Regenerative Braking using Modern Energy Storage Devices

Piyush Itankar
Department of Electrical Engineering, G.H. Raisoni College of Engineering CRPF gate 3, Hingna, Nagpur (M.H), India
pitankar@gmail.com

Abstract Regenerative Braking is a way to store and reuse a part of the energy produced during braking in an automobile by various electrical and mechanical mechanism. The focus is on the effectiveness of regenerative brakes and the way in which they can prove helpful in controlling fuel needs and global pollution. In this paper modern methods of storing and restoring electrical energy and there use in vehicle is also discussed. Besides, a detailed study of the carbon foot prints of vehicles fitted with the system, their fuel consumption and working mechanism of hybrid system is also presented. Finding the effectiveness and practicality of various mechanisms to store and retrieve energy in the system is the central point of the text. Index Terms Braking; Energy reuse; Hybrid Vehicle; Motor as Generator.

regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile [3]. Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the battery pack. Examples include the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Vectrix electric maxi-scooter, and the Chevrolet Volt. II. ELECT RIC RAILWAY VEHICLE OPERATION During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction generator (M G) and the motor armatures are connected across the load. The M G now excites the motor fields. The rolling locomotive or mult iple unit wheels turn the motor armatures, and the motors act as generators, either sending the generated current through onboard resistors (dynamic braking) o r back into the supply (regenerative braking). For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during braking will be opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction that is opposite from the rolling direction. Braking effort (E) is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of the field windings (B), times that of the armature windings (N).

I.

INT RODUCTION

HE BRA KING REGENERAT IVE hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer fro m Springdale, Arkansas in 1978 79. A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into another form, which can be either used immed iately or stored until needed. This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction in the brake lin ings and therefore wasted. The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the generated electricity is fed back into the supply system, whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored by compressing air or in a rotating flywheel. The motor as a generator Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using regenerative braking: it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking effect. Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode. Early examples of this system were the frontwheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger (1868-1951). The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for regenerative braking [1].An Energy Regeneration Brake was developed in 1967 fo r the AMC A mitron [2]. This was a co mpletely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by

(1)

Fig. 1. Regenerative Brake model [4].

Savings of 17% are claimed for Virgin Trains Pendolinos [5]. There is also less wear on friction braking co mponents. As no frictional braking is employed. Ho wever, the vehicle also has frictional brakes to be used in certain cases. The Delhi Metro saved around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) fro m being released into the atmosphere by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative

braking systems between 2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons of CO2 fro m being emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the use of regenerative braking [6]. Another form of simp le, yet effective regenerative braking is used on the London underground which is achieved by having small slopes leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed by the climb, and then leaves down a slope, so kinetic energy is converted to "stored" potential energy in the station. III. FUEL EFFICIENCY

Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, mean ing the efficiency of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier fuel into kinetic energy or work. In the context of transport, "fuel efficiency" more co mmon ly refers to the energy efficiency of a particular vehicle model, where its total output (range, or mileage [U.S.]) is given as a ratio of range units per a unit amount of input fuel (gasoline, diesel, etc.). Though the typical output measure is vehicle range, for certain applications output can also be measured in terms of weight per range units (freight) or individual passenger-range (vehicle range / passenger capacity). Hybrid vehicle designs use smaller co mbustion engines as electric generators to produce greater range per unit fuel than directly powering the wheels with an engine would, and (proportionally) less fuel emissions (CO2 grams) than a conventional (combustion engine) vehicle of similar size and capacity. Energy otherwise wasted in stopping is converted to electricity and stored in batteries which are then used to drive the small electric motors. Torque from these motors is very quickly supplied comp lementing power fro m the combustion engine. Fixed cylinder sizes can thus be designed more efficiently [7].
T ABLE I FUEL CONSUMP TION AND CARBON FOOT P RINT
EPA city mileage (mpg)
51 48 41 40 40 35 33 34 33 27 27 20 20 20

One Teams that used Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems in the 2009 season are Ferrari, Renault, BMW, and McLaren [8]. FIA rules also limit the exp loitation of the system. Eventually, during the season, Renault and BMW stopped using the system. Williams is developing a flywheel-KERS system. The concept of transferring the vehicles kinetic energy using Flywheel energy storage was postulated by physicist Richard Feynman in the 1950s and is exemp lified in complex high end systems such as the Zytek [9], Flybrid, Torotrak [10] [11] and Xtrac used in F1 and simp le, easily manufactured and integrated differential based systems such as the Cambridge Passenger/Commercial Veh icle Kinetic Energy Recovery System (CPC-KERS) [12]. However, the whole mechanism including the flywheel sits entirely in the vehicles hub (looking like a d ru m brake). In the CPC-KERS, a differential replaces the CVT and transfers torque between the flywheel, drive wheel and road wheel.

Fig. 2. Flywheel of F1 K.E.R.S.

Vehicle

Year model
2010 2009 2010 2009 2010 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009

Carbon foot print (tones/year of CO2 )

3.7 4.0 4.7 4.4 4.5 5.4 5.4 5.7 6.3 6.6 7.1 8.1 8.7 8.9

Toyota Pirus Toyota Pirus Ford Fusion Hybrid Honda Civic Hybrid Honda Insight Nissan Altima Hybrid Toyota Camry Hybrid Ford Escape Hybrid 2WD Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid Saturn Vue Hybrid Toyota Highlander Hybrid Lexus GS Hybrid 450h Dodge Durango HEV Lexus GS Hybrid 600h

IV. KINETIC ENERGY RECOVERY SYST EM Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS) were used for the motor sport Formu la One's 2009 season, and under development for road vehicles. However, KERS was abandoned for the 2010 Formula One season. The Formula

The first of these systems to be revealed was the Flybrid [13]. This system weighs 24 kg and has an energy capacity of 400 kJ after allowing for internal losses. A maximu m power boost of 60 kW (81.6 PS, 80.4 HP) for 6.67 s is available. The 240 mm diameter flywheel weighs 5.0 kg and revolves at up to 64,500 rp m. Maximu m torque is 18 Nm (13.3 ftlbs). The system occupies a volume of 13 liters [13]. Two minor incidents have been reported during testing of KERS systems in 2008. The first occurred when the Red Bull Racing team tested their KERS battery for the first time in Ju ly: it malfunctioned and caused a fire scare that led to the team's factory being evacuated [14]. The second was less than a week later when a BMW Sauber mechanic was given an electric shock when he touched Christian Klien's KERS-equipped car during a test at the Jerez circu it [15]. Vodafone McLaren Mercedes became the first team to win a F1 GP using a KERS equipped car when Lewis Hamilton won the Hungarian Grand Prix on July 26, 2009. On August 30, 2009, Kimi Rikknen won the Belg ian Grand Prix with his KERS equipped Ferrari. It was the first time that KERS contributed directly to a race victory, with second placed Giancarlo Fisichella claiming "Actually, I was quicker than Kimi. He only took me because of KERS at the beginning" [16]. KTM racing boss Harald Bartol has revealed that the factory raced with a secret Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS) fitted to Tommy Koyama's motorcycle during the 2008 season-ending 125cc Valencian

Grand Prix. This was illegal and against the rules. So they were later banned fro m doing it afterwards. V. W ORKING MECHANISM OF HYBRID SYSTEM Traditionally friction is what turns the car's kinetic energy into heat. With regenerative brakes, on the other hand, the system that drives the vehicle does the majority of the braking. When the driver steps on the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle, these types of brakes put the vehicle's electric motor into reverse mode, causing it to run backwards, thus slowing the car's wheels.

loss. The ultra capacitor Bank gets charged in minutes and can be discharged in no time, as per the demand making the system more robust in stop and go type of traffic. Because so much is controlled electronically in a regenerative braking system, it's even possible for the driver to select certain presets that determine how the vehicle reacts in different situations. For instance, in some vehicles a driver can select whether regenerative braking should begin immediately whenever the driver's foot comes off the accelerator pedal and whether the braking system will take the car all the way to 0 mph (0 kilo meters per hour) or will let the car coast slightly.

Fig. 3 . System Setup [17].

While running backwards, the motor also acts as an electric generator, producing electricity that's then fed into the vehicle's batteries. The system is most effective in stop-and-go driving situations [17]. However, hybrids and fully electric cars also have friction brakes, as a kind of back-up system in situations where regenerative braking simp ly won't supply enough stopping power [18]. One of the more interesting properties of an electric motor is that, when it's run in one direction, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy that can be used to perform work (such as turning the wheels of a car), but when the motor is run in the opposite direction, a properly designed motor becomes an electric generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The trick to getting the motor to run backwards is to use the vehicle's mo mentu m as the mechanical energy that puts the motor into reverse. Momentum is the property that keeps the vehicle moving forward once it's been brought up to speed. Once the motor has been reversed, the electricity generated by the motor is fed back into the batteries, where it can be used to accelerate the car again after it stops. Sophisticated electronic circu itry is necessary to decide when the motor should reverse, while specialized electric circu its route the electricity generated by the motor into the vehicle's batteries. In some cases, the energy produced by these types of brakes is stored in a series of capacitors for later use [19]. This capacitors not only act as a buffer between the batteries and power circuit, but also help in feed ing the system for acceleration with greater power with higher speed, there by avoiding the stress on batteries and avoiding resistive heat

Fig. 4. Dual use of motor.

VI. ENERGY ST ORAGE Energy storage is accomplished by devices or physical med ia that store some form of energy to perform some useful operation at a later time. A device that stores energy is sometimes called an accu mulator. All forms of energy are either potential (e.g. chemical, gravitational, electrical energy, etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. thermal energy). A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Ice storage tanks store ice (thermal energy) at night to meet peak demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Even food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form. In Regenerative braking system usually the energy is stored either in the form of electrical energy using Batteries or super capacitors or in the form of rotational kinetic energy. New approach includes use of super conducting magnetism. The mechanis ms are as follows: A. Rechargeable Batteries. The mo re electro lyte and electrode material there is in the cell, the greater the capacity of the cell. Thus a small cell has

less capacity than a larger cell, g iven the same chemistry (e.g. alkaline cells), though they develop the same open-circuit voltage [20]. Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current (which may vary with time), the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature and other factors [20]. The availab le capacity of a battery depends upon the rate at which it is discharged [21]. If a battery is discharged at a relatively high rate, the available capacity will be lower than expected. The battery capacity that battery manufacturers print on a battery is usually the product of 20 hours mult iplied by the maximu m constant current that a new battery can supply for 20 hours at 68 F (20 C), down to a predetermined terminal voltage per cell. A battery rated at 100 Ah will deliver 5 A over a 20 hour period at roo m temperature. However, if it is instead discharged at 50 A, it will have a lower apparent capacity [20]. The relat ionship between current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a certain range of current values) by Peukert's law:

of millifarads. The same size electric double-layer capacitor might reach several farads, an improvement of six orders of magnitude. Super capacitors usually yield a lower working voltage; as of 2010 larger double-layer capacitors have capacities up to 5,000 farads [24]. Also in 2010, the highest available super capacitor energy density is 30 Wh/kg; (although 85 Wh/kg has been achieved at room temperature in the lab) lo wer than rapid -charging lithiu m-titanate batteries. EDLCs have a variety of commercial applications, notably in "energy smoothing" and mo mentary-load devices. They have applications as energy-storage devices used in vehicles and for smaller applications like ho me solar energy systems where ext remely fast charging is a valuable feature. Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibriu m position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by [25].

=
Where

=
Where

= =0

1 2

(3)

(2)

Q is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp. I is the current drawn fro m battery (A). t is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain. k is a constant around 1.3. For low values of I internal self-discharge must be included. In practical batteries, internal energy losses, and limited rate of diffusion of ions through the electrolyte, cause the efficiency of a battery to vary at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates [22], but if the rate is too low, it will self-discharge during the long time of operation, again lowering its efficiency. Installing batteries with different Ah ratings will not affect the operation of a device rated for a specific voltage unless the load limits of the battery are exceeded. High-drain loads like d igital cameras can result in lower actual energy, most notably for alkaline batteries [23]. For examp le, a battery rated at 2000 mAh would not sustain a current of 1 A for the full two hours, if it had been rated at a 10-hour or 20-hour discharge. B. Super Capacitors An electric double-layer capacitor, also known as super capacitor, super condenser, pseudo-capacitor, electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC), or u ltra capacitor, is an electrochemical capacitor with relat ively high energy density. Co mpared to conventional capacitors the energy density is typically on the order of thousands of times greater than an electrolytic capacitor. In co mparison with conventional batteries or fuel cells, however, super capacitors have a much higher power density. A typical D-cell sized electrolytic capacitor displays capacitance in the range of tens

W is work o r Energy stored. V is voltage. Q is charge. C is capacitance. And (4) g ives the discharge time of a capacitor = (1

(4) (5)

= .
Where

Vc(t) is Capacitor voltage at time t. VR (t) is Load voltage at time t. R is Load resistance C is capacitance of Capacitor.

Fig. 5. Capacitor discharge curve.

Such capacitors have long life, with little degradation over hundreds of thousands of charge cycles. Due to the capacitor's high number of charge-discharge cycles (millions or more compared to 200 to 1000 for most commercially available rechargeable batteries) it will last for the entire lifetime of most devices, which makes the device environment friendly. Rechargeable batteries wear out typically over a few years, and their highly reactive chemical electrolytes present a disposal and safety hazard. Battery lifetime can be optimized by only charging under favorable conditions, at an ideal rate and, for some chemistries, as infrequently as possible. EDLCs can help in conjunction with batteries by acting as a charge conditioner, storing energy from other sources for load balancing purposes and then using any excess energy to charge the batteries at a suitable time. 1) Low cost per cycle. 2) Good reversib ility. 3) Very high rates of charge and discharge. 4) Extremely lo w internal resistance (ESR) and consequent high cycle efficiency (95% or more) and extremely low heating levels 5) High output power 6) High specific power. According to ITS (Institute of Transportation Studies, Davis, Californ ia) test results, the specific power of electric double-layer capacitors can exceed 6 kW/kg at 95% efficiency [26]. 7) Improved safety. 8) No corrosive electro lyte and low to xicity of materials. 9) Simp le charge methods no full-charge detection is needed; no danger of overcharging. Ultra capacitors are used in some concept prototype vehicles, in order to keep batteries within resistive heating limits and extend battery life [27] [28]. The ultrabattery co mbines a super capacitor and a battery in one unit, creating an electric vehicle battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). The FIA, the governing body for many motor racing events, proposed in the PowerTrain Regulation Framework for Formula 1 version 1.3 o f 23 May 2007 that a new set of power train regulat ions be issued that includes a hybrid drive of up to 200 kW input and output power using "super batteries" made with both batteries and super capacitors . C. Flywheel Energy storage Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as rotational energy. When energy is extracted fro m the system, the fly wheel's rotational speed is reduced as a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy; adding energy to the system correspondingly results in an increase in the speed of the flywheel. Most FES systems use electricity to accelerate and decelerate the fly wheel, but devices that directly use mechanical energy are being developed. Advanced FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon filaments, suspended by magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rp m in a vacuum enclosure. Such fly wheels can come up to speed in a

matter of minutes much quicker than some other forms of energy storage.

Fig. 6. The original CVT based Formula One KERS [32].

D. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SM ES) systems store energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil wh ich has been cryogenically cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature. A typical SM ES system includes three parts: superconducting coil, power conditioning system and cryogenically cooled refrigerator. Once the superconducting coil is charged, the current will not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely. The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil. The power conditioning system uses an inverter/rectifier to transform alternating current (A C) power to direct current or convert DC back to AC power. The inverter/rectifier accounts for about 2 3% energy loss in each direction. SM ES loses the least amount of electricity in the energy storage process compared to other methods of storing energy. SMES systems are highly efficient; the round-trip efficiency is greater than 95% . Due to the energy requirements of refrigeration and the high cost of superconducting wire, SM ES is currently used for short duration energy storage. Therefore, SMES is most commonly devoted to improving power quality. If SM ES were to be used for utilit ies it would be a diurnal storage device, charged from base load power at night and meeting peak loads during the day. The magnetic energy stored by a coil carry ing a current is given by one half of the inductance of the coil t imes the square of the current.

=
Where

1 2

(6)

E = energy measured in joules L = inductance measured in henries

I = current measured in amperes Now lets consider a cylindrical co il with conductors of a rectangular cross section. The mean radius of coil is R. a and b are width and depth of the conductor. f is called form function which is different for different shapes of coil. (xi) and (delta) are t wo parameters to characterize the dimensions of the coil. We can therefore write the magnetic energy stored in such a cylindrical coil as shown below. This energy is a function of coil dimensions, number of turns and carrying current.

=
Where

1 2

2 2 (, )

(7)

E = energy measured in joules. I = current measured in amperes. f(,) = fo rm function, joules per ampere -meter. N = nu mber of turns of coil. VII. CONCLUSION By generating electricity with the motor, reverse the flow of electricity back to the battery, the vehicle slows down and, at the same time recharges its own battery. The car will subsequently expend less fuel, in the case of a hybrid, or spend less time recharging, as in the case of an EV. In both cases it means conserving more energy and ultimately ecofriendly. Reducing the expenditure of fuel, the pollution is subsequently reduced and emissions are limited to the permitted value. It hold a incredible potential to increase the efficiency of vehicles both in terms of fuel consumption and carbon emission, as the work load is distributed between two units. With the on going research in the field one can expect vehicles fitted with the system to appear in market at reasonable prices , better efficiency, fuel performance and above all with less maintenance requirements. REFERENCES Dave (16 March 2009). "Horseless Carriage: 1906" (http:/ / www. shorpy. com/ node/ 5734#co mment-58487). Shorpy. . Retrieved 14 August 2010. Grahame, James (22 September 2008). "1968: AM C's Amazing Amitron Electric Car" (http:/ / www. retrothing. com/ 2008/ 09/ 1968-amcs-amazi. html). Retro Thing: Vintage Gadgets and Technology. . Retrieved 14 August 2010. "Next: the Voltswagon?" (http://www.time.co m/time/ magazine/article/0,9171,8999 45,00. ht ml). Time. 22 December 1967. . Retrieved 14 August 2010. http://www.trw.co m/fuel_economy_products_technologie s/regenerative_braking Roger Ford (July 2, 2007). "Regenerative braking boosts green credentials" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080317080137/ http:/ / www.railwaygazette. com/ features_view/article/2007/ 07/ 7577/ regenerative_braking_boosts_green_credentials. html).

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