ANCIENT GREECE

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF GREEK CULTURE IN THE EMBODIMENT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION?

Ancient Greece is a period in Greek history that lasted for around three thousand years. It is generally considered to be the influential culture which provided the foundation of Western Civilization. The civilization of the Ancient Greeks has been immensely influential on the commerce, industry, language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and arts. Greeks occupy the rocky, mountainous tip of the Balkan Peninsula jutting out into the Eastern Mediterranean, together with the many hundreds of small islands scattered around the coast. The Greek world in antiquity encompassed western Anatolia, Thrace, the islands of the Aegan Sea, Crete, Cyprus, mainland Greece, southern Italy, and Sicily. The chronological development of Greek civilization has been divided into 2 major sections Early Greek civilization Archaic and Classical period 1. Early Greek Civilization Early Greek civilization has 3 main epochs: Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Dark Age

MINOAN CIVILIZATION
The first important civilisation was the Minoan civilization, centred at Knossos, on the island of Crete. The civilization flourished as a maritime power from 27th century - 15th century B.C. The civilization came into light when diggings were conducted by Sir Arthur Evans. The Minoan palaces were the centres of political authority, residences of the Minoan aristocracy, and were engaged in regulating economic activities over a wide area. Goods were taken to the palaces for storage, processing, redistribution, and overseas trade. They had large store rooms and workshops which were not fortified which indicated that Minoan society was internally very stable. The palace complexes were the centres for the production of oil, wine, and textiles. The lack of defensive walls shows that the Minoans had sufficient naval strength to deal effectively with great aggression. There is abundant evidence of wealth. Most Minoan palaces included numerous storerooms containing pithoi, or giant storage jars.

They began building large urban centres around 2000 B.C. on the island of Crete and over the next 600 years spread to other islands in the Aegean. It remained almost exclusively an island-based civilization. Knossos is the largest known Minoan centre. Another major site was located on the island of Thera (modern Santorni) and included the city of Akrotri. Long distance seaborne trade and exchange was the mainstay of the Minoan economy. Minoan ships traded with Egypt, Anatolia, the Lebanese coast, Cyprus, and the Aegean. Sheep rearing and wool production were vital components of the Minoan rural economy. Three main crops cultivated under Minoan agriculture were wheat, olives, and grapes. Goods were brought from the rural areas to the cities for exchange and redistribution. The Minoans had developed writing, mainly for the purpose of maintaining lists of goods. They raised several animals, including cattle, goats, and pigs. Also, bees were domesticated for honey production, as were donkeys and oxen for ploughing purposes. The Minoans also had a healthy shipping industry, as evidenced by the many colonies they established throughout the eastern Mediterranean. The Minoans are particularly well-known for their artistic developments. Excavations have revealed frescoes, statues, and pottery. Bulls and snakes, both religious symbols, featured prominently in many works of art, as do other non-religious animals. The most famous of the Minoan frescoes is one depicting the religious ritual of bull-leaping, which was found in the palace of Minos. Minoans also pioneered many architectural methods. Cities featured roads paved with stone, sewers, and plumbing. The most-recognized type of Minoan architecture is the palace. Palaces were centres of government, allowing the dozens of individual communities to come under centralized political authority. Palaces also were used to store crop surpluses, and house shrines to goddesses. The decline of Minoan civilization and the decline in use of bronze tools in favour of superior iron ones seem to be correlated. The Minoan civilization of Crete came to an end around 1400 B.C. Natural calamities, triggered by a major volcanic eruption the southern Aegean, might have caused its sudden collapse.

MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION
The Mycenaean civilization flourished from c. 1600 B.C. 1200 B.C. and was discovered by Heinrich Schleimann. The major sites in this civilization are Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, Orchomcnos, and Knossos. The cities were dominated by strong fortress. The citadels of the wanax were the nucleus of Mycenaean urban centres. The Mycenaean states were ruled by warrior chiefs, who usually bore the royal title wanax and ruled over their territories from fortified palace complexes which dominated the Mycenaean urban centres. This civilization is also called a warrior civilization. The fortified palace complexes exercised extensive control over the respective economies of the Mycenaean states through centralized bureaucratic structures. The ruling class of the Mycenaean states was composed of the king, the priests, the bureaucrats, and the warrior aristocracy.

The Mycenaeans were landowners who gave the king horses, chariots, weapons, wheat, and livestock, in exchange for protection. The Mycenaeans had an extensive foreign trade. Oil, pottery and textiles were their main exports and imported gold, copper and tin. Mycenaean artwork was influenced, like nearly all other aspects of their civilization, by the Minoans. Pottery, statues, and paintings make up the majority of Mycenaean art. Mycenaeans developed advanced bronze-working techniques, creating swords, shields, and suits of armour. Abundant written records have been discovered which provide us with details about the role played by the palaces in the economy. The Mycenaeans evolved a script which is referred to as the Linear B script in the form of clay tablets, which was deciphered in 1952 by Michael Ventris. They were compiled by palace officials to keep track of large number of transactions that the palace had to undertake in order to regulate a wide range of economic activities. The language spoken by the Mycenaeans was an ancestor of Modern Greek. This period is characterized by a shift back to multiple burials and several types of tombs were in use. Common folk were buried with pottery, jewellery, weapons, and other grave goods in simple chamber tombs hacked out of bedrock. The chiefs were buried in large beehive shaped tombs (thalami) or in large chamber tombs. Tribal movements and the decline of trade had led to the collapse of the Mycenaean social and political structure after 1200 B.C. Linear B script also disappeared. The system of production and redistribution under the supervision of the palaces broke down. The bureaucracy which organised this system lost its control. Subsequently, in many of the Mycenaean states, the kings were forced to surrender some of their privileges to powerful clan chiefs and landed aristocrats. Both the Minoans and the Mycenaeans believed in polytheism, but their main goddess was Mother Earth.

DARK AGE
Dark Age (1200 B.C. 800 B.C.) was a period of chaos and the movements of people. The significance of this date is that around this time two great Greek epics, Iliad and Odyssey were written which mark a turning point in Greek history. Their composition is attributed to a poet named Homer. These epics are a very rich historical source and are part of the tradition of epic poetry. The main theme of Iliad is the war of a coalition of Greek states against the state of Troy (the ruins of ancient Troy are located in the north-western corner of Anatolia). According to the story narrated in the epic this war, known as the Trojan War, lusted for ten years. Odyssey recounts the adventures encountered by Odysseus, one of the heroes of the war, on his homeward journey after the conclusion of the campaign. The epics give us some idea about various aspects of contemporary religion, mythology, beliefs, food habits and dress. The Dark Age is divided into two sub-periods: 1200 - 1050 B.C. and 1050 - 800 B.C. The archaeological evidence reveals a sharp decline in population between 1300 and 1100 B.C. A

new economy and social structure began to emerge in Greece in early 1000 B.C. The major Greek dialects evolved in this period - Ionic, Doric, and Aeolic. In the dark ages, the Greeks were politically divided into a large number of petty states. These states were ruled by kings or chiefs with limited authority. A significant feature of this period was the introduction and dissemination of iron technology from c. 1000 B.C. onwards. The end of the Dark Age saw the revival of writing in Greece. The Phoenicians had evolved an alphabetic script in c. 1500 B.C.

ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE ARCHAIC GREECE

The Archaic Period (C. 800 - 500 B.C.) witnessed an intense conflict between the landed aristocracy and the peasantry throughout Greece. The institution of monarchy had weakened in Greece and effective power was passed into the hands of oligarchies. A number of Greek states evolved into democracies Chios (600 B.C.) and Megara (590 B.C.). The first Olympics Games took place in 776 B.C. It became a central aspect of Greek culture. Olympia, in southern Greece, became famous for its temples and monuments, particularly the gold and ivory Statue of Zeus that sat upon his throne in the high temple, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. By the 8th century B.C., the polis had emerged. The polis was the centre of Greek community life. These small, independent city states were the basic political unit of Greek civilization during the Archaic and Classical period. The primary advantages of life in a polis were security and the economic opportunities. The city would have measure of control over the natural resources within its territory. Exports and imports were taxed. Much of the economy was based on the ownership of slaves Greeks and foreigners, often acquired as a result of military campaigns. The nucleus of the polis was the elevated, fortified site - the Acropolis where people could take refuge from attack. The citizens of the Greek polis could exercise their right to participate and vote in the assembly, which was the basic right of citizenship, by personally attending the meetings of assembly. Another feature of the polis was the presence of a council, a much smaller body than the assembly, which held concrete charge of the government. Colonization (750 490 B.C.) began towards the 8th century B.C. and continued throughout the Archaic period. The early colonizing states are found in a band running through central Greece: Achaia, Corinth, and Megara at the West, and the islands of Euboia, Andros, Naxos, and Paros to the East. Four major types of government evolved during the archaic and classical Greece: Monarchy which was limited to an aristocratic council and a popular assembly Oligarchy which arose when the aristocratic council ousted the king and abolished or restricted the popular assembly

Tyranny which was imposed by one man who rode to power on the discontent of the lower classes Democracy is the outstanding political achievement of the Greeks, which emerged after the tyrant was deposed and the popular assembly revived and made the chief organ of government.

CLASSICAL GREECE
The golden age of classical Greece lasted from the early fifth to the late fourth century B.C., and was concentrated in Asia Minor and the Greek Isles. Greek city states had different governments and ideals, but they spoke the same language, believed in the same gods, read Homers epics, and competed in the same sports. They considered themselves superior to all the others, who they considered were barbarians. During this golden age, drama, sculpture, poetry, philosophy, architecture, art and science all reached new heights. The artistic and literary legacies during this age continue to inspire and instruct people around the world. Athens and Sparta, the city-states destined to dominate the history of Greece during the classical period, underwent markedly different developments during the period prior to 500 B.C.

SPARTA
Sparta was a military state which had defeated the people of Laconia and Messenia. The Spartans became a society of brave warriors, but did not develop arts, trade, literature, etc. Every stage of Spartan life was planned. Men were trained to be warriors. Sickly babies were abandoned and left to die. Death in battle was the highest honour for a Spartan. Spartans were expected to marry by the age of 20. Men retired at 60, but most continued helping the government or taught in military school. Women managed farms and households. Spartan Government was classified as an "oligarchy". It was ruled by two kings, each representing a different tribe, and a Council of 28 aristocrats, each over 60 years of age. The Council sent matters to be discussed to the Assembly. The Assembly of all Spartan males aged 30 or over could support or veto the council's recommendations by shouting out their votes. The Spartan government was founded on the principle that the life of every individual, from the moment of birth, belonged absolutely to the state. Women did not participate in the political life of Sparta.

ATHENS
Athens claimed to be the birthplace of democracy. Athenian government was classified as a direct democracy. The democratic government of Athens rested on 3 main institutions: The Assembly of the Demos The Council of 500

The Peoples Court

Athenians thought education was important. They balanced intellectual aspects, athletics, and music. At the age of 18, men had two years of military training. Then they became citizens and could take part in the government. However, women were considered inferior. Neither foreigners nor slaves could take part in government. Draco wrote the first Greek laws in 621 B.C. These laws were very harsh, and death penalty was common for even small offences. Material wealth was displayed in the form of costly dedications made in sanctuaries such as the Acropolis of Athens or at Brauron, Eleusis, and Sounion. Cemeteries also provide rich material from this period: lavish burials contained intricately worked gold jewellery and unusual glass objects, along with specially made funerary vases. The Assembly met on the Hill of the Pnyx at the foot of the Acropolis and passed laws and made policy decisions. It was the most central and most definitive institution of the Athenian Democracy. It was a regular gathering of male Athenian citizens (women also enjoyed a certain citizen status, but without political rights) to listen, to discuss, and vote on decrees that affected every aspect of Athenian life, both public and private, from financial matters to religious ones, from public festivals to war, from treaties with foreign powers to regulations governing ferry boats. The Assembly was the regular opportunity for all male citizens of Athens to speak their minds and exercise their votes regarding the government of their city. The Council represented the full-time government of Athens. It consisted of 500 citizens, 50 from each of the ten tribes, who served for one year. The Council could issue decrees on its own, regarding certain matters, but its main function was to prepare the agenda for meetings of the Assembly.

GREEK CULTURE
Greek culture is one of the most influential and enduring legacies. Greek literary periods can be classified according to dominant poetic forms that reflect particular stages of cultural revolution in Greece. First came the time of great epics, followed by periods in which lyric poetry and then drama flourished. The writing of Herodotus and Thcydidus gave a new and modern meaning to history as a distinct branch of knowledge. Herodotus travelled widely and gathered historical information about several countries. Thicydides prepared a history of the Peloponnesian wars. His history is both a straightforward narrative and incisive analysis of the contemporary political situation of Greece. Historical accounts have been a mixture of facts, fiction, myth, legends, stories, fables, and anecdotes. Homer portrayed people trying to live up to standards of courage and honour. Pindar wrote poems that paid homage to sporting heroes. Sappho praised friendship and love. Paintings and sculptures showed the ideal bodies. Greeks looked for rational ways to explain the natural world. They were the first to believe in natural laws.

Athenian drama, both comedies and tragedies, formed an important part of Greek life. Dramatic performances were only held during annual festivals, performances were outdoors during the day, several plays would be presented each day of the festival. Greek drama focused on both the problems that Athenians faced in their daily lives and also on the politics of the time. The tragedies of the major playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides are set in Greeks heroic past and focus on the fortunes of the royal houses. In 6th century B.C., architecture flourished in Ionia, Greece, and the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy with the construction of large temples of stone. Their form was a development from earlier wooden structures that had been influenced by the remains of Mycenaean palaces. The Parthenon, the Erechtheum, and the other temples on the Athenian Acropolis exhibit the highly developed features that make Greek structure so pleasing to the eye. The Greek temple was open, with a colonnade porch and an inside room containing a statue of the god. Sacrifice and ritual took place outside the temple, where the altar was placed. Other types of buildings, notably the theatres, stadiums, and gymnasiums, also express the Greek spirit and way of life. The Greeks constructed temples dedicated to their gods and goddesses. The temples were regarded as abodes of the respective deities. Early Greek religion abounded in gods and goddesses who personified the forces of nature. Demeter, was the earth and giver of grain Apollo, was the sun and giver of light Poseidon, was the ruler of the waters Aphrodite, the goddess of love Dionysus, the god of fertility and wine Athena, the goddess of wisdom and guardian of Athens There was also the practice of seeking intimation of ones future, and advice, from god. It was held that the gods revealed the future in the form of signs which could be only interpreted by specialists called oracles. The oracle at Delphi was famous throughout Greece.

SLAVE LABOUR
A distinctive feature of ancient Greek civilization was the widespread use of slave labour in various sectors of the economy. Slaves played an essential role in the polis. Slavery was accepted in Greece because it provided the male citizens more free time from labour to participate in public affairs. By the Archaic and Classical Periods, slaves were to be found in every sector of production, especially in mining, handicrafts, craft, trade and agriculture. The earliest slaves in Greece were women who formed a significant portion of the workforce in Mycenaean palaces. All activities were open to slaves with the exception of participation in politics. The principal use of slavery was in agriculture, the foundation of the Greek economy. The prosperity of Athens during the Classical Period rested on the expansion of slave labour. During the 5th century B.C., Athens contained approximately 100,000 slaves and this constituted from 1/3 - of the total population. Most Athenians, except for the very poor, owned at least one slave. Slaves were mostly privately owned. These slaves were regarded as property and bought and sold in the market as commodities. It has been estimated that 20,000

to 30,000 worked in the Athenian silver mines. Besides agriculture and mining, slaves dominated handicraft production and were engaged in various kinds of domestic and menial work. Slaves could be freed in Athens but they could not attain the status of a free person. Sparta enslaved the entire population of the city-state of Messenia. Sparta had annexed the territory of Messenia and had converted the entire population of this area into slaves. Helots were slaves who were owned collectively by the entire Spartan community. The distribution of helots was regulated by the state. The state assigned a certain number of slaves to each family depending upon its requirements for labour. They were bound to the farms and forced to cultivate the soil for the citizens who owned the land. Helotry was a more primitive form of slavery which in turn reflected the relative backwardness of Spartan economy. The Classical Period came to an end in 338 B.C. when the Macedonians subjugated the Polis of the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea. Using improved military techniques and the resources of the Macedonian plains, King Philip II (382-336 B.C.) created an empire which eventually included the Greek states of the peninsula and the Aegean. In 338 B.C. Philip defeated the Greek city-states at Chaeronea and placed them under Macedonian rule. With the Macedonian conquest the era of the Polis came to an end.