YUGOSLAVIA FROM TITO TO MILOEVI INTRO: How do we explain the collapse of multi-national Yugoslavia in view of Tito's reputation till

his death? Hypothesis: Tito and Titoism can only be understood within the framework of Marxist revolutionary utopianism. The utopianism was particularly expressed with regard to the national question; the claim that this was solved by the Yugoslav form of communism (socialist self-management) brought discredit on communism when nationalism patently reemerged. THE 1940s BACKGROUND: PROBLEMS - Internal inheritance: a poverty-stricken, nationally-divided Balkan state: civil war and massacre, 1941-5 (JASENOVAC). But: Partisans as antidote; strong leaders: Tito, RANKOVI, DJILAS, KARDELJ. - external danger: split with Soviet Union. But: western support after initial doubts. THE CONSTRUCTION OF TITOISM 1. A fully independent, non-aligned communist state - reconciliation with Soviets on own terms by 1955 - continued criticism of western imperialism and Israel; continued balancing act with Soviet Union (low points, 1958-60, 1968-70). President Carter reaffirms support. - non-aligned movement 2. Distinctive form of communism: socialist self-management - Emergence of the idea, 1950-52 - Initial limitations of self-management (state control of wages and investment) challenged from late 50s - coalition of economic reformers and pro-federalist non- Serbs, early 1960s > 1965 economic reform = `socialist market', investment role of banks, on commercial principles. Devaluation, unemployment and Gastarbeiter 3 A flexible nationality policy, based on federalism and `brotherhood and unity' - Six republics representing all five Slav nations (NB: Montenegro & Macedonia) & multinational Bosnia, plus autonomous provinces VOJVODINA & KOSOVO. Blind eye turned to civil war past: policy of forgetfulness. But: de facto centralism (Serb-Montenegrin presence in army and police; role of RANKOVI). - Fall of Rankovi, 1966 > Drive for decentralisation: Constitutional amendments campaign, 1967-71 > - increased power of republics; consensus principle on social/economic issues etc - collective leadership in state and party - national key in appointments - Croatian national movement (`Croatian Spring'); Croats' economic grievances; language question. Tito removes Croatian communist leadership for nationalism, Dec `71; removes Serb CP `liberal' leadership, `73. i.e. balanced Tito nationality policy. - 1974 constitution. Enlarges powers of Provinces (Kosovo). Attempted counterbalance to nationalism thro' further extensions of self-management, e.g. Law of

Associated Labour. 1976, cf.`Delegate system'. Kardelj's critique of western democracy. - Recognition of a Muslim nation in 1971 census i.e. RAMETs positive view of `balance of powersystem. Yugoslavias international prestige and internal self-confidence. CRITIQUE OF THE ABOVE TITOIST MODEL 1. Heroic Independence: Nora Beloff on Tito, the communist dictator. Life-style 2. Economics: Lydall on inefficiency of socialist self-management (restricts interregional mobility of labour, encourages wasteful use of capital). Failure of 1965 economic reform. Tito's reputation > ready foreign credit and massive debt. Only 30% of imports covered by exports by 1979. 3. National problem: Croat resentment of suppression of `Croatian spring'; Serb resentment of dismissal of Rankovi, 1966, allegedly confederal 1974 constitution and support of artificial nations (Macedonia, Bosnian Muslims) and Kosovo Albanians. Judgement: How fair the critique? Tito a realist and a revolutionary: `there are no Yugoslavs. Twin roots of his strategy: policy of stressing revolutionary partisan legacy and forgetting wartime sins. Problems of this position? - partisan legacy = positive image of Yugoslavia: dependent on international situation and economic success - ideological approach to nationality problem (socialist self-management: more Kardeljs policy than Titos) utopian or realistic, in view of strength of nationalism? Suggestion: would a realistic (cynical?) policy have rewarded the stronger nations i.e. Titos politices depended on his own charisma. THE POST-TITO ERA 1. Decline of non-aligned movement. Gorbachev's perestroika outshines Yugoslav reform communism 2. Self-management beached on a failed economy. `Stabilisation' programme > stagflation. Real wages fall by a quarter by 1984. - `Iron triangle' of enterprise management, local council and republican leadership deguts worker participation > corruption (Agrocommerce scandal, Bosnia) 3. Worsening of national relations. - Wranglings over World War Two - tarnish Partisan struggle, hence legitimacy of communist rule. Croatian historian Franjo TUDJMAN and `Jasenovc myth' - plays down Ustasha massacres of Serbs. Attempts at rehabilitation of wartime chetniks by Serb nationalists. Rival solutions: recentralisation or full confederalism? Increasing nervous exhaustion. Aspects: Economics: unity of the Yugoslav market? Cultural: Mistaken priorities? WACHTEL (204) and neglect of cultural politics Political: Serb paranoia and Croat discontent. Could there have been a wager on the strong, i.e. the two biggest nations, Serbs and Croats?

CATALYSTS OF COLLAPSE Internal factors: Kosovo problem - Albanian riots, 1981. Serbian Academy's Memorandum, 1986 and MILOEVIs rise to power- personality and motivation; he abolishes Albanian autonomy, 1989. Croat-Slovene fears that Serb triumphalism will be turned against them. - External factors. Collapse of communism elsewhere, 1989 > free elections won by anti-communists in Croatia/Slovenia, spring `90. Their hopes of European Community backing. - Personality factors. Miloevi and Tudjman in 1989-1991 interregnum - External factor repeated. Wavering EC line, 1991-92 Conclusion: Yugoslavia the victim of a utopian ideology? Or could one argue that only utopian aspirations could have held it together at all?

COMMUNIST YUGOSLAVIA - SOME FACTS 1943 1944 1945 1946 1948 1950 1952 1954 1955 1958 1962 1965 1966 1967 1968 19701971 1973 1974 1976 1980 1981 1982 1985 1986 1987 1989 1990 Second conference of AVNOJ (Partisans political front) Tito-Subai agreement Partisans win overwhelming electoral victory. Republic declared Execution of Mihailovi Break with Stalin. Introduction of collectivisation Collectivisation abandoned Sixth Congress: socialist self-management regularised Djilas expelled from LCY Reconciliation with Soviet Union Programme of LCY: criticises Soviet system Titos Split speech: comes down for reform Economic reform Fall of Rankovi Beginning of constitutional amendments movement (till 1971) Riots in Kosovo. End of the Serb-minority dominated regime Croatian Spring begins (crushed December 1971) Bosnian Muslims can record nationality as Muslim in census Tito suppresses liberal leadership of Serbian communist party New constitution - confederal? Law on Associated Labour: extends socialist self-management Death of Tito Albanians demonstrate for republican status in Kosovo IMF impose economic stabilisation terms Djureti writes Yugoslavia and the Allies in WW2 pro-chetnik? Serbian Academy memorandum Krestis article accusing Croats of genocidal tradition going back to 19. Century Miloevi comes to power in Serbia Battle of Kosovo (1389) commemmoration. Abolition of Kosovo autonomy (Jan). Last session of LCY all-Yugoslav conference ends inquorate (Apr). Victory of anti-comunsts in Slovene and Croat republican elections (Aug) Beginning of violence between Croatian Serbs and Croatian authorities (Nov). Victory of Miloevis Socialist Party (renamed communists) in Serbian republican elections (Dec) Slovene referendum votes for independence (June) Croats and Slovenes declare secession; JNA attacks Slovenia; EC mediation: three months pause (July) (from July) War in Croatia (October) Hague conference on Yugoslavia under Lord Carrington (Dec) Germany declares for recognition of Slovene and Croat independence (Jan) UN peace-keepers in Croatia (March) Lisbon negotiations for Bosnian `cantonalisation. Izetbegovi withdraws initial agreement > (end of March) referendum on Bosnian independence (April) Bosnian government declares independence. Bosnian Serbs, with JNA help, begin ethnic cleansing in east and north-east Bosnia

1991

1992

reputation till his death? Hypothesis: Tito and Titoism can only be understood within the framework of Marxist revolutionary utopianism. THE 1940s BACKGROUND: PROBLEMS - Internal inheritance: a poverty-stricken, nationally-divided Balkan state: civil war and massacre, 1941-5 (JASENOVAC). But: Partisans as antidote; strong leaders: Tito, RANKOVI, DJILAS, KARDELJ. - external danger: split with Soviet Union. But: western support after initial doubts. THE CONSTRUCTION OF TITOISM 1. A fully independent, non-aligned communist state - reconciliation with Soviets on own terms by 1955 - continued criticism of western imperialism and Israel; continued balancing act with Soviet Union (low points, 1958-60, 1968-70). President Carter reaffirms support. - non-aligned movement 2. Distinctive form of communism: socialist self-management - Emergence of the idea, 1950-52 - Initial limitations of self-management (state control of wages and investment) challenged from late 50s - coalition of economic reformers and pro-federalist non- Serbs, early 1960s > 1965 economic reform = `socialist market', investment role of banks, on commercial principles. Devaluation, unemployment and Gastarbeiter 3 A flexible nationality policy, based on federalism and `brotherhood and unity' - Six republics representing all five Slav nations (NB: Montenegro & Macedonia) & multinational Bosnia, plus autonomous provinces VOJVODINA & KOSOVO. Blind eye turned to civil war past: policy of forgetfulness. But: de facto centralism (Serb-Montenegrin presence in army and police; role of RANKOVI). - Fall of Rankovi, 1966 > Drive for decentralisation: Constitutional amendments campaign, 1967-71 > - increased power of republics; consensus principle on social/economic issues etc - collective leadership in state and party - national key in appointments - Croatian national movement (`Croatian Spring'); Croats' economic grievances; language question. Tito removes Croatian communist leadership for nationalism, Dec `71; removes Serb CP `liberal' leadership, `73. i.e. balanced Tito nationality policy. - 1974 constitution. Enlarges powers of Provinces (Kosovo). Attempted counterbalance to nationalism thro' further extensions of self-management, e.g. Law of Associated Labour. 1976, cf.`Delegate system'. Kardelj's critique of western democracy. - Recognition of a Muslim nation in 1971 census i.e. RAMETs positive view of `balance of powersystem. Yugoslavias international prestige and internal self-confidence

CRITIQUE OF THE ABOVE TITOIST MODEL 1. Heroic Independence: Nora Beloff on Tito, the communist dictator. Life-style 2. Economics: Lydall on inefficiency of socialist self-management (restricts interregional mobility of labour, encourages wasteful use of capital). Failure of 1965 economic reform. Tito's reputation > ready foreign credit and massive debt. Only 30% of imports covered by exports by 1979. 3. National problem: Croat resentment of suppression of `Croatian spring'; Serb resentment of 1965-6, allegedly confederal 1974 constitution and rise of Bosnian Muslims and Kosovo Albanians. Judgement: How fair the critique? Tito a realist and a revolutionary: `there are no Yugoslavs. Twin roots of his strategy: policy of forgetting and revolutionary legacy. Problems of this position? But further issue: was Tito ever a Titoist? Role of Kardelj in evolution of socialist self-management. How far can one dissociate Tito from this? THE POST-TITO ERA 1. Decline of non-aligned movement. Gorbachev's perestroika outshines Yugoslav reform communism 3. Self-management beached on a failed economy. `Stabilisation' programme > stagflation. Real wages fall by a quarter by 1984. - `Iron triangle' of enterprise management, local council and republican leadership deguts worker participation > corruption (Agrocommerce scandal, Bosnia) - republican economic rivalries 3. Worsening of national relations. - Mistaken priorities? WACHTEL (204) and neglect of cultural politics - Wranglings over World War Two - tarnish Partisan struggle, hence legitimacy of communist rule. Croatian historian Franjo TUDJMAN and `Jasenovc myth' - plays down Ustasha massacres of Serbs. Attempts at rehabilitation of wartime chetniks by Serb nationalists. Rival solutions: recentralisation or full confederalism? Increasing nervous exhaustion. CATALYSTS OF COLLAPSE - Internal factors: Kosovo problem - Albanian riots, 1981. Serbian Academy's Memorandum, 1986 and MILOEVIs rise to power- personality and motivation; he abolishes Albanian autonomy, 1989. Croat-Slovene fears that Serb triumphalism will be turned against them. - External factors. Collapse of communism elsewhere, 1989 > free elections won by anti-communists in Croatia/Slovenia, spring `90. Their hopes of European Community backing. - Personality factors. Miloevi and Tudjman in 1989-1991 interregnum - External factor repeated. Wavering EC line, 1991-92 Conclusion: Yugoslavia the victim of a utopian ideology? Or could one argue that only utopian aspirations could have held it together at all? COMMUNIST YUGOSLAVIA - SOME FACTS

1947 1948 1949 1950 1948 1950 1953 1954 1955 1958 1963 1966 1966 1967 1969 19711972 1973 1975 1976 1983 1984 1985 1987 1988 1987 1993 1994

1995

1996

Second conference of AVNOJ (Partisans political front) Tito-Subai agreement Partisans win overwhelming electoral victory. Republic declared Execution of Mihailovi Break with Stalin. Introduction of collectivisation Collectivisation abandoned Sixth Congress: socialist self-management regularised Djilas expelled from LCY Reconciliation with Soviet Union Programme of LCY: criticises Soviet system Titos Split speech: comes down for reform Economic reform Fall of Rankovi Beginning of constitutional amendments movement (till 1971) Riots in Kosovo. End of the Serb-minority dominated regime Croatian Spring begins (crushed December 1971) Bosnian Muslims can record nationality as Muslim in census Tito suppresses liberal leadership of Serbian communist party New constitution - confederal? Law on Associated Labour: extends socialist self-management Death of Tito Albanians demonstrate for republican status in Kosovo IMF impose economic stabilisation terms Djureti writes Yugoslavia and the Allies in WW2 pro-chetnik? Serbian Academy memorandum Krestis article accusing Croats of genocidal tradition going back to 19. Century Miloevi comes to power in Serbia Battle of Kosovo (1389) commemmoration. Abolition of Kosovo autonomy (Jan). Last session of LCY all-Yugoslav conference ends inquorate (Apr). Victory of anti-comunsts in Slovene and Croat republican elections (Aug) Beginning of violence between Croatian Serbs and Croatian authorities (Nov). Victory of Miloevis Socialist Party (renamed communists) in Serbian republican elections (Dec) Slovene referendum votes for independence (June) Croats and Slovenes declare secession; JNA attacks Slovenia; EC mediation: three months pause (July) (from July) War in Croatia (October) Hague conference on Yugoslavia under Lord Carrington (Dec) Germany declares for recognition of Slovene and Croat independence (Jan) UN peace-keepers in Croatia (March) Lisbon negotiations for Bosnian `cantonalisation. Izetbegovi withdraws initial agreement > (end of March) referendum on Bosnian independence (April) Bosnian government declares independence. Bosnian Serbs, with JNA help, begin ethnic cleansing in east and north-east Bosnia