguedthatmusicwasengagedina directrelationshipwithhumansexuality.Forconservativethinkers,thisoftenmeantthatmusic thatdeviatedfromthenormcouldresultincorruptanddegeneratesexualpractices, practicesthattodaywouldbeconsideredqueer.Futureresearchinthisareawillfurther illuminatethewaysinwhichmusicalinvention,queerness,andsystemsofpowerinteractto shapethewayweunderstandandtalkaboutmusic.

WorksCited

Brett,Philip,ElizabethWood,andGaryC,Thomas.QueeringthePitch:TheNewGayand LesbianMusicology.NewYork:Routledge,1994.Print. Freitas,RogerFreitas."TheEroticismofEmasculation:ConfrontingtheBaroqueBodyofthe Castrato."TheJournalofMusicology20.2(2003):196249.Print. Holsinger,BruceW.Music,Body,andDesireinMedievalCulture:HildegardofBingento Chaucer.Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUP,2001.Print. Peraino,JudithAnn.ListeningtotheSirens:MusicalTechnologiesofQueerIdentityfromHomer toHedwig.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,2006.Print.

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