Plant propagation is the process of reproduction of plant life; it

also refers to causing the biological reproduction of plants. The reproduction of plants can be sexual or asexual. Sexual plant propagation produces a new generation of plants via the exchange of genetic material from parent plants. Asexual propagation is the reproduction of plant life that is identical to a single parent. Seeds are involved in sexual reproduction, and various cuttings and grafting are used in asexual reproduction. There are some distinct advantages to plant propagation by seed. Depending on what plant is desired, it might be the only means of reproduction. It is almost always the easiest and most economical method of producing plant life and is the only way of acquiring new varieties. The use of seeds to grow plants is one all-natural way of avoiding certain diseases. Vegetables and flowers that are annual or biennial are often grown from seeds; perennials can be grown from seeds, but some will not flower after one season. Despite the advantages of plant propagation by seed, it is not always recommended, especially when dealing with a variety that is not native to the region where it is to be planted. This is because the seeds could grow into noxious weeds, attract destructive insects and give way to diseases. Gardeners are advised to familiarize themselves with the laws and regulations governing the importation of plant life, in order to prevent harming the environment. Residents of the United States can check with the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Unhealthy seeds can harbor disease, so gardeners are advised to be sure that only healthy seed is saved and used for future crops. Asexual plant propagation involves plant cuttings to achieve reproduction, but there is no variation in the crops obtained in this manner. Instead, the offspring is an exact replica of the single parent plant. Stem, leaf and root cuttings from which plant material regrows are often used to propagate houseplants. Other methods of this type of reproduction include layering and grafting. Fruit-bearing trees cultivated in orchards are often propagated by grafting. Many people have returned to organic gardening to help protect the delicate plant life on Earth, because animal life also depends on plants. This is why farmers and gardeners often are encouraged to participate in plant propagation for heirloom flowers, fruits and vegetables. One of the best sources for plant cuttings, seedlings and heirloom seeds is a gardeners' club or association in which participants not only exchange knowledge and ideas but also seeds.
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new plant. Genetically it is identical to its one parent. Asexual propagation involves the vegetative parts of a plant: stems, roots, or leaves. The advantages of sexual propagation are that it may be cheaper and quicker than other methods; it may be the only way to obtain new varieties and hybrid vigor; in certain species, it is the only viable method for propagation; and it is a way to avoid transmission of certain diseases. Asexual propagation has advantages, too. It may be easier and faster in some species; it may be the only way to perpetuate some cultivars; and it bypasses the juvenile characteristics of certain species.
http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/propagation/ MG Manual Reference Ch. 7, pp. 1 - 30 Sexual propagation involves the union of the pollen (male) with the egg (female) to produce a seed. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat, which protects the seed; the endosperm, which is a food reserve; and the embryo, which is the young plant itself. When a seed is mature and put in a favorable environment, it will germinate, or begin active growth. In the following section, seed germination and transplanting of seeds will be discussed.

Plant propagation is the process of multiplying the numbers of a species, perpetuating a species, or maintaining the youthfulness of a plant. There are two types of propagation, sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction is the union of the pollen and egg, drawing from the genes of two parents to create a new, third individual. Sexual propagation involves the floral parts of a plant. Asexual propagation involves taking a part of one parent plant and causing it to regenerate itself into a

Plant propagation is the branch of horticulture which deals with the deliberate production of new plants using various starter materials (e.g. organs, tissues) and methods, including their intensive but temporary care. It is primarily practiced to produce seedlings or clones of nursery crops for out planting, or for planting in containers for display or decor or other uses. Nursery crops are those which commonly require the use of pre-grown planting materials for out planting, or field planting. A plant nursery is the place where seedlings, clones, and potted plants are raised temporarily under intensive care. The basis of plant propagation is to its potency, the capability of cells to regenerate missing parts and, subsequently, an entire organism. Applied to plants, it means that any live part that is separated from the parent plant, being composed of cells, can possibly produce missing organs of an intact plant, such as roots and shoot, and give rise to an entire plant. It means that all plant organs with live cells, such as seeds, stems, etc., either intact or segmented, are potential propagules, or propagating materials. Plant Propagation Methods In general, there are two methods of propagating plants: sexual and asexual. Sexual propagation is with the use of seed or spore that is separated from the parent plant. This method is so described "sexual" because there is the involvement of the sexes, referring to the contribution of both the male and female gametes in the production of new plants. The young plant that is produced from seed is called seedling. However, this term is now used to refer to any young plant without regard to the method of propagation. It does not mean, however, that all plants which are propagated by seed are sexually reproduced. There are some exceptions, notably the hawkweed (Hieracium sp.) and farm crops like mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) which produce apomictic seeds. Apomixis is the production of seed without sexual union. It also occurs in citrus, lanzones, and polyembryonic mango.

Asexual propagation, also called vegetative propagation, is with the use of planting materials which are vegetative parts of any plant rather than seeds or spores which are reproductive parts. In most techniques, the propagule is separated first from the parent plant and treated to induce regeneration or otherwise directly planted. Asexual or vegetative propagation does not involve the union of the male and female gametes. Both meiosis and fertilization are not required in the production of propagules and new plants. Plant propagation involves the use of propagating materials consisting of plant parts which develop through mitotic cell division. As a result, the new plants, called clones, are genotypic duplicates of the mother plants. With the inclusion of apomictic seeds, the following vegetative plant organs are used in natural asexual propagation: bulb and bulblet, clove, corm and cormel, tuber and tubercle, rhizome, stolon, slip, sucker, crown and plantlet. The following artificial methods of producing clonal seedlings are also employed: propagation by root cutting, stem cutting and leaf cutting, layering and marcotting, budding and grafting. Plant propagation methods can also be divided into two types: conventional and modern. Conventional propagation is the usual method of plant multiplication using plant organs, such as seeds and stems, under "outside" or outdoor conditions. Modern propagation is the rapid multiplication of plants with the use of the same plant organs as well as tissues (example corn embryo, tobacco pith, orchid and banana meristems) and cells as propagule applying advanced techniques like tissue culture. Tissue culture, also called in vitro culture and micropropagation, is the technique of propagating plants indoor under aseptic or sterile conditions in artificial growth media. The growth medium, also called nutrient solution, is a mixture of essential elements. The initial propagule in tissue culture is calledexplant. Seed Propagation and Spore Propagation Distinguished Seed propagation is applied in the spermatophytes or seedbearing plants which include the gymnosperms (naked-seed plants) and the angiosperms (enclosed-seed plants or trueflowering plants). Plants which are propagated from spore belong to the fern family and allies, including mosses. In plant propagation using the seed or spore as propagation material,fertilization or the union of the male and female gametes is a precondition for the production of new plants. However, there is a difference between the two. In seeds, a miniature plant (the embryo) within the organ is predeveloped after undergoing fertilization. This embryo is the one which grows to form the new plant.This means that fertilization first occurs (after pollination), and this leads to seed formation. The seed, having a sexually produced and mature embryo, germinates and gives rise to a seedling. But in spore propagation, the spore does not immediately develop into a new plant. The spore is formed without undergoing fertilization. Under moist condition, it develops into a gametophyte or prothallus, a flat, green and heartshaped structure with small rootlike rhizoids. This organ has

both male and female gametes which subsequently unite and give rise to new plants. In other words, fertilization comes first, the planting material called seed is formed, and then the seed germinates to form the new plant. But in ferns and other non-seed plants, the planting material called spore is formed first, it develops into a prothallus, fertilization follows, and the fertilized egg develops into a plantlet. (Ben G. Bareja 2010, edited Sept. 2012) Asexual propagation, as mentioned earlier, is the best way to maintain some species, particularly an individual that best represents that species. Clones are groups of plants that are identical to their one parent and that can only be propagated asexually. The Bartlett pear (1770) and the Delicious apple (1870) are two examples of clones that have been asexually propagated for many years. The major methods of asexual propagation are cuttings, layering, division, and budding grafting. Cuttings involve rooting a severed piece of the parent plant; layering involves rooting a part of the parent and then severing it; and budding and grafting is joining two plant parts from different varieties. Cuttings Many types of plants, both woody and herbaceous, are frequently propagated by cuttings. A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the parent plant in order to regenerate itself, thereby forming a whole new plant. Take cuttings with a sharp blade to reduce injury to the parent plant. Dip the cutting tool in rubbing alcohol or a mixture of one part bleach : nine parts water to prevent transmitting diseases from infected plant parts to healthy ones. Remove flowers and flower buds from cuttings to allow the cutting to use its energy and stored carbohydrates for root and shoot formation rather than fruit and seed production. To hasten rooting, increase the number of roots, or to obtain uniform rooting (except on soft, fleshy stems), use a rooting hormone, preferably one containing a fungicide. Prevent possible contamination of the entire supply of rooting hormone by putting some in a separate container for dipping cuttings. Insert cuttings into a rooting medium such as coarse sand, vermiculite, soil, water, or a mixture of peat and perlite. It is important to choose the correct rooting medium to get optimum rooting in the shortest time. In general, the rooting medium should be sterile, low in fertility, drain well enough to provide oxygen, and retain enough moisture to prevent water stress. Moisten the medium before inserting cuttings, and keep it evenly moist while cuttings are rooting and forming new shoots. Place stem and leaf cuttings in bright, indirect light. Root cuttings can be kept in the dark until new shoots appear.
http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/propagation/asexual.html 1998 The University of Arizona MG Manual Reference Ch. 7, pp. 17 - 23

Sexual Propagation (seed)

Seeds and spores can be used for reproduction (through e.g. sowing). Seeds are typically produced from sexual reproduction within a species, because genetic recombination has occurred. A plant grown from seeds may have different characteristics from its parents. Some species produce seeds that require special conditions to germinate, such as cold treatment. The seeds of many Australian plantsand plants from southern Africa and the American west require smoke or fire to germinate. Some plant species, including many trees do not produce seeds until they reach maturity, which may take many years. Seeds can be difficult to acquire and some plants do not produce seed at all. Asexual Propagation Plants have a number of mechanisms for asexual or vegetative reproduction. Some of these have been taken advantage of byhorticulturists and gardeners to multiply or clone plants rapidly. People also use methods that plants do not use, such as tissue cultureand grafting. Plants are produced using material from a single parent and as such there is no exchange of genetic material, therefore vegetative propagation methods almost always produce plants that are identical to the parent. Vegetative reproduction uses plants parts such as roots, stems and leaves. In some plants seeds can be produced without fertilization and the seeds contain only the genetic material of the parent plant. Therefore, propagation via asexual seeds or apomixis is asexual reproduction but not vegetative propagation. Techniques for vegetative propagation include: Air or ground layering Division Grafting and bud grafting, widely used in fruit tree propagation Micropropagation Stolons or runners Storage organs such as bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes Striking or cuttings Twin-scaling Heated Propagator A heated propagator is a horticultural device to maintain a warm and damp environment for seeds andcuttings to grow in. This can be in the form of a clear enclosed bin sitting over a hotpad, or even a portable heater pointed at the bin. The key is to keep the moisture in the clear bin, while keeping lighting over the top of it, usually. Seed Propagation Mat An electric seed-propagation mat is a heated rubber mat covered by a metal cage which is used in gardening. The mats are made so that planters containing seedlings can be placed on top of the metal cage without the risk of starting a fire. In extreme cold, gardeners place a loose plastic cover over the planters/mats which creates a sort of miniature greenhouse. The constant and predictable heat allows people to garden in the winter months when the weather is generally too cold for seedlings to survive naturally. When combined with a lighting system, many plants can be grown indoors using these mats.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_propagation

To obtain quality plants, start with good quality seed from a reliable dealer. Select varieties to provide the size, color, and habit of growth desired. Choose varieties adapted to your area which will reach maturity before an early frost. Many new vegetable and flower varieties are hybrids, which cost a little more than open pollinated types. However, hybrid plants usually have more vigor, more uniformity, and better production than non-hybrids and sometimes have specific disease resistance or other unique cultural characteristics. Although some seeds will keep for several years if stored properly, it is advisable to purchase only enough seed for the current years use. Good seed will not contain seed of any other crop, weeds, seeds, or other debris. Printing on the seed packet usually indicates essential information about the variety, the year for which the seeds were packaged, and germination percentage you may typically expect, and notes of any chemical seed treatment. If seeds are obtained well in advance of the actual sowing date or are stored surplus seeds, keep them in a cool, dry place. Laminated foil packets help ensure dry storage. Paper packets are best kept in tightly closed containers and maintained around 40 F in a low humidity. Some gardeners save seed from their own gardens; however, such seed is the result of random pollination by insects or other natural agents, and may not produce plants typical of the parents. This is especially true of the many hybrid varieties. (See Vegetables chapter for information on saving vegetable seed.) Most seed companies take great care in handling seeds properly. Generally, do not expect more than 65% to 80% of the seeds to germinate. From those germinating, expect about 60% to 75% to produce satisfactory, vigorous, sturdy seedlings. Germination There are four environmental factors which affect germination: water, oxygen, light, and heat. Water The first step in the germination process is the imbibition or absorption of water. Even though seeds have great absorbing power due to the nature of the seed coat, the amount of available water in the germination medium affects the uptake of water. An adequate, continuous supply of water is important to ensure germination. Once the germination process has begun, a dry period will cause the death of the embryo. Light Light is known to stimulate or to inhibit germination of some seed. The light reaction involved here is a complex process. Some crops which have a requirement for light to assist seed germination are ageratum, begonia, browallia, impatiens, lettuce, and petunia. Conversely, calendula, centaurea, annual phlox, verbena, and vinca will germinate best in the dark. Other plants are not specific at all. Seed catalogs and seed packets often list germination or cultural tips for individual varieties. When sowing light-requiring seed, do as nature does, and leave them on the soil surface. If they are covered at all, cover them lightly with fine peat moss or fine vermiculite. These two materials, if not applied too heavily, will permit

Seed

some light to reach the seed and will not limit germination. When starting seed in the home, supplemental light can be provided by fluorescent fixtures suspended 6 to12 inches above the seeds for 16 hours a day. Oxygen In all viable seed, respiration takes place. The respiration in dormant seed is low, but some oxygen is required. The respiration rate increases during germination, therefore, the medium in which the seeds are placed should be loose and well-aerated. If the oxygen supply during germination is limited or reduced, germination can be severely retarded or inhibited. Heat A favorable temperature is another important requirement of germination. It not only affects the germination percentage but also the rate of germination. Some seeds will germinate over a wide range of temperatures, whereas others require a narrow range. Many seed have minimum, maximum, and optimum temperatures at which they germinate. For example, tomato seed has a minimum germination temperature of 50oF and a maximum temperature of 95o, but an optimum germination temperature of about 80o. Where germination temperatures are listed, they are usually the optimum temperatures unless otherwise specified. Generally, 65o to 75oF is best for most plants. This often means the germination flats may have to be placed in special chambers or on radiators, heating cables, or heating mats to maintain optimum temperature. The importance of maintaining proper medium temperature to achieve maximum germination percentages cannot be over-emphasized. Germination will begin when certain internal requirements have been met. A seed must have a mature embryo, contain a large enough endosperm to sustain the embryo during germination, and contain sufficient hormones or auxins to initiate the process. Methods of Breaking Dormancy One of the functions of dormancy is to prevent a seed from germinating before it is surrounded by a favorable environment. In some trees and shrubs, seed dormancy is difficult to break, even when the environment is ideal. Various treatments are performed on the seed to break dormancy and begin germination. Seed Scarification Seed scarification involves breaking, scratching, or softening the seed coat so that water can enter and begin the germination process. There are several methods of scarifying seeds. In acid scarification, seeds are put in a glass container and covered with concentrated sulfuric acid. The seeds are gently stirred and allowed to soak from 10 minutes to several hours, depending on the hardness of the seed coat. When the seed coat has become thin, the seeds can be removed, washed, and planted. Another scarification method is mechanical. Seeds are filed with a metal file, rubbed with sandpaper, or cracked with a hammer to weaken the seed coat. Hot water scarification involves putting the seed into hot water (170o to 212oF). The seeds are allowed to soak in the water, as it cools, for 12 to 24 hours and then planted. A fourth method is one of

warm, moist scarification. In this case, seeds are stored in non-sterile, warm, damp containers where the seed coat will be broken down by decay over several months. Seed Stratification Seeds of some fall-ripening trees and shrubs of the temperate zone will not germinate unless chilled underground as they overwinter. This so called "after-ripening" may be accomplished artificially by a practice called stratification. The following procedure is usually successful. Put sand or vermiculite in a clay pot to about 1 inch from the top. Place the seeds on top of the medium and cover with 1/2 inch of sand or vermiculite. Wet the medium thoroughly and allow excess water to drain through the hole in the pot. Place the pot containing the moist medium and seeds in a plastic bag and seal. Place the bag in a refrigerator. Periodically check to see that the medium is moist, but not wet. Additional water will probably not be necessary. After 10 to 12 weeks, remove the bag from the refrigerator. Take the pot out and set it in a warm place in the house. Water often enough to keep the medium moist. Soon the seedlings should emerge. When the young plants are about 3 inches tall, transplant them into pots to grow until time for setting outside. Another procedure that is usually successful uses sphagnum moss or peat moss. Wet the moss thoroughly, then squeeze out the excess water with your hands. Mix seed with the sphagnum or peat and place in a plastic bag. Seal the bag and put it in a refrigerator. Check periodically. If there is condensation on the inside of the bag, the process will probably be successful. After 10 to 12 weeks remove the bag from the refrigerator. Plant the seeds in pots to germinate and grow. Handle seeds carefully. Often the small roots and shoots are emerging at the end of the stratification period. Care must be taken not to break these off. Temperatures in the range of 35o to 45oF (2o to 7oC) are effective. Most refrigerators operate in this range. Seeds of most fruit and nut trees can be successfully germinated by these procedures. Seeds of peaches should be removed from the hard pit. Care must be taken when cracking the pits. Any injury to the seed itself can be an entry path for disease organisms. GERMINATION OF SEED When germinating seed it is helpful to remember that a seed is made up of three parts: an outer protective coat a food supply under the seed coat (the endosperm) an embryo of a young plant The protective coat prevents sprouting until ideal growing conditions exist. Bringing seeds out of dormancy involves manipulating conditions to hasten germination. Even with ideal conditions, some seeds are still very difficult to germinate. There are several factors that affect germination. Water (moisture), light (or dark), oxygen and heat play a part in triggering germination. In addition to environmental factors, seed must be viable. Water is essential in the first phase of germination. Water penetrates the seed coat and causes the endosperm to swell. The seed coat, softened by water, splits open as the endosperm

swells. The water dissolves nutrients in the endosperm making them available to the embryo and growth begins. The growing medium must be constantly moist, but not wet. Any dry period may cause death of the sprouting embryo. Light can stimulate or inhibit a seed's germination. This determines whether the seed should be sown on the surface of the growing medium or below the surface. Check the seed packet or catalog for light requirements. Oxygen is required by the embryo to begin growing. The seed must respire to break down the food stored in the seed. This is one reason for using a light, well-aerated growing medium for starting seeds. Every seed has an optimum temperature range for germination. Many seeds have a fairly wide temperature range for germination, but some are limited to a narrow range. The temperature range is usually given on the seed packet or in the catalog. The temperatures required by many seeds are higher than those in most homes. The desired constant temperature can be achieved through heating cables placed under germination containers. Setting flats or pots on radiators, the furnace or on the refrigerator will provide bottom heat. However, these locations may be too hot and cause the soil to dry too quickly. Once germination occurs, a different, usually lower, temperature may be required for optimal growth of the seedlings. Top of Form Plant Propagation David Trinklein Division of Plant Sciences Plant propagation is the process of increasing the number of plants of a particular species or cultivar. There are two primary forms of plant propagation: sexual and asexual. In nature, propagation of plants most often involves sexual reproduction, or the production of viable seeds. When exposed to proper environmental conditions, these seeds germinate and grow into mature, reproductive plants. Over the years, horticulturists have also developed asexual propagation methods that use vegetative plant parts. This allows plants to be created in ways that nature cannot duplicate. Sexual propagation Sexual propagation uses seeds to produce new plants. Sexual propagation is relatively easy and often requires no special equipment. It is natures way to obtain many plants economically. Seeds are formed when pollen is transferred from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower and fertilization occurs. In plants that are self-pollinated, every seed produced will carry the same genetic makeup as the original parent plant, barring mutations. In cross-pollinated plants that have two parents, the seed will contain a mixture of genes from the egg parent plant that bore it and the pollen parent plant that was the source of pollen for fertilizing the egg. This continual reshuffling of the genetic "deck of cards" provides for many different gene combinations, thus helping to ensure the survival of a species in a changing environment. A seed consists of three primary components: the embryo, or undeveloped plant; the endosperm, which stores food; and a protective covering known as the seed coat (Figure 1). For

propagation to succeed, it is important to start with highquality, viable seeds. Seed viability is expressed as the estimated germination rate in percent. While many gardeners might like to economize by saving seed from one season to the next, home-grown seed often has disappointing germination rates because storage conditions required to maintain seed viability are somewhat difficult to maintain. Additionally, a vast majority of horticultural cultivars today do not "breed true" from their own seed; that is, the seed produces plants that may or may not have all the desirable traits of the parent plants. 2009 http://extension.missouri.edu/p/MG3
David Trinklein Division of Plant Sciences

According to McGraw-Hill from the McGraw-Hill companies Inc. (2008), asexual propagation, also known as vegetative propagation, uses some parts of the plant to produce a new plant. These different methods are cutting, budding, grafting, layering, division of plants and planting some parts of the plant such as its bulb, rhizome, stem and tubers to produce a new plant form its single parent. These methods of propagation are used in research purposes, agricultural, and professional recreational gardening.