RESPIRATORY SYSTEM .

Respiratory System, in anatomy and physiology, organs that deliver oxygen to thecirculatory system for transport to all body cells. Oxygen is essential for cells, which use this vital substance to liberate the energy needed for cellular activities. In addition to supplying oxygen, the respiratory system aids in removing of carbon dioxide, preventing the lethal buildup of this waste product in body tissues. Day-in and day-out, without the prompt of conscious thought, the respiratory system carries out its life-sustaining activities. If the respiratory systems tasks are interrupted for more than a few minutes, serious, irreversible damage to tissues occurs, followed by the failure of all body systems, and ultimately, death.

The organs of the respiratory system extend from the nose to the lungs and are divided into the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The upper respiratory tract consists of the nose and the pharynx, or throat. The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, or voice box; the trachea, or windpipe, which splits into two main branches called bronchi; tiny branches of the bronchi called bronchioles; and thelungs, a pair of saclike, spongy organs. The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles conduct air to and from the lungs. The lungs interact with the circulatory system to deliver oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. A Nasal Passages B Pharynx C Larynx D Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles E Alveoli

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Circulatory System, or cardiovascular system, in humans, the combined function of the heart, blood, and blood vessels to transport oxygen and nutrients to organs and tissues throughout the body and carry away waste products. Among its vital functions, the circulatory system increases the flow of blood to meet increased energy demands during exercise and regulates body temperature. In addition, when foreign substances or organisms invade the body, the circulatory system swiftly conveys disease-fighting elements of the immune system, such as white blood cells and antibodies, to regions under attack. Also, in the case of injury or bleeding, the circulatory system sends clotting cells and proteins to the affected site, which quickly stop bleeding and promote healing. The heart, blood, and blood vessels are the three structural elements that make up the circulatory system. The heart is the engine of the circulatory system. It is divided into four chambers: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and the left ventricle. The walls of these chambers are made of a special muscle called myocardium, which contracts continuously and rhythmically to pump blood. The pumping action of the heart occurs in two stages for each heart beat: diastole, when the heart is at rest; and systole, when the heart contracts to pump deoxygenated blood toward the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body. During each heartbeat, typically about 60 to 90 ml (about 2 to 3 oz) of blood are pumped out of the heart. If the heart stops pumping, death usually occurs within four to five minutes. Blood consists of three types of cells: oxygen-bearing red blood cells, disease-fighting white blood cells, and blood-clotting platelets, all of which are carried through blood vessels in a liquid called plasma. Plasma is yellowish and consists of water, salts, proteins, vitamins, minerals, hormones, dissolved gases, and fats. Three types of blood vessels form a complex network of tubes throughout the body.Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry it toward the heart.Capillaries are the tiny links between the arteries and the veins where oxygen and nutrients diffuse to body tissues. The inner layer of blood vessels is lined with endothelial cells that create a smooth passage for the transit of blood. This inner layer is surrounded by connective tissue and smooth muscle that enable the blood vessel to expand or contract. Blood vessels expand during exercise to meet the increased demand for blood and to cool the

body. Blood vessels contract after an injury to reduce bleeding and also to conserve body heat.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestive System, series of connected organs whose purpose is to break down, or digest, the food we eat. Food is made up of large, complex molecules, which the digestive system breaks down into smaller, simple molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The simple molecules travel through the bloodstream to all of the body's cells, which use them for growth, repair, and energy. All animals have a digestive system, a feature that distinguishes them from plants. Plants produce their own food in a process called photosynthesis, during which they use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into simple sugars. But animals, including humans, must take in food in the form of organic matter, such as plants or other animals. Digestion generally involves two phases: a mechanical phase and a chemical phase. In the mechanical phase, teeth or other structures physically break down large pieces of food into smaller pieces. In the chemical phase, digestive chemicals called enzymes break apart individual molecules of food to yield molecules that can be absorbed and distributed throughout the body. These enzymes are secreted (produced and released) by glands in the body. The digestive system of most animals consists mainly of a long, continuous tube called the alimentary canal, or digestive tract. This canal has a mouth at one end, through which food is taken in, and an anus at the other end, through which digestive wastes are excreted. Muscles in the walls of the alimentary canal move the food along. Most digestive organs are part of the alimentary canal. However, two accessory digestive organs, the liver and pancreas, are located outside the alimentary canal. These organs contribute to chemical digestion by releasing digestive juices into the canal through tubes called ducts.

Nervous System
Nervous System, those elements within the animal organism that are concerned with the reception of stimuli, the transmission of nerve impulses, or the activation of muscle

mechanisms.

The nervous system is composed of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, processes and coordinates all incoming sensory information and outgoing motor commands, and it is also the seat of complex brain functions such as memory, intelligence, learning, and emotion. The peripheral nervous system includes all neural tissue outside of the central nervous system. It is responsible for providing sensory, or afferent, information to the central nervous system and carrying motor, or efferent, commands out to the bodys tissues. Voluntary motor commands, such as moving muscles to walk or talk, are controlled by the somatic nervous system, while involuntary motor commands, such as digestion and heart beat, are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into two systems. The sympathetic nervous system, sometimes called the fight or flight system, increases alertness, stimulates tissue, and prepares the body for quick responses to unusual situations. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system, sometimes called the rest and repose system, conserves energy and controls sedentary activities, such as digestion.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion - Excretion is the removal of the metabolic wastes of an organism. Wastes that are removed include carbon dioxide, water, salt, urea and uric acid. All excreted wastes travel at some time in the blood. Organs of the Excretory System 1. Lungs - removal of excess carbon dioxide 2. Liver - produces urea and uric acid as a by-product of the breakdown of proteins 3. Skin - removal of excess water, salt, urea and uric acid 4. Urinary System - kidneys filter the blood to form urine, which is excess water, salt, urea and uric acid

The Skin Two Layers of the Skin 1. Epidermis - outer protective layer without blood vessels 2. Dermis - inner layer containing blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, sweat and oil glands, hairs, and fat cells

Functions of the Skin 1. Excretion - Wastes such as excess water, salt, urea and uric acid are removed from the body in sweat. 2. Waterproofing - The skin with its oil glands prevents the entry of water into, and loss of water out of the body. 3. Protection from Disease - The intact skin prevents invasion of micro-organisms and dust into the body. 4. Protection from Ultraviolet Rays - Pigments reduce the intake of UV rays. 5. Regulation of Body Temperature - The thin layer of fat cells in the dermis insulates the body. Contraction of small muscles attached to hairs forms 'goose bumps' and creates an insulating blanket of warm air. Also, sweat produced by sweat glands uses excess body heat to evaporate, providing a cooling effect. 6. Sensory Detection - The nerve endings or receptors in the dermis detect heat, cold, touch, pressure and pain.

The Urinary System Urine The first nitrogenous waste to be formed from the breakdown of protein is ammonia, a highly toxic chemical that is quickly converted by the liver to urea and uric acid. These are less toxic than ammonia and are transported in the blood to the kidneys for excretion in urine. Urine consists of excess water, excess salt, urea and uric acid. Parts of the Urinary System

Renal Arteries - 2 renal arteries constantly transport blood to the kidneys. Kidneys - 2 kidneys composed of millions of nephrons constantly filter about 170 to 200 litres of blood to produce about 1.5 to 2 litres of urine daily. Renal Veins - 2 renal veins return useful nutrients back into the bloodstream. Ureters - 2 ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urinary Bladder - The urinary bladder temporarily stores urine until it is released from the body. Urethra - The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. The outer end of the urethra is controlled by a circular muscle called a sphincter.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeleton is the name given to the collection of bones that holds our body up. Our skeleton is very important to us. It does three major jobs. 1. It protects our vital organs such as the brain, the heart, and the lungs. 2. It gives us the shape that we have. Without our skeleton we would just be a blob of blood and tissue on the floor. 3. It allows us to move. Because our muscles are attached to our bones, when our muscles move, they move the bones, and we move. When you were born your skeleton had around 350 bones. By the time you become an adult, you will only have around 206 bones. This is because, as you grow some of the bones join together to form one bone. Our bones dont simply work on their own. The bones join together to form joints. The end of each bone is covered by a tough, smooth, shiny substance called cartilage. The cartilage covered bone ends are kept apart by a thin film of slippery fluid. All of this happens so your bones wont scratch and bump against each other when you move. Our bones are held together by strong stretchy bands called ligaments. These tissues prevent the bones from being dislocated or from extending beyond their proper range of movement.