Summary RNAV

Mark Hoiting
CAE/NLS 0803
Summary RNAV

Radio Frequency Electro Magnetic Wave propagation

Propagation
the way objects or energy move from one place to another

VLF 3-30 KHz Ducting No civil

LF 30-300 KHz Surface (sky) ADF, Loran C
waves
MF 300 KHz – 3 Surface (sky) ADF, long range com.
MHz waves
HF 3-30 MHz Sky (surface) Long range com.
wave
VHF 30-300 MHz Space wave Short range com., VDF. VOR. ILS loc., Marker
beacons
UHF 300 MHz – 3 Space wave ILS GP, DME, SSR, Long range radars
GHz
SHF 3-30 GHz Space wave MLS, AWR, Doppler radar, short range radar
EHF 30-300 GHZ Space wave No civil

Surface wave
(VLF, LF,
MF)
Ground waves
Direct
Space wave
(VHF, UHF)
Propagation Earth reflected

Sky waves
(MF, HF)

H2 receiver
Coverage
R = 1, 25 * [ √ H1 + √ H2 ]
(R in NM; H in feet)

λ=C/F H1 Aerial

Radio Nav Aids

 Approach and Landing (ILS, MLS, GCA)

 Short and medium range (VOR/DME, NDB)
 Long range (GPS, Loran, Omega)

Polarisation
plane in which the electric vector moves (Radio aids mostly horizontally
polarized, except com., NDB’s and DME. This means the aerial should be orientated as the E
vector is polarized)

Modulation

 Amplitude modulation
Carrier wave and Modulation (AF, Info) wave wave with
different amplitude put over each other with the difference in amplitude of the carrier as
the build in info and the modulation depth (strength of the signal)

2
Summary RNAV

 Frequency modulation
Carrier wave and Modulation (AF, Info) wave put over each
other with difference in frequency of the carrier (with constant amplitude) as the build in
info. Max amplitude of modulation wave gives highest change in frequency of carrier
wave
frequency is pressed and widened so bandwidth is larger (by means of side bands
with the info), thus more complex FM receiving stations necessary.

 Pulse modulation
carrier wave that is not continuously broadcast but with breaks in it
(amplitude, duration, position pulse modulation)

Standard and anomalous propagation

 Standard propagation, normal propagation as in standard ISA conditions

 Anomalous propagation, change in propagation as in conditions not standard en by means
of other object
o Refraction (multi-hop)
o Reflection (multi-hop, escape of energy)
o Diffraction
o Attenuation

Direction finders

Finding of bearings (direction) by means of Radio Nav. Aids. Not very accurate and used as
back-up for modern systems.

 Groundbase DF (take bearings of airborne transmitter
place transmitter)

VDF with possible interference and site errors, with accuracy as in table.

Class Bearing Position

A 2° 5 NM
B 5° 20 NM
C 10° 50 NM
D >10° >50 NM

 Airborne DF (aircraft taking bearings from groundbase transmitter
plane receiver)

Definitions

 Accuracy
conformity between position measured and actual position

o Predictable (system position solution to chart solution)
o Repeatable (return to system position solution)
o Relative (with respect of other user of same system)
 Availability
percentage of time in which the system is serviceable to the user
 Reliability
time interval between a serviceable system and failures of it
 Fix rate
amount of measured locations per time interval
 Fix dimension
way of measurement and display (1-D, 2-D, 3-D, 4-D (with time)
 Capacity
amount of planes to be served simultaneously)
 Ambiguity
moment when 2 possible positions are display (by interference or site
errors), but nothing can be said about which position is the actual one
 Integrity
possibility of the system to notice when it is not serviceable

3
Summary RNAV

VDF
118 – 137 MHz (VHF)

Groundbased
station take bearing from aircraft transmitter. This means the actual radial
given is the relative aircraft position (bearing) from the station.

Vertically polarized Adcock aerial, which measures by means of phase difference (in the
aerial and goniometer) the angle of the radial with respect to the station.

α,
∆phase

∆T

Bearings can be given by means of

 QDM
aircraft magnetic heading to home towards the station

(by zero wind).
 QDR
aircraft magnetic bearing from the station
 QTE
aircraft true bearing from the station
 QUJ
aircraft true track to the station

QDM = | QDR – 180 |

QTE = QDR + VAR

QTE = QUJ + 180

QUJ = QDM + VAR

TN = MN + VAR (E= +; W = -)

Thus, VDF measures the bearing of the aircraft with reference to true of magnetic North at the
station.

VDF is in VHF, so the range is line of sight with formula R = 1, 25 * [ √ H1 + √ H2 ]

(R in NM; H in feet).

Power of transmitters will have great influence on coverage. Also mountain terrain will
influence coverage (the lower level in mountain terrain the worse)
interference and site
errors.

Accuracy of classes of VDF bearings see page 3.

4
Summary RNAV

ADF & NDB
190 – 1750 KHz (255 – 455 KHz, LF, MF)

Automatic direction finding (ADF) equipment in the aircraft is used in conjunction with
simple low and medium frequency non-directional beacon (NDB) on the ground to provide an
aid for navigation (en-route) and for non-precision approaches to airfields.

 Approach (locators)
10-25 NM; NON/A2A (non-interrupted carrier)

 Enroute
> 100 NM; NON/A2A
 Holding
50 NM; NON/A1A, mostly NON/A2A (identity on modulated signal, 400
or 1020 MHZ)

NDB is a ground based transmitter which transmits in all directions in LF and MF (VLF
would be better, but requires expensive and large aerial systems).

The NDB aerial is of the omni-directional type and propagates in all directions, except
vertically
cone of silence above the NDB and unstable and unpredictable ADF needle.

ADF measures the bearing of a NDB relative to the fore/aft axis of the aircraft (datum). When
measured bearings are fed to a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), QDM is indicated (magnetic
bearing to NDB). When fed to a Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI), the relative bearing is
displayed).

ADF consist of LOOP and SENSE aerial. The loop aerial measures the direction from which
the EM RW comes, whereas the sense aerial can be added to improve accuracy (there were
signal is 0
the plane of the loop aerial is the perpendicular on the bearing). By reversing
polarization of the sense aerial, the accuracy is improved even more (equi-signal). The
combined signal from the loop and sense aerial is a CARDIOID (alternating with equi-signal,
double cardioid).

α
NDB

Loop aerial polar diagram

Thus, the total ADF system inside aircraft consists off:

 Loop and sense aerial
 Control unit (goniometer)
 Receiver
 Display with RBI and or RMI

As stated, relative bearings are measured
beacon relative to the front/aft axis of the plane
(RBI). A RMI is slaved to the compass and the needle RMI indicates the QDM (the bearing
to the beacon
the point on the needle; the end of the needle is the QDR).

RMI reeds compass heading (deviation normally very small and not corrected)

5
Summary RNAV

MH + RB = QDM

Magnetic Bearing is angle between MN and beacon radial.

When there is a certain wind, the drift must be corrected with the wind correction angle
(WCA).

When drifting to the right
starboard drift must be anticipated

When drifting to the left
port drift must be anticipated

These WCA’s change the relative bearing to/from the beacon (when the RB is constant, the
right WCA is found.

In- and outbound track

 Inbound track when aircraft is flying towards a beacon

 Outbound track when aircraft is flying from a beacon
 TO area is beacon and beyond; FROM area is before and till beacon

β β
NDB 1 β NDB 2

α α
α
DA = 20°
A/C 1 A/C 2 A/C 3

 Aircraft 1
outbound α (180°) to NDB1, inbound β (360°) to NDB2

 Aircraft 2
outbound α (160°) to NDB1, inbound β (340°) to NDB2 (port drift)
 Aircraft 3
outbound α (200°) to NDB1, inbound β (20°) to NDB2 (starboard drift)

E 110 070
E E

RMI
W W
W

000 000 000

340 020
RBI

160 200
180

Thus the relative bearing is the position of the beacon relative to the planes front/aft axis and
is measured clockwise (or smallest angle to beacon
if counter clockwise, then -RB).

Designated Operational Coverage (DOC)
factors which negatively affect the accuracy of
ADF (signal/noise
3:1)

6
Summary RNAV

 Precipitation
when water droplets or ice crystals collide with the aircraft static charges
are generated affecting the EM RF waves coming from the beacon; the needle will be
wandering
 Thunderstorms
discharges of static electricity over the EM spectrum will affect bearing
accuracy; the needle will be wandering and will mostly point to the thunderstorm
(sometimes for a longer period of time when more cells are active)
 Night effect
during the day, the D-layer (E, F1 and F2 layers are higher) will absorb
signals in the LF and MF band. But during the night this D-layer disappears which will
result in sky wave contamination of the surface wave (interference and induction of
currents); fading of the audio signal will appear and is worst around dusk and dawn
(ionosphere in transition)

To minimize the effect above

 Positively identification of the beacon and check the right tuning to it

 Cross checks (again other nav. aids)
 Avoid using equipment within 1 hour of sunrise or sunset

Other factors affecting accuracy

 Mountain effect
especially when flying low in hilly terrain; interference and fading of
the signal
 station interference
especially during night, close stations on the same frequency can
contaminate the signal; therefore positively identify the right station
 Coastal reflection
over water the signal travels with higher speed (speed up) than over
land due to less absorption of the transmitted signal power. The speeding up causes a
signal bend away from its normal path.
o Use beacon closest to coast (so the percentage of refraction is minimized)
o Fly higher
o Use 90° signals from the coast (refraction is almost 0 then)
 Quadrantal error
errors caused by the four quadrants (made up
of the longitudal and lateral axis) of the plane with maximum at
045°, 135°, 225° and 315° and zero in the direction of the axis) 4 1
 Angle of bank (dip)
the vertical polarized aerial gets a 3 2
horizontal polarisation component of the signal.
 Integrity
when the system is indicating false signals without any
waring, the accuracy and reliability is lost. Continuous cross check
with repsect to other nav. aids and charts are important.

The accuracy of the ADF according to standards must be +/- 5° during day time, excluding
compass errors

The ADF range is higher over water than land, as mentioned before. The range depends on
the signal energy and the medium over which it is crossing. All precipitation will negatively
affect the range.

 Rangeland (NM) = 2 x √ P (W)

 Rangewater (NM) = 3 x √ P (W) (thus 50% higher range over water)

7
Summary RNAV

VOR
108 – 118 MHz (VHF)

 VOR stands for VHF Omni directional Range and operates on the frequencies 108 – 118
MHz.
 In total 160 channels are in use for VOR, divided in 120 channels for en-route VOR’s
operating between 112 – 118 MHZ and 40 channels for Terminal VOR’s (TVOR)
operating between 108 – 112 MHz (latter also for ILS).
 VOR frequencies are 50 KHz separated (even decimals)
 Call sign is 3 letter Morse or Voice every 10 sec.

 Advantages of the VOR is the minimum affect of night effect and sky wave errors, and a
production of 360 radials/tracks at 1° spacing, aligned to the VOR’s magnetic north.

The VHF carrier is modulated with a number of signals like Identity and e.g. ATIS, and a
subcarrier.
The phase difference between a 30 Hz reference signal (unmodulated) and a 30 Hz modulated
signal will give the radial bearing FROM the VOR. Which signal is the reference signal and
which one the modulation signal depends on the type of VOR.

 Conventional VOR (CVOR)
the subcarrier is a 30 Hz frequency modulated reference

signal. The AM carrier is rotated clockwise (the loop aerial) with 30 Hz to get the 30 Hz
AM modulated variable signal. The phase difference between the two is the radial given.

major errors occurs due to site errors (reflections to nearby objects) and errors in
measurement of the phase angle differences in airborne equipment.

 Doppler VOR (DVOR)
this system uses horizontal polarisation and different aerials,
with a counter clockwise rotating AM signal, to maintain the same phase measurement as
with CVOR. This generates the 30 Hz FM variable signal. The phase difference between
the two is the radial given.

VOR
radial as magnetic great circle given FROM the VOR

DVOR is less influenced by site errors due to different aerial design.

CVOR
reference signal is FM, variable signal is AM

DVOR
reference signal is AM, variable signal is FM

Identification every 10 seconds; maybe also by voice and Morse identity with every
bearing information. VOR’s must be identified before application for navigation.

Types of VOR

 BVOR
broadcast weather and airfield information between beacon identification

 TVOR
terminal VOR, low powers (~25W – 50W) with a coverage of 25 – 50 NM
 High power VOR
(~200W) on airways with coverage of >100 NM, with limit line-of-
site
o Coverage
R = 1, 25 * [ √ H1 + √ H2 ] (R in NM; H in feet)
o Nature of terrain also affects the coverage
 VOT
test VOR, not to be used for navigation (+/- 4° is service needed)

8
Summary RNAV

Monitoring equipment control the proper operation of the VOR. In case of failure the VOR is
switched of and standby equipment is taking over.

Designated operational coverage (DOC) is the guarantee of proper operation op the VOR,
both during day and night.

 In order to prevent interference of VOR of the same frequency, spacing is required

between these VOR’s, depending on height of the airplane, but at least twice the line of
sight of the signal + 100 NM for en-route VOR’s. The interference zone is denoted as
50/25
no interference experience within 50 NMS at height of 25.000”.

Errors may be caused by

 Site error (reflection)
+/-1°
 Propagation error (refraction, reflection)
+/-1°
 Airborne equipment errors (errors in converting phase differences)
+/-3°

In total, VOR accuracy day and night may not exceed +/-5°

Cone of silence (ambiguity) may trouble navigation above the VOR (no vertical transmission
of the signal). The cone has angles with the earth surface of around 40 – 50° (modern VOR’s
60 - 80°). Lower flying means a fast changing needle, higher flying means a more stable
needle, but longer period of nervous navigation.

Cone of
silence
Cone diameter =
2 x [ Height/ Tan (cone) ]
40-50° 40-50°

During flying ‘in the cone’, the indication FROM/TO will change with given radial set,
whereas also the reciprocal radial will appear on the instrument, radial or RB).

VOR airborne equipment
3 main components in the aircraft

 Aerial
small horizon dipoles capable of accepting horizontally polarized signals,

installed so that they offer omni-directional cover to VOR signals, but receive no
interference from other VHF signals (on fuselage or stabalizer). Aerial also capable of
receiving ILS signals.
 Receiver
split into 3 ways after detection; 1st for indentify the VOR and voice
transmissions, 2nd and 3rd into 30 Hz AM and FM signals to retrieve bearing information.
 Indicator
the bearing information can be read by instruments in the cockpit by means
of a RMI or CDI (course deviation indicator), together the HIS (horizontal situation
indicator).

CDI
this instrument shows the course deviation selected with the OBS (omni bearing
selector). Full scale deviation (divided into dots) should not be more than 10°; if more than

9
Summary RNAV

this, the aircraft is not yet within cover range of the VOR. The deviation shown, e.g. needle to
the left, is flying to the left to reach the selected radial and vice versa.
RMI
this instrument is a slaved compass QDM indicator. The relative bearing to the VOR
must be corrected for variation to obtain True Bearing. Disadvantages over the CDI are the
more complex systems used. Advantages are the display of the MH, easy reading of RB to
VOR (QDM), easy reading of crossing bearings, with two needles easy cross checks and
track-keeping.
20°
A/C 1
055° 075
055
A/C 2
TO

235 055

35°
A/C 2
20° 055
E
215°
235°
A/C 1 FROM
W 055
 Thus, for CDI deviation indication is independent
of heading aircraft.
 One will of course fly the direction of the smallest RMI CDI
angle to the beacon

FROM or TO
always select TO (selection of reciprocal radial from VOR) when flying to
the VOR (inbound radial to intercept, radial from VOR) and select FROM (selection of to be
flown radial from VOR) when flying from the VOR (the intercepted outbound radial from the
VOR). Otherwise the sense will indicate wrong (deviation right indicated as deviation left).

 HSI
Horizontal situation indicator; it combines the directional gyro and nav. indicator
into one instrument that reduces workload by providing heading, course reference, course
deviation and glide slope information all in one visual aid. The "split needle" presentation
made up of the course and reciprocal pointers and the VOR/LOC deviation indicators
clearly shows both selected course and course deviation. Main difference with CDI is that
on the HSI there is a course selector which should be set on the QDM of the runway.

Different settings HSI (All FROM).

Also for HSI deviation indication is

independent of heading aircraft.

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Summary RNAV

DME
960 – 1215 MHz (UHF)

 DME is a short range navigation aid providing a maximum coverage of 200 NM at

30.000”, to establish the range of a ground station.
 DME provides slant ranges from a DME
the further away and the lower, the more
accurate the slant range is in comparison with the ground range. The higher and closer, the
less accurate.
o When ground distance <= 3 x height, the inaccuracy is to big to work with.
o Directly overhead the DME, it will indicate the height.
 Theoretical range can be calculated with R = 1, 25 * [ √ H1 + √ H2 ] (line of site)
 The indicated groundspeed can also be calculated, but flying towards the VOR and flying
height, the more inaccurate the indicated groundspeed will be (when circling around a
DME, the distance to it will not change, so the indicated speed will be zero).

Slant
range
Height

Slant range = √ ( heigth2 + ground distance2 )

Ground
distance

 When combining two DME’s or DME with VOR, it is possible to plot the position of the
aircraft by using the distance-distance (circles)
DME-DME or Rho-Rho; or distance-
radial
DME-VOR or Rho-Theta

DME 3
LOP
DME 1
B VOR/DME

A
DME 2 Two possibilities, but mostly one makes sense,
looking at navigation history of the flight. Three
LOP DMEs would be a fix (pos. B).

DME operates in the UHF band and is a secondary radar system and may be frequency paired
with VOR (so tuning VOR also give DME). The aircraft’s the a/c interrogator interrogates the
transponder on given frequency by sending out a series of pulses. After that the interrogator
waits for some reply from the transponder and start timing till reply is in.
The ground station (DME) will search for any interrogation of any plane within its coverage.
When an interrogation is received, the signal will be replied with 50µs delay. When the
transponder receives this reply, range, speed or time to station can be calculated.

range = (speed of light x T) / 2 ; with T = (tint. + trep. - 50µs)

11
Summary RNAV

 The interrogation consists of pulse pairs

one pulse is 3,5µs wide

these pulse pairs (pp) are 12µs (interrogate and reply) spaced for X and 36µs (interrogate)
and 30µs (reply) for Y type pp.

the reply from the ground station will be + 63 MHz (for X) and - 63 MHz (for Y) in
difference with the interrogation signal.

The broadcasting to the pp is at random (the time between the pp)
pulse pairs per second
(pps). This is transmission at random Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF). The PRF time is 1 /
PRF. This technique is used for every aircraft so each aircraft has its own unique interrogating
and replying signal.

3,5µs
X

12µs

PRF 1 PRF 2

When receiving reply which is meant for other aircrafts, the system filters out only the
reply with the unique PRF that was also used in the interrogation.

When the signal is lost during some time, the system will go into memory mode and give
an indication of ranges during that period.

Searching mode
During max 100 sec the transponder will send between 5 and 150 pps (PRF), so in total
15.000 pp. When within this 100 sec no reply is received, the PRF will lower to 60 pps. The
‘off flag’ will be shown.

Tracking mode
When reply is received, it will lock on and the PRF is lowered to 5 – 30 pps. The slant range
will be displayed.

Memory mode
When signal is lost, for some time (8 – 10 sec) the system will go into memory mode,
displaying still indicated slant range. If the signal is lost for longer period, the system will go
into searching mode again.

beacon saturation will appear when more than 100 aircrafts are interrogating the DME.
(the DME replies with max 2700 pps, with interrogation of in general 27 pps per aircraft)

Only the 100 strongest signals will be replied on; these aircrafts are closest and most
important for the DME.

12
Summary RNAV

The identification is a 3-letter call sign (different tone than VOR)
VOR/DME will send out
4 identifications every 30 sec (the first 3 for VOR, the last for DME)

 DME can also be frequency paired with the ILS localiser frequencies. These DME
supplement or replace the range information provided by the marker beacon. The range
information is zero referenced to the ILS runway threshold. DME is obtained by selecting
the ILS frequency.

System accuracy
Based on a 95 % probability the system accuracy for DME used for navigation (DME/N)
should give a total system error (slant range and distance measure of 0 – 200 NM) of not more
than +/- 0,2 NM or +/- 0,25 NM plus 1,25 % of distance measured. For older systems 0,5 NM
or +/- 3 % of the distance measured).

Designated Operational Coverage (DOC).

Protection against interference of stations with same frequencies.

0 – 200 NM till 30.000’

aircraft has an echo protection system

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Summary RNAV

ILS
108 – 112 MHZ (VHF)

ILS provides the most accurate approach and landing aid used by aircrafts; it provides an
approach path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on final approach to a runway.

ILS is a precision approach because it gives guidance in both horizontally (azimuth) and
vertical plane.

 The localiser system operates on the VHF of 108 – 112 MHZ (40 channels; shared with
VOR)
uneven tenth + uneven
 The glide path system operates on the UHF of 329 – 335 MHZ (40 channels, frequency
paired with localiser).
 The identity is a 2 or 3 letter call sign, continuous tone.
 Marker beacons operate on the VHF of 75 MHz.

The ground base system consists of

 Guidance information
o Localizer and glide path
o Back course when available
 Distance information
o Marker beacons (middle, inner and outer)
o DME
 Visual information
o Approach and runway lights (e.g. PAPI)

A certain height on a certain distance from the threshold is the decision height (DH), on
which the pilot decides to continue approach or not making a missed approach, dependent on
the runway visual range (RVR).

The ILS presents a total of 4 lobes, directional beams with same frequency, but modulated
differently.

2 lobes are used for azimuth positioning, one for the left side of the centre line of the
runway, and one for the right.

2 lobes are used for vertical positioning, mostly a glide slope of 3°, and one for ‘fly down’
and one for ‘fly up’.

When available there is a back course indicator for azimuth positioning (after miss
approach or non-precision landing from back), but with less coverage then a normal approach
and wrong sense
‘fly left’ will be ‘fly right’ (unless HSI available set on QDM front
course).

Guidance informatioin

 Localiser

As mentioned, for azimuth positioning two horizontal lobes are used.

Left is a lob with 90 Hz modulation (= yellow sector)

Right is a lob with 150 Hz modulation (= blue sector)

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Summary RNAV

The difference in depth modulation (DDM) will indicate ‘fly left’ or ‘fly right’. The greater
excess of the 150 Hz lobe means ‘fly left’ and vice versa; as in ‘fly left’ towards the centre
line (aircraft is at the right side of it).

The localiser is modulated with an identification tone of 1020 Hz.

The coverage of the localiser (azimuth) depends on the distance from the localiser aerial,
which is situated 300 meters from the upwind end of the runway centred on the centre line.

10 NM in
300 m this area 17 NM
when
needed 25 NM
25°
10°
10°
10 NM in 25°
this area 25 NM
when
needed 17 NM

 Glide path

Also for the glide path two lobes are used for directing the plane to the right rate of descent
(ROT), mostly 3°.

To high is a lob with 90 Hz modulation

To low is a lob with 150 Hz modulation

The difference in depth modulation (DDM) will indicate ‘fly down’ or ‘fly up’. The greater
excess of the 150 Hz lobe means ‘fly up’ and vice versa; as in ‘fly up’ towards the glide slope
(mean of 90 and 150 Hz love (aircraft is under the glide path).

The glide path frequencies are paired with the frequencies of the localiser.
The coverage of the glide path consists of an azimuth range and vertical range depending on
the distance from the glide path aerial, which is situated 200 m from the runway edge and 300
m upwind from the threshold.

The distance for touch down is set to the begin of the rol, so distance is measure from the
touch down point (0 NM) (a shorter delay in reply from the DME is necessary to obtain this
offset).

15
Summary RNAV

1,75 x
slope
false

90 Hz 3°
right
0,45 x
slope
150 Hz

10 NM

8°
10 NM
8°

In practise the 150 Hz signal is a multi-hop signal, due to aerial composition and earth
reflection. The multi-hop will ‘touch’ the 90 Hz more than once (the second much higher)
which could provide a false glide slop, which will give a much higher ROT than normal
so
it is easy to see when it is a false glide slope (see figure).

 Distance information

Distance information is necessary for approach cross-checks (height against distance)

This information can be derived from marker beacons or DMEs

Marker beacons

Three types of beacons are available for ILS, which all operate on the VHF band of 75 MHz
with A2A modulation (audio for identification).

Marker beacons propagate vertical beams in the shape of an up-side-down cone, Z-marker
or Fan-marker with fan-shaped or bone-shaped beam. As they propagate vertically, they can
be put near a NDB to minimize signal lost in the cone of silence.

F marker may also be used for airways, control panel in aircraft switched to Hi sensitive.
Low sensitive must be selected when flying low in order not to pick up more than one marker
signal for long period of time.

The outer marker is situated at 6,5 – 11,1 km (3,5 – 6 NM) from the threshold and the
middle marker 1050 m (3500’) from threshold. The inner marker (75 – 450 m; 250 - 1500’)
may not be used as approach speed increases from modern airplanes.

16
Summary RNAV

The marker beacons are indicated with aural identifiers and lights

Outer marker
blue light (400 Hz modulation; 2 dashes/sec)

Middle marker
amber/orange light (1300 Hz modulation; alternate dots and dashes, 3/sec)
Inner marker
white light (3000 Hz modulation; 6 dots/sec)

All other F-markers
3000 Hz, white light

Z-marker
3000 Hz, white light (NDB)

ILS systems may be upgraded with DMEs and may be frequency paired with ILS localizer
(zero range at or near the touch down point)

ILS may also be upgrade with one or two locators. These are low-powered NDBs and
share the site of the outer and middle marker, with frequencies differing from each other 15 –
25 KHz to prevent interference, but to be able to switch quickly between the two.
o Homing and joining ILS patters
o Holding pattern
o Double cross check

 Locater outer marker
LOM

 Locater middle marker
LMM

False glide slopes may be appear

As mentioned, due to the multi-hop 150 Hz glide slope signal a higher, false glide slope may
appear. False glide slopes may also be cause due to:
 (metallic) obstructions near the ILS system
 PAPI may be difficult due to position of pilot in certain aircraft type (differ)

Types of ILS categories
categories of accuracy

The more accurate the ILS system is, the less restriction it gives in order to land in IMC or
total on auto pilot.

 Category 1
DH 60 m (200’), datum 200’ with RVR in access of 550 m

 Category 2
DH 30 m (100’), datum 50’ with RVR in access of 300 m
 Category 3 a
DH <30 m (< 100’), datum 0’ with RVR in access of 200 m
 Category 3 b
DH < 15 m (< 50’), datum 0’ with RVR in access of 75 m
 Category 3 c
DH 0 m (0’), datum 0’ with RVR in access of 0 m (if installation is
proper on ground as well as airborne and proven reliability.

The following definitions are of value for the above

 Reference datum
point at specified height located vertically above the intersection of
the runway centre line and threshold and through which the extended strain portion of the
ILS GP passes
 Critical area
is an area of defined dimensions about the localizer and GP aerials where
vehicles including aircrafts are restricted from during ILS operations
 Sensitive area
area beyond critical area where parking and movement of vehicle
including aircrafts is controlled to prevent unacceptable interference during ILS
operations.

17
Summary RNAV

Indicator instruments

ILS signals are presented on the CDI or HSI (horizontal situation indicator) instruments

The sensitivity of the instruments is different than for VOR.

CDI
0,5° / dot; max 2,5° with reverse indication on back course as mentioned
HSI
set course selector to front QDM for correct indications
GP
0,14° / dot; max 0,7° (max save deviation is 2,5 dots fly up or 0,35°)

18
Summary RNAV

Phantom stations

A common general aviation RNAV system is the track-line computer (TLC), based on
azimuth and distance information from a VORTAC. It is also called the RHO-THETA system.
With the track-line computer the pilot effectively moves or off-sets the VORTAC to any
desired location if it is within reception range. This "phantom station" is created by setting the
distance (RHO) and the bearing (THETA) of the waypoint from a convenient VORTAC in
the appropriate windows of the waypoint selector. A series of these "phantom stations" or
waypoints make up an RNAV route.

Phantom
station

Radial and
VOR/DME range

Radial and VOR/DME

range

 Erratic indications may be experienced when flying towards a basic VOR/DME-based

area navigation system ‘Phantom Station, when operating at low altitudes close to the
limit of reception range from the reference station
 Information required as input for a waypoint or ‘Phantom Station’ into a based
VOR/DME-based area navigation system is the radial and distance from the VOR/DME
to the waypoint or ‘Phantom Station’
 In order to enter a ‘Phantom Station’ that is designated by a VOR/DME RNAV system,
the VOR/DME does not have to be in range when entered, but must be when used
 Cross track distance and along track distance must be given by a basic VOR/DME RNAV
system when tracking inbound to a phantom waypoint.

19
Summary RNAV

MLS
5030 – 5090 MHZ (SHV)

MLS is a precision approach and landing system that provides position information and
various ground to air data. The position information is provided in a wide coverage sector and
is determined by an azimuth angle measurement, an elevations measurement and a range
measurement.

MSL operates at the SHV band of 5030 - 5090 MHz

This enables it to be sited in hilly areas without having to level the site. Course deviation
errors (refraction) of localiser and GP cause by vehicles or airplanes close to the site is no
longer a problem, because the MLS scanning beam can be interrupter and therefore avoids
reflections.

MSL has several advantages over the ILS system
disadvantages of ILS

 Only 40 channels available

 Azimuth and GP are fixed and narrow (sequence and separation of aircraft necessary)
 ILS not able to be used in hilly terrain
 Critical and sensitive areas needed

The ILS has separate azimuth and GP signals with range determined by a precision DME
(DME/P)

Operational flexibility

 Curved and segmented approaches

 Selectable glide path angles

Coverage of MLS

In azimuth the coverage is +/- 40° (minimum 10°, max 40°) of the runway centre line (on-
course line = QDM)

The glide slope coverage is 0,9° - 20° (minimum 7,5°, max 30°).

Usable range 20 – 30 NM from the MLS site

Back-course is no problem as the system can guide aircrafts at the back site +/- 20° in
azimuth and up to 15° in elevation for a range of 10 NM till 10.000”.

 With MLS category 3 criteria is met

Principle of operation

 Azimuth
a beam of 2° wide (time reference scanning beam or TRSB) will scan in
azimuth direction. Clockwise it starts scanning 40° (E) till 40° (W) (TO) and then counter-
clockwise (FRO). When in the TO scan a signal is picked up, it measures the time
difference between the TO and FRO signal indication to determine azimuth location (is
proportional to the angular position with reference to the centre line)

20
Summary RNAV

 Vertical
another beam of 1,5° wide scans up and down with 0,9° and 20°. Again the
time difference between UP and DOWN will give its current glide slope.
 DME/P
a precision DME gives information on range and co-located with the approach
azimuth element (95 % accuracy: 100”).

All elements transmit their signal sequentially on the same carrier wave frequency according
to a predetermined signal format (some sort of Morse look-alike code)
Time Division
Multiplexing

MLS approached can be flown with standard ILS-indicators

21
Summary RNAV

Radar
UHF, SHF

VHF frequency
 Freedom of noise and scatter in ionosphere
 Efficient narrow beams for high resolution
 Short pulses with short wave lengths for efficient reflection on objects (dependent on size,
shape aspect, attitude and height of object; also distance between two objects)

Two principles
 Pulse technique
primary and secondary radar (medium and long range)
 Continuous wave technique
CW radar for short range

Pulse radar uses sequences of single pulses of a certain width (duration) and certain pulse
recurrence period.

Recurrence
period

width

Pulse recurrence period (PRP) is the time between successive pulses

Pulse recurrence frequency (PRF) is the amount of pulses transmitted per second

PRP or PRI (interval) = 1 / PRF

Primary radar

It uses the pulse sequence technique and ‘listens’ to the reflected pulses from object. These
reflected pulses are echo’s and are much weaker in signal strength than the transmitted pulses.
The pulses are transmitted in one way or omni-directional (rotating). In order to reflect
efficiently the wave lengths are short, thus the frequency high.

Strength of the echo’s depend on

 Power transmitter and range (P ~ R4)
 Shape (in relation to wave length), size, AR and attitude of object

Distance
The distance is found by timing the interval between transmitting the pulse and receiving the
echo (speed of light propagation).

Range = speed of light x time interval (∆T);

Rangekm = 0,15 x ∆Tµs

The radar mile is the time interval a pulse needs for 1 NM = 12,35µs

The theoretical maximum range = PRP / radar mile

22
Summary RNAV

The range depends on the following factors

 Transmission power
The more power transmitter, the further the range. The transmitting power (power peak) is
much higher than the returning signal power. Ptransmit ~ R4.

 Reflecting objects
As mentioned, size, material, AR and attitude are of importance.

 PRF and pulse width

The maximum range can be determined by PRP / radar mile. The transmitted pulse (echo)
must be back before a new pulse can be transmitted, otherwise a new pulse cannot be
transmitted. The pulse width determines the minimum theoretical range. The shorter the
range, the shorter the pulse width; the longer the range, the longer the pulse width. Larger
pulses contain more energy.

Object

To early transmit

 Height
Pulses travel with line of sight propagation with expected radar range by 1, 25 * [ √ H1 + √
H2 ]. They might diffract a bit in atmosphere. Height off:
o Object
o Transmitter
o Intervening high ground

 Precipitation
Short wave lengths (<3 cm) might be absorbed by clouds and give bad display without clear
object to distinguish (clutter). Circular polarisation as suppression gives better results.

Direction
A narrow beam is made to can through azimuth and elevation. The beam needs to be narrow
for accurate bearing discrimination (resolution). The beam is made narrow by shortening
wave length or increasing scanner size.
The scanner is rotating to gain good direction determination. The scanner rotation, PRP, PRF
are interdependent for good results.

PRF ~ rotating speed so long range radars have slow rotation with low PRF’s; short range
have fast rotation and high PRF’s.

The scanner reflector dimensions depend on the wave length and determine the beam
width.

The echo’s are read on a cathode-ray tube (CRT). The CRT has a delay, as there is time
between the rotation and a new received echo’s and displaying the blib.

23
Summary RNAV

On blib represents one object
resolution

Resolution

Is the capacity to identify two nearby objects as individual echoes and present them as
separate blips on the CRT. This resolution is related to:

 Direction
there should be a minimum angle between two objects in order to get the
radar beam between them and detect them separately and display as two blibs. The
accuracy of bearing should be within 1 or 2 °

 Range
also the range in radial direction is bound to a minimum to display them
separately on the CRT. The slant distance apart should be more the half of the pulse length
and is proportional to the pulse duration. The range accuracy should be within 1,5 %.

Secondary radar

This system operates with interrogating and reply signals like DME. Both the interrogation
and reply signal have different frequencies so only recognizable signals (both request and
reply) will be processed and reflections (due clouds or other objects) or own signals will not
be picked up.

Information is exchanged in the form of a group of pulses

Both transmitter and receiver are necessary (both in aircraft and ground) so co-operation
between object and station.

Used as omni-directional (DME) and direct beam to object (SSR) as ATC-transponder.

Continuous wave radar

This system works with a none-interrupted beam with continuous transmission and receiving.
Also two aerials for transmitting and receiving are necessary.

Suitable for short range work, without range limited by the pulse width. CW radar can
work with 0 range for speed (Doppler effect) and range sensor (frequency modulated varied
with the range travelled by the beam, the difference in frequency is a measure for distance
without clutter or echo’s).

Interrogating pulses can be picked up by an object which has not been interrogated; the
signals were meant for another object (the transponder aerial is omni-direction and transmits
360°). This interference is called fruiting and can be dealt with by making use of different
interrogation rates named defruiting.

When object are closer to each other than half the wave length both will reply on the
interrogation en both replies will interfere know as garbled.

SSR is useful when traffic is dense (pulses will not work in this situation), but garbling will be
worse.

24
Summary RNAV

Primary ground radar

Several ground radar groups can be distinguished

 Surveillance and precision ground equipment/ surveillance radar equipment (SRE)

The SRE is subdivided into two systems

terminal area radar (TAR) and is used to identify aircraft in the approach zone and vectors
it on to the final approach path. Wave length 10 cm, max range 50 NM

airway surveillance radar (ASR) and is a long range radar system designated to provide a
display of aircraft locations over large areas like airways. Wave length 25 (10-50) cm, max
range 120-300 NM (min of 30 NM)

The information of TAR and ASR is displayed on CRT and the longer the wave length, the
weaker undesired echoes, but requires large transmitters.

accuracy of +/- 2° within the true position and separate blibs of object with minimum 4°
degrees apart (beam of 2° azimuth with elevation of 30° and coverage 30 NM)

 Precision approach radar (PAR)

PAR is used for approaches as landing aid. Like ILS or MLS is operates with two beams, one
for azimuth information by a horizontal scanning of the runway (localiser) and one for
vertical scanning to obtain information for the glide path. It also provides range information.
The signals for slope and localiser are displayed on one screen. The minimum range is around
9 NM. In Azimuth wave length 10 cm with max range of 30 NM; glide path wave length of 3
cm and max range of 10 NM.

 Ground controlled approach (GCA)

This is a combination of SRE & PAR and is used to inform the aircraft about heading,
distance touch down and glide path, but is replaced by modern ILS systems and is used as a
monitoring system for ILS approaches.

 Airfield surface detection equipment (ASDE)

A short range radar for guidance of aircraft along the runway and taxi tracks for safe ground
operations. Wave length of 1 cm and max range of 2,5 – 6 NM

25
Summary RNAV

Weather radar
EHV. SHV

The airborne weather radar (AWR) is a primary radar using echo principles to depict
(slant) range and the search light principle to depict relative bearings.

Most important use of the AWR is the avoidance of weather phenomena of operational
significance, mostly from convective clouds
 Heavy precipitation
 Heavy turbulence
 Thunderstorms

The radar beam reflects on the larger droplets, which indicate heavy precipitation and most
likely turbulence.

Well above the FZL, droplets are in form of ice crystals and will be difficult to detect due
to power absorption. For this reason on great height it is difficult to detect turbulence (CAT).

The AWR consists of the following components:

 Transmitter & receiver at peak power of 120W, pulse width 2µs – 20µs PRF 720 Hz at
9375 MHz with around 3 cm wave length.
 Antenna which is stabilized for pitch and roll and transmits a pencil-shaped beam or fan-
shaped beam.
 Indicator (EFIS, CRT)
 Control unit

Functions of the AWR

 Detect size of droplets as measure for turbulence
 Determine height of cloud tops by tilting
 Map the terrain below
 Provide position fix from prominent feature.

The pencil-shaped beam is used for weather and longer range mapping

The fan-shaped beam is used for short range mapping

(Both in combination with tilting the beam down in mapping mode)

The pencil-beam used for AWR is normally between 3° – 5° and can be calculated as
follows

Beam width ° = 70 x wave length / antenna diameter

The width must be narrow for efficient target resolution. In aircrafts, large antennas, which
are required for narrow beams, are not possible so short wavelengths are used (3 cm). This
compares with the size of important precipitation

Large rain droplets and wet hail to be detected by AWR

For this reason the frequency of 9375 MHz is used. A higher frequency would cause echo’s
from smaller droplets (unnecessary clutter); lower frequencies would not echo on the
important weather phenomena (the droplets with its turbulence).

26
Summary RNAV

With the 1:60 rule the coverage at a certain distance can be determined, knowing the beam
width and the range (max range around 150 NM).

Beam
width
Tilt
angle

Ranges

Ice and water on the radome (nose of aircraft in which radar is) will absorb energy and
prevents the AWR to operate fully efficient and effective
degradation of performance.

As mentioned the AWR detects clouds which are likely to produce turbulence (large droplets
or large wet hail). The shorter the distance between them (light and strong echos) the steeper
the gradient and the more likely of heavy turbulence.

Thus the closer distance between adjacent areas (colour zones) on screen, the heavier the
turbulence

Different colours are used according to the intensity of the precipitation.

 Black
light to no returns (rainfall <0,7 mm/hr)

 Green
light returns (rainfall 0,7 – 4 mm/hr)
 Yellow
medium returns (rainfall 4 – 12 mm/hr)
 Red
strong returns (rainfall > 12 mm/hr)
 Magenta
turbulence (intense rainfall)

Control unit

Aerial is automatically stabilised for pitch and roll

When AWR is not required then put on standby (beam energy is dangerous at terminal)

Tilt can be selected between + 15° and – 15° and in azimuth + 90° and – 90°. For high
range or when aircraft descends the tilt should be put in neutral or up. For ground mapping or
close range or ascending aircraft the tilt should be selected down.

27
Summary RNAV

The mapping switch the mapping mode is in operation. This mode scans the surface and
visualizes predominant object for positioning fixing. The energy dissipated with the beam is
progressively reduced with decreasing range so that all ground features appear uniform on the
screen (the power directed to the closest object is minimum). This is done with the fane-
shaped beam.

With the fane-shaped beam the minimum (15 NM) and maximum (60 – 70 NM) depends
upon the height of the aircraft and type of terrain (mountains reflect with a shadow area
behind the mountain as a result).

For a range of > 70 NM the pencil-shaped beam should be used (manual).

Manual selects the pencil-shaped beam and is used to for cloud detection between 70 – 150
NM

WEA is used for observing cloud formations with the pencil-shaped beam.

Decrease of gain for echoes received from decreasing ranges of clouds (same intensity
independent of range; automatic gain control or sensitive time control or swept gain). It
operates to about 25 NM.

Contour (CONT) is used for presentation of dangerous locations inside clouds or weather
phenomena. It is a black/ white display and the dangerous locations are black holes
(concentrated rainfall and potential turbulence
storm intensity, intensity and areas to
avoid).

The narrower the ‘paint’ around a black hole, the steeper the gradient and the heavier the
turbulence. Also special shapes should be noticed with.

The display intensity is independent of range (swept gain or sensitivity)

A path may be obtained to avoid the worst locations (blank holes), but be aware of quick
changes in weather.

A fix may be obtained by plotting a QTE (true bearing from) and (slant) range from a
prominent terrain feature.

A shadow may exist when the radar beams cannot penetrate a cloud formation. No vision
behind the cloud is obtained, which may contain severe weather.

The height of the storm cloud can be ascertained by adjusting the tilt until the radar
returns from it just disappears (beaming over the cloud). The tilt angle (central line of the
beam with the horizon) and the angle when the beam is over beaming the cloud is a measure
for the cloud top height from the aircraft (+ FL is the total height).

28
Summary RNAV

The radar also beams vertically down by reflection in the radome, causing detection
appearing as a ‘height ring’. However it is not a proper altitude measurement and below 1000’
it is useless. With the ground clutter suppression (GCS) this can be surpressed.

Due small size of an aircraft and slow scan rate the AWR is not a suitable system to
operate as anti-collision.

Coloured AWR controls

Basically the same as for monochrome units in terms of range, tilt and gain but have more
features.
 Test
test display for colour pattern
 Hold
to freeze a certain image for a period of time and after one can see the movement
of a cloud relative to the aircraft
 Target alert and WxA
when a area of turbulence is detected a light will blink
 WX
standard weather
 WX + T
standard weather + turbulence
 WX(var)
weather with variable gain
 WX(MAN)
weather with manual gain

29
Summary RNAV

Doppler radar
SHF

Doppler radar is used for measuring ground speed and drift. A shift in frequency stands as the
basis for calculating GS and DA.

When the transmitter is closing in on the receiver the frequency observed is higher
(shorter, pressed wave lengths) than when the object is driving away from the receiver
(longer, pulled wave lengths). The shift in frequency is a measure for speed or movement.

Distance = speed x time

Time = 1 / frequency

Distance = speed / frequency

Freq. shift: ∆ frequency = (2 x speed of object) / wave length

F1
Object
reflecting
Transmitter/ F2
receiver

In order to calculate the GS of an aircraft, the transmitting angles towards the ground are of
importance.
GS
V = GS x cos γ
V

Angle
incidence

With the angle of incidence (γ) the vector for relative motions gives the Doppler shift.

GS = (λ x ∆F) / (2 x cos γ)

30
Summary RNAV

A problem by this method is that the beam has a certain beam width and the part of the beam
width the largest angle of incidence with the surface will reflect earlier and with more energy,
so an error in GS is received; calibration will give the right GS.

Doppler radar has beams front and aft. For DA measurement both of them are used. The aerial
will always point in that direction which gives uniform frequency of echoes from the left and
right lob (part of the beam). When there is a difference, the aerial will turn towards that angle
so that the frequency is equally received left and right
the turn is the DA.

A front and aft beam to encounter problems due to pitch (one beam will move forward and
one backward, so the resultant = 0) and changing heights (both will give an opposite change
with 0 result).

31
Summary RNAV

SSR
UHF

Variety of aircraft types with wide differences of speed and altitude in crowded airspace
demands positive identification of each aircraft for adequate and safe control by ATC.

Primary radar does not provide sufficient info and clutter (fruiting and garbling) may
appear and high power is needed for outbound and return signal (echo). PSR does supply
more accurate bearing and range information, but fails to positively identify the aircraft.

SSR does not have these drawbacks
interrogates and replies both with different
frequencies.

 Less transmitting power due to single way up to 200 – 250 NM

 Not dependent on echoing area or aspect
 Clutter free
 Identification by unique SSR codes
 Indicates state in which aircraft is in by reading squawked code

Both together they combine all advantages
calls sign or flight number, pressure altitude or
flight level, ground speed and destination.

Frequencies and transmissions

Ground station interrogates at 1030 MHz and aircraft receives on this frequency

Transponder aircraft replies on 1090 MHz and ground station receives on this frequency

Due this principle no clutter is present. Both fruiting and garbling still is there.

32
Summary RNAV

The SSR system operates on modes

 Mode A
interrogation to identify the aircraft

 Mode C
interrogation to obtain an automatic height readout of the aircraft (QNH to
1013,2 hPa for every 100ft)

The difference in interrogation is shown in the picture

P3
P1

P2 Main lob

2µs
Mode A 8µs

Mode S 21µs

When the aircraft receives a valid interrogation, it will automatically replies information in
the form of information pulses between 2 framing pulses. After the last framing pulse, when
requested, the identification can be transmitted (special position identification) (see picture).

Maximum of 4096 possible combinations of pulses or codes with mode A and S numbered
0000 – 7777 (7 is max in mode A and C)

When mode C does not indicate the same height (within 200ft) as the altimeter does, the
mode C should be switched off when possible, or squawk 0000 (malfunction).

 7700
emergency/ distress

 7600
communication failure
 7500
unlawful interference
 2000
set when no instructions are given for recognition
 0000
transponder failure

When operating above or below FL 100, unless otherwise stated by ATS 7000 should be
squawked.

33
Summary RNAV

Disadvantages of SSR

Due increasing traffic the mode A and C are operating on its maximum of 4096 (12 bits, 212)
code identifiers.

 Garbling
overlapping replies from two or more transponders on nearly the same
bearing from the ground station and within a distance of 1,7 NM from each other (20,3 /
12,35 = 1,64 NM (20,3 is transmitting time between framing pulses with info)

 Fruiting
interrogating pulses can be picked up and responded on by an object which

has not been interrogated; the signals were meant for another object. By using different
interrogation repetition frequencies for the different stations, the timing for these stations
will not be correct and filtered out (defruiting).

 Side lob interrogation
the SSR beam has side lobs and when interrogating one aircraft,
one of the side lobes may be picked up by another aircraft and responds. By sending the
P2 (mode A/C) and P5 (mode S) pulse out with enough strength (higher than P1, see
picture above) this is overcome, because then the high P2 is the side lob.

 Available codes
only 4096 and currently used at maximum

 Ghost targets
due to reflections from obstacles or clouds.

 Shielding
when aircraft is banking signal is lost.

Mode S

Modes S overcomes most of the problems mentioned above. S stands for selective
addressing.

The address code is made up of a 24 bit code and give 224 = 1700000 unique identifying
codes (selective calling)

In mode S ground-to-air, air-to-ground and air-to-air data exchange is possible using
communications protocols (stardisation) depending on the level of mode S (level 1 to 4, with
4 allowing all data exchange).

Height read out is done in 25ft. and data on aircraft’s present and intended performance
will be available (settings in FMS) to ground controllers which improves safety and produce
early and accurate knowledge of aircraft manoeuvres.

Better air picture and improved horizontal and vertical tracking due to unambiguous
identification, enhanced tracking techniques and increased downlink data.

Improved integrity of surveillance data (resolution) eliminating garble, over interrogation
and simplification of identification in case of radar reflections.

Different interrogating modes

 All call
replies for acquisition of mode S transponders.
 Broadcast
to transmit information to all mode S transponders
 Selective
mode S must reply on the transponder uniquely addressed by an interrogation
 Intermode
all modes A/C/S must reply (A/C and when available S)

34
Summary RNAV

[Mode A
transponder to reply for identity and surveillance; Mode C
transponder to

reply for automatic pressure-altitude and surveillance]

35