EE1101 BASIC ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

Lecture(s) 17-20 : Alternating Voltage and Current

EEE1101 Basic Electrical Technology

Rev by Shalyn Lim 03/11

Learning Outcome
Distinguish various types of AC voltages and currents and how to interpret its value.

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Alternating Waveforms
The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time sequence. The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental alternating current (ac) and alternating e.m.f (voltage) waveform

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Generation of an Alternating e.m.f.

The elementary AC generator consists of a conductor, or wire loop in a magnetic field and it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field to produce induced e.m.f in the loop. Two ends of the loop are connected to slip rings, and they are in contact with two brushes. Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up the induced e.m.f. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of force, first in one direction and then the other.
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Generation of an Alternating e.m.f.

Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators. When a conductor rotates in a constant magnetic field, a sinusoidal wave is generated.

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Generation of an Alternating e.m.f.

1st Rotation

2nd Rotation

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Generation of an Alternating e.m.f.

3rd Rotation

4th Rotation

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Generation of an Alternating e.m.f.

At the instant the loop is in the vertical position, the coil sides are moving parallel to the field and do not cut magnetic lines of force. In this instant, there is no voltage induced in the loop. As the coil rotates in a counter-clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines of force in opposite directions. The direction of the induced voltages depends on the direction of movement of the coil.

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Alternating e.m.f.
Instantaneous value of e.m.f generated in a coil is

v = Vm sin
Where Vp or Vm Maximum value of e.m.f. generated in a coil - angle of loop from position of zero e.m.f.

Vp

v = V p sin

Vp

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Alternating e.m.f.
Most electrical energy is provided by rotating a.c. generators. The e.m.f and the resulting voltages and currents are usually sinusoidal but there are also circuits operating with other types of waveforms such as the square waveform.

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Alternating e.m.f.

Alternating current waveforms

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveforms

Useful terms and definition of alternating systems: Cycle repetition of a variable quantity at equal intervals Period (T) duration of one cycle Frequency (f) number of cycles that occur in 1 second
f = 1 T
Hertz

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Sinusoidal Alternating Waveforms

Peak value (Ep or Vp , Ip) or (Em or Vm , Im) maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value. Known as peak amplitude maximum instantaneous value measured from the mean value. Peak-to-peak value (Epp or Vpp , Ipp) maximum variation between the maximum positive and maximum negative instantaneous value.

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Average values
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the average value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle the average value is zero)
I av = 2Im

A (sinusoidal waveform)

Iav = 0.637 Im
Note: 1. Generally, Ip = Im 13 EEE1101 Basic Electrical Technology

Average values
Similarly, the average value of voltage is found as
Vav = 2Vm

V (sinusoidal waveform)

Vav = 0.637 Vm

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R.M.S. values
The effective value or the root mean square (r.m.s.) value of an alternating current is that current which will produce the same heating effect as an equivalent direct current.

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R.M.S. values
The r.m.s value of current,
Im I= = 0.7071I m 2

(sinusoidal waveform)

Similarly, the r.m.s value of voltage is found as

V= Vm = 0.7071Vm 2

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R.M.S. values
The r.m.s. value is always greater than the average value (except for a rectangular wave, r.m.s value = average value).

A sine wave, over one cycle. The dashed line represents the r.m.s, average and peak value. 17 EEE1101 Basic Electrical Technology

Example
For the waveform shown, the same power would be delivered to a load with a dc voltage of ?

60 V 45 V 30 V

0V

t (s) 0 25 37.5 50.0

-30 V -45 V -60 V

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Example
If the effective voltage of an ac receptacle is 120V, what is the peak-to-peak voltage? 2. What is the effective voltage if v = 10 sin( - 50)?
1.

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Representation of an Alternating Quantity by a Phasor

A phasor is a rotating line whose projection on a vertical axis can be used to represent sinusoidally varying quantities.

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Representation of an Alternating Quantity by a Phasor

The instantaneous value of the alternating waveform is given by x = A sin A
hypotenuse opposite side

right angle adjacent side

OA = Ip (maximum value of current) Assume OA to rotate anti-clockwise about 0 at a uniform angular velocity (). AB = OA sin = Im sin = i (instantaneous current)
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Angular Velocity
The rate at which the generator coil rotates is called its angular velocity,. If the coil rotates through an angle of 30 in one second, for example, its angular velocity is 30 per second. Normally angular velocity is expressed in radians per second (rad/s) instead of degrees per second. In general,

= t
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Angular Measurement
In practice, is usually expressed in rad/s, where radians and degrees are related by the identity
rad = 2 rad degrees 360

deg =

360 rad 2 rad

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V and I as Functions of Time

Relationship between , T, and f

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V and I as Functions of Time

Recap the equation of a sinusoidal waveform,
Since, = t v = Vm sin v = Vm sin t Similarly, i = Im sin t
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or

v = Vm sin 2ft

or

i = Im sin2ft

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V and I as Functions of Time

Sine wave equation
A plot of sinusoidal waveform (peak at 25 V) is shown. The instantaneous voltage at 50o is 19.2.
90 V p = 50 0 50 Vp Vp = 25 V

v = Vp sin = 19.2 V

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Example
1. Find the amplitude and frequency of 42.1sin(377t+30o). 2. A current sine wave has a peak of 58mA and a radian frequency of 90 rad/s. Find the instantaneous current at t=23ms.

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V and I with Phase Shifts

If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t=0 s, it has a phase shift. Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right. For a waveform shifted left as
v = Vm sin (t + )

For a waveform shifted right as

v = Vm sin (t - )

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Phase Difference
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different waveforms of the same frequency. If the angular displacement is 0 as in (a), the waveforms are said to be in phase; otherwise, they are out of phase. When describing a phase difference, select one waveform as reference. Other waveforms then lead, lag, or are in phase with this reference

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Phase Difference
For example, in (b), for reasons to be discussed in the next paragraph, the current waveform is said to lead the voltage waveform, while in (c) the current waveform is said to lag.

Illustrating phase difference. In these examples, voltage is taken as reference.

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Phase Difference
The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If the observing phasors rotating, the one that passing first is leading and the other is lagging. Phasor Im leads phasor Vm; thus current i(t) leads voltage v(t).

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Phase Difference

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Example
Write the general voltage equation that describes this waveform

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Complex Numbers and Polar Notation

A complex number is a number of the form C = a + jb, where a and b are real numbers and j = 1 . The number a is called the real part of C and b is called its imaginary part.

Complex numbers may be represented geometrically, either in rectangular form or in polar form as points on a two-dimensional plane called the complex plane .

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Complex Numbers and Polar Notation

E.g. The complex number C = 6 + j8,represents a point whose coordinate on the real axis is 6 and whose coordinate on the imaginary axis is 8. This form of representation is called the rectangular form.

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Complex Numbers and Polar Notation

Complex numbers may also be represented in polar form by magnitude and angle. Thus, C = 1053.13 is a complex number with magnitude 10 and angle 53.13. This magnitude and angle representation is just an alternate way of specifying the location of the point represented by C = a + jb.
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Complex Numbers and Polar Notation

Conversion between Rectangular and Polar Forms

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Complex Numbers and Polar Notation

Reciprocals

The conjugate of a complex number (denoted by an asterisk *) is a complex number with the same real part but the opposite imaginary part.

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Complex Numbers and Polar Notation

Powers of j are frequently required in calculations. Here are some useful powers

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Addition and Subtraction of Phasors

Arithmetic of complex numbers: If phasor A1 = a1 + jb1 and phasor A2 = a2 + jb2:
Addition

A1 + A2

= (a1 + jb1)+( a2 + jb2) = (a1 + a2) + j( b1 + b2)

Subtraction

A1 - A2

= (a1 + jb1)-( a2 + jb2) = (a1 - a2) +/- j( b1 - b2)

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Multiplication and Division of Phasors

Multiplication

A1 x A2 = (a1 + jb1)( a2 + jb2) = a1a2 + j2b1b2 + ja1b2 + ja2b1 = (a1a2 - b1b2) + j(a1b2 + a2b1)
Division

since j2 = -1

( A1 a1 + jb1 a1 + jb1 )(a2 jb2 ) = = (a2 + jb2 )(a2 jb2 ) A2 a2 + jb2

( a1a2 + b1b2 ) + j (a2b1 a1b2 ) =
a2 + b2
2 2

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Multiplication and Division of Phasors

These operations are usually performed in polar form. For multiplication, multiply magnitudes and add angles algebraically. For division, divide the magnitude of the denominator into the magnitude of the numerator, then subtract algebraically the angle of the denominator from that of the numerator.

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Multiplication and Division of Phasors

Multiplication of phasors: A x B = AB (+) Division of phasors:
A A = ( ) B B

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Example
1. Convert the following numbers to polar form: a. 6+j9 b. -21+j33.3 2. Find the product of
( 325 o )( 4 60 o )

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Example
1. Convert the following numbers to complex form. a. 10.220o b. 6.41 30o 2. Find the product of (0.3+j0.4)(-5+j6)

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