CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction to Motivation
At one time, employees were considered as just another input into the production of
goods and services. What perhaps changed this way of thinking about employees was
research, referred to as the Hawthorn Studies conducted by Elton Mayo from 1924 to
1932, (Dickson, 1973). This study found employees are not motivated solely by money
and employee behavior is linked not to their attitudes (Dickson, 1973). The Hawthorne
studies began the human relations approach to management, where by the needs and
motivations of employees become the primary focus of the managers (Bedeian, 1993).
This chapter presents a brief discussion of the major motivational theories that must be
considered when one deals with employees in the work environment. So manager should
be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities and goals and consider differences
in preferences for rewards, so that they enable to maximize the performance potential of
the organization’s human resources.
2.2. Motivation Definition
Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has
been defined as: the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction
(Kreitner, 1995); a predisposition to be have in purposive manner to achieve specific,
unmet needs (Buiyrd, Bedeian, and Linder, 1995); an internal derive to satisfy and
unsatisfied needs (Higgins, 1995); behavior either in terms of the energy extended in
goal-seeking or in relation to the factor both internal and external which help initiate as
well as maintain organized efforts (Evancevich, 1989); an inner state that energizes
channel and sustains human behavior to achieve goals, further more a term used in
management theory to describe forces within person that account for the level of
direction and persistence of efforts extended work (R-Schermer Born jr, 1993). For this
paper, motivation is operationally defined as the force that drives individual to
accomplish personal and organizational goals

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2.2.1 A System Model of Motivational and Performance
Conceptually model for understanding motivational and performance (see figure 2.1) was
created by integrating elements from several of the theories. Foundation of the model is
based on system theory and reinforcement theory. System theory is based on the premise
that good performance results from a sequential process of transforming inputs that
influence the ability to achieve the desired goals. Materials and Machinery, performance
objectives and expectations, individual differences, training, task characteristics,
psychological climate and work flow and internal processes (Kreitner, 1999,p.181).
2.2.2. Historical Roots of Modern Motivation Theories
Five methods of explaining behavior-needs, reinforcement, cognition, job characteristics,
and feeling/emotion-underlie the evolution of modern theories of human behavior.
Needs: needs theories are based on the premises that individuals are motivated by the
unsatisfied needs.
Reinforcement: reinforcement theorists, such as Edward L Thorndike an BF Skinner,
proposed that behavior is controlled by its consequences, not by the result of hypothetical
internal states such as instinct, drives, or needs.
Cognitions: uncomfortable with the idea that behavior is shaped completely

To conclude, each approach suggest it own factor of motivation and these factors are
some how different from one another since the traditional approach, the human relation
approach and human resource approach takes economic gain belongings and full use of
the labor force respectively the main motivations. This shows that a particular behavior
influenced by individual differences enormous among employees to perform well fail to
motivate others. Therefore, we need motivational strategies to manage the individuality
of each employee.
Once we have discussed the concept of motivation approaches to motivation, it is now
important to consider the theories of motivation.

Famous Models of Motivation Theories

Once the years, many psychologists have attempted to define and categorize what
motivates people. This become particularly important after the Second World War as the
western nations attempted to rebuild their drained industrial economies, and during the
‘50s and 60s’ much was researched and written about human relations. It was recognized
that people who worked in organizations were more than just numbers, and if properly
managed, could not only produce more, but also contributed more.

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This is not the place to cover the work of every motivations theory: it is has simply
chosen some famous models that have entered the mainstream management vocabulary.
These theories are grouped into two types: these are content theories and process theories
(Bennett, 1944 p.300-394). Content theories emphasizes explicitly on an attempts to
develop on understanding of human needs, it focus on the factors with in the person that
energize, direct, sustain and stop behavior (IvanCevich, 1993 p.124). Process theories on
the other hand provide a description and analysis of how behavior is energized, directed,
sustained and stopped (Ivancevich, 1993 p.124)

2.7.1 Content Theory of Motivation

Physiological or psychological deficiencies that an individual fees some compulsion to
eliminate are called need. Content theories of motivation use individual needs to explain
the behavior and attitudes of people at work. Good managers establish conditions, in
which people can satisfy important needs through their work and work setting. They also
take action to eliminate things that block or interfere with the satisfaction of important
needs (Schermehorn, 1993 p.444-445). This type of motivation theory includes the work
of Moslow’s Hierarchy of needs; Aldefer’s existence, relatedness, and growth theory of
motivation, Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene factor theory; Mc Gregory’s Theory X and
Y; and Macelell and celmate’s needs achievement theory. But here focus on the three
famous models of motivation

2.7.1.1 Moslow’s Theory of Motivation

As (Ivancevich, 1993 p.125) writes the crux of Moslow’s theory is that needs are
arranged in hierarchy. The lowest level needs are the physiological needs and the highest
level needs are self-actualization needs
• Physiological
• Safety and security
• Belongingness, social and love
• Esteem
• Self-actualization
Maslow’s theory assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs 9
physiological) before directing behavior towards satisfying upper-level needs. In
Maslow’s thinking, several points are crucial and important to understanding the need
hierarchy approach:
• A satisfied need teases to motivate
• Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict and stress
• Maslow assumes that people have a need to grow and develop and,
consequently will strive constantly to move up to hierarchy in terms of
need satisfaction

2.7.1.2 Theory X /Theory Y

Douglas Mc Gregory published “the human side of Enterprise” in 1960, in which he
suggested that traditional management methods (which he called theory X) might not be
the only way to get people motivated. Instead, we take a different approach (based on
theory Y) and achieve the same if not more.

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Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control, based on these assumption:
• The average person inherently dislikes work and will avoid it if at all possible
• As a result, most people have to be coerced, controlled and threatened if they
are to put in enough effort to achieve the organization’s goals.
• In fact, the average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, is not
ambitious and simply seeks security.
Theory Y is based on the integration of individual and organizational goals assumes:
• The physical and mental effort of work is as natural as play or rest, so the
average person does not inherently dislike work.
• We are capable of self-direction and self-control, so these factors do not
necessarily have to come from else where.
• Our commitment to an objective is a function of the rewards for its
achievement.
• The average person learns not only to accept but also to seek responsibility
• Host people have a capacity for imagination, ingenuity and creativity
• The intellectual potential of most people is under used in modern industrial
life
Theory Y is not a soft option in fact, it can take as much management efforts as theory X,
but the effect of theory Y approach will last longer.
2.7.1.3 Herzeberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Frederick Herzberg studied and practiced clinical psychology in Pittsburg, where he
researched the work-related motivations of thousands of employees. His findings were
published in “The motivation to work” in 1959. He concluded that there were two types
of motivation:
 Hygiene Factors that can demotivate if they are present such as
supervision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions, and
salary. Hygiene factors affect the level of dissatisfaction, but are rarely
quoted as creators of job satisfaction.
Motivation factors that will motivate if they are present such as achievements,
advancement, recognition and responsibility. Dissatisfaction is not normally blamed on
motivation factor, but they are cited as the cause of job satisfaction.
Son, once we have satisfied the hygiene factors, providing more of them
won’t generate much more motivation, but lack of motivation factors will not
of them serves demotivate. There are clear relationships to Maslow’s here, but
Herzberg’s ideas really shaped modern thinking about reward and recognition

2.7.2 Process Theories of Motivation

While “need theories” of motivation concentrates up on “what” motivates

peoples, “process theories” concentrates up on “ how “ motivation occurs.
These theories identify the variables that go into motivation and their
relationship with each other. Two of these theories are explained here
(Chandan, 1994 p.76-79).

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 2.7.2.1 Vroom’s Expectancy Model
The expectancy model is based up on the belief that motivation is determined
by the nature of reward people expect to get as a result of their job
performance. The underlining assumption is that a man is a rational being and
will try to maximize his perceived values of such rewards.
He will choose an alternative that would give him the most benefit. People are
highly motivated if they believe that a certain type of behavior will lead to a
certain type of outcome and their extent of personal preference for that type of
outcomes.
There are three important elements in the model. These are:
 Expectancy: this is a person’s perception of likelihood that a
particular outcome will result from a particular behavior or
action.
 Instrumentality: This factor relates to a person’s belief and
expectation that his performance will lead to a particular
desired reward. It is the degree of association of first level
outcome of particular effort to the second level outcome which
is the ultimate reward
 Valence: valence is the value a persons assigns to his desired
reward. He may not will to work hard to improve performance
if the reward for such improved is not what he desires. It is not
the actual value of the reward but the perceptual value of the
reward in the mind of the worker that is important.
Accordingly to this model of motivation, the person’s level of effort (motivation) depend
on:
1. Expectancy 2. Instrumentality 3. Valence