1 Conduct disorder (CD) is one of the most difficult and intractable mental health problems in children and adolescents.

CD involves a number of problematic behaviors, including oppositional and defiant behaviors and antisocial activities (eg, lying, stealing, running away, physical violence, sexually coercive behaviors). A preventable predisposing factor for the development of all mental health disorders in children and adolescents has been found in a cross-sectional survey involving secondhand smoke exposure in youth who are not themselves cigarette smokers. The study adjusted for poverty, race/ethnicity, sex, asthma, hay fever, and maternal smoking; serum cotinine level was positively associated with CD, especially for non-Hispanic white males.[1] Research studying brain function of adolescent males with CD has found possible differences. These differences resemble the differences found in persons with addiction as compared with normally developing controls regarding brain structure and function.[2] These differences may, in part, result in deficits in the perception of emotions and impairment in affect regulation, as well as a lack of development of empathy despite intellectual capacity for those cognitive functions. In addition, these youth exhibit a decreased dopamine response to reward and increased risk-taking behaviors related to abnormally disrupted frontal activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortices (OFC), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) that worsens over time due to dysphoria activation of brain stress systems and increases in corticotropin releasing factor (CRF).[3] Areas deep in the brain, especially the amygdala and insula, appear to exhibit abnormal function reflected in overall decreases in resting state connectivity and smaller overall size.[4] This decrease in brain structure and functionality is also seen in youth with other diagnoses such as in cases of child abuse and neglect, causing reactive attachment disorder and temper dysregulation as well as schizophrenia, which makes careful attention to the differential of rule-breaking behaviors important for accurate diagnosis.[5] This disorder is marked by chronic conflict with parents, teachers, and peers and can result in damage to property and physical injury to the patient and others. These patterns of behavior are consistent over time. Formal classification with theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) defines the essential characteristics as "a persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate social norms are violated." Behaviors used to classify CD fall into the 4 main categories of (1) aggression toward people and animals; (2) destruction of property without aggression toward people or animals; (3) deceitfulness, lying, and theft; and (4) serious violations of rules. CD usually appears in early or middle childhood as oppositional defiant behavior. Nearly one half of children with early oppositional defiant behavior have an affective disorder, CD, or both by adolescence. Thus, careful diagnosis to exclude irritability due to another unrecognized internalizing disorder is important in childhood cases. Evaluation of parentchild interactions and teacher-child interactions is also critical. Even in a stable home environment, a small number of preschool-aged children display significant irritability and aggression that results in disruption severe enough to be classified as CD. The DSM-IV specifies that CD can be diagnosed in children younger than 10 years if they demonstrate even one of the criterion antisocial behaviors. Diagnosis after 10 years of age requires the presence of 3 of the criteria behaviors from the categories of (1) aggression toward people and animals; (2) nonaggressive destruction of property; (3) deceitfulness, lying, and theft; and (4) serious violations of rules. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is discriminated from CD based on the defiance of rules and argumentative verbal interactions involved in ODD; CD involves more deliberate aggression, destruction, deceit, and serious rule violations, such as staying out all night or chronic school truancy. The DSM-IV defines the 2 major subtypes of CD as childhood-onset type and adolescentonset type. The childhood-onset type is defined by the presence of 1 criterion characteristic of CD before an individual is aged 10 years; these individuals are typically boys displaying high levels of aggressive behavior. These individuals often also meet criteria for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Poor peer and family relationships are present, and these problems tend to persist through adolescence into adult years. These children are more likely to develop adult antisocial personality disorder than individuals with the adolescent-onset type. Adolescent-onset type is defined by the absence of any criterion characteristic of CD before an individual is aged 10 years. These individuals tend to be less aggressive and have more normative peer relationships. They often display their conduct behaviors in the company of a peer group engaged in these behaviors, such as a gang. These patients are less likely to fit criteria for ADHD; however, the diagnosis of ADHD is still possible. These individuals are also far less likely to develop adult antisocial personality disorder. While boys are identified more often, the estimated sex ratio of this type of CD approaches 50% for girls and boys in some communities. The prognosis for an individual with adolescent-onset type is much better than for a person with the childhood-onset type. CD is highly resistant to treatment. It follows a clear developmental path with indicators that can be present as early as the preschool period. Treatment is more successful when initiated early and must include medical, mental health, and educational components as well as family support. Close communication between home and school is particularly important at younger ages.[6] Principles of psychology (1) W i l h e l m W u n d t b e g a n h i s p s yc h o l o g y c a r e e r b y s t u d yi n g a n d a p p l yi n g s c i e n c e t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e h u m a n m i n d . H i s s t u d e n t s w e r e taught to study the structure of the mind. He believed thoughts, emotions, and experiences composed the human mind. These were of c o u r s e , n o n - p h ys i c a l a s p e c t s o f p s yc h o l o g y. B e c a u s e o f t h i s , h e believed that people had to objectivel y think about their thoughts; this came to be known as objective introspection. For instance, holding a pencil in hand and describing every feeling and touch. This i s o b j e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b i n g a p h ys i c a l o b j e c t . W u n d t i s k n o w n a s t h e F a t h e r o f P s yc h o l o g y b e c a u s e o f h i s a t t e m p t a t b r i n g i n g o b j e c t i v i t y i n t o p s yc h o l o g y a n d h e w a s t h e f i r s t o n e t o t h i n k i n s u c h a m a n n e r . Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt, built on Wundt's foundation

2 of objective introspection. His newfound perspective was called structuralism, which focused on the structure of the mind. He believed that mental activities, emotions, and thoughts could be readily broken down into elements. Titchener further believed that p e o p l e c o u l d n o t o n l y i n t r o s p e c t p h ys i c a l o b j e c t s b u t a l s o t h o u g h t s . For example, he would give students a color and describe and ask about it: "What is red? What things are red? Red seems very warm, etc." Because of Wundt and Titchener, structuralism dominated the study o f p s yc h o l o g y u n t i l t h e 1 9 0 0 s . T h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e s g a v e r i s e t o o t h e r s c h o l a r s t h a t h a d t h e i r o r i g i n a l t a k e o n p s yc h o l o g y, s u c h a s W i l l i a m James and Sigmund Freud. (2) Sigmund Freud (German pronunciation: [zikmnt ft]; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis. Freud qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881, and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital. He was appointed a University lecturer in neuropathology in 1885 and became a Professor in 1902. In creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst,[1] Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and in whichever order they spontaneously occur) and discovered transference (the process in which patients displace on to their analysts feelings derived from the sexual experiences and fantasies of their childhood), establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory, the Oedipus Complex. His analysis of his own and his patients' dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation and the mechanisms of repression as well as for further elaboration of his theory of the unconscious as an agency disruptive of conscious states of mind.[2] Freud postulated the existence of libido, an energy with which mental process and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the source of repetition, hate, aggression and guilt.[3] In his later work Freud drew on psychoanalytic theory to develop a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychiatry and across the humanities. As such it continues to generate extensive debate, notably over its scientific status and as to whether it advances or is detrimental to the feminist cause.[4] Nonetheless Freud's work has suffused contemporary thought and popular culture to the extent that in 1939 W. H. Auden wrote, in a poem dedicated to him: "to us he is no more a person / now but a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives" (3) Skinner called his particular brand of behaviorism "Radical" behaviorism.[21] Radical behaviorism is the philosophy of the science of behavior. It seeks to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing consequences. Such a functional analysis makes it capable of producing technologies of behavior (see Applied behavior analysis). This applied behaviorism lies on the opposite side of the ideological spectrum as the field of cognitive science. Unlike less austere behaviorism, it does not accept private events such as thinking, perceptions, and unobservable emotions in a causal account of an organism's behavior: The position can be stated as follows: what is felt or introspectively observed is not some nonphysical world ofconsciousness, mind, or mental life but the observer's own body. This does not mean, as I shall show later, that introspection is a kind of psychological research, nor does it mean (and this is the heart of the argument) that what are felt or introspectively observed are the causes of the behavior. An organism behaves as it does because of its current structure, but most of this is out of reach of introspection. At the moment we must content ourselves, as the methodological behaviorist insists, with a person's genetic and environment histories. What are introspectively observed are certain collateral products of those histories. ... In this way we repair the major damage wrought by mentalism. When what a person does [is] attributed to what is going on inside him, investigation is brought to an end. Why explain the explanation? For twenty five hundred years people have been preoccupied with feelings and mental life, but only recently has any interest been shown in a more precise analysis of the role of the environment. Ignorance of that role led in the first place to mental fictions, and it has been perpetuated by the explanatory practices to which they gave rise.[22] Skinner stood at the opposite position from humanistic psychology for his whole career, and denied humans possessing freedom and dignity as well as evidenced in his novel Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Most of his theories were supposed to be based on selfobservation, which caused him to become a supporter for behaviorism. Much of this selfobserved theory stemmed from Thorndikes Puzzle Box, a direct antecedent to Skinners Box. The psychologist further expanded on Thorndikes earlier work by introducing the concept of Reinforcement to Thorndikes Law of Effect.[23] Skinner was an advocate of behavioral engineering and he thought that people should be controlled through the systematic allocation of external rewards.[24] Skinner believed that behavior is maintained from one condition to another through similar or same consequences across these situations. In short, behaviors are causal factors that are influenced by the consequences. His contribution to the understanding of behavior influenced many other scientists to explain social behavior and contingencies.[25] Reinforcement is a central concept in Behaviorism, and was seen as a central mechanism in the shaping and control of behavior. A common misconception is that negative reinforcement is synonymous with punishment. This misconception is rather pervasive, and is commonly found in even scholarly accounts of Skinner and his contributions. To be clear, while positive reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the application of some event (e.g., praise after some behavior is performed), negative reinforcement is

3 the strengthening of behavior by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you). Both types of reinforcement strengthen behavior, or increase the probability of a behavior reoccurring; the difference is in whether the reinforcing event is something applied (positive reinforcement) or something removed or avoided (negative reinforcement). Punishment and extinction have the effect of weakening behavior, or decreasing the future probability of a behavior's occurrence, by the application of an aversive stimulus/event (positive punishment or punishment by contingent stimulation), removal of a desirable stimulus (negative punishment or punishment by contingent withdrawal), or the absence of a rewarding stimulus, which causes the behavior to stop (extinction). Skinner also sought to understand the application of his theory in the broadest behavioral context as it applies to living organisms, namely natural selection.[26] (4) Carl Rogers was a founder of humanistic psychology whose contributions to psychology and psychotherapy continue to resonate throughout the field. His theory and practice shifted the authoritarian paradigm of therapist-led psychotherapy toward a client-centered practice, which gave primacy to the client's self-knowledge and impulses toward healing one's own problems. In addition to radically changing therapeutic practices, Rogers applied his person-centered psychological theory to other fields including education, couples counseling, and group work within industry and governments. The Life of Carl Rogers It is impossible to grasp the profundity of Rogers's contributions to the field without an overview of his formative years and his academic and professional pursuits, as his journey through life greatly influenced the scope and direction of both his theory and practice. Born January 8, 1902 into a strict Protestant family living in Oak Park, Illinois, Rogers was an isolated loner who sought solace in academia. His family was prosperous and moved to a farm away from the "'temptations' of suburban life" when Rogers was twelve (Rogers, 1989, p. 8). There he developed a keen interest in science through the observation of the natural world around him and the cultivation of his family's farmland. These experiences led him to the University of Wisconsin to study agriculture. During his junior year of college, Rogers traveled to China as part of a youth ministry conference. While abroad, some of the rigid fundamentalism impressed upon him during his formative years diminished. Reminiscing about what he learned on his journey, in hindsight Rogers viewed this period as a time of personal growth. It was 1922, four years after the close of World War I. I saw how bitterly the French and Germans still hated each other, even though as individuals they seemed very likable. I was forced to stretch my thinking, to realize that sincere and honest people could believe in very divergent religious doctrines. In major ways I for the first time emancipated myself from the religious thinking of my parents, and realized that I could no longer go along with them" (Rogers, 1989, p. 9). Upon his return and the completion of his undergraduate degree, Rogers married and moved to New York City to study for the ministry at Union Theological Seminary. Ultimately, however, Rogers decided against the life of a preacher and completed a degree in clinical psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University. It was during this phase of his education that he was exposed to "the dynamic Freudian views" of the clinicians supervising his internship which starkly contrasted the "rigorous, scientific, coldly objective, statistical point of view" presented at school (Rogers, 1989, p. 10). Rogers's evolution toward a humanistic approach to psychotherapy was clearly influenced by this clinical training and inspired him to pursue an independent, unorthodox professional career. He moved to Rochester, New York directly after graduation from Teachers College to work in a children's counseling center. While there, he discovered that the directive therapeutic approach in vogue at this time was not effective in the counseling room. His first book, The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child (1939) was developed out of this early clinical work and led to an appointment to full professorship at Ohio State University. There he wrote Counseling and Psychotherapy (1942). Subsequently, in 1945, he moved to the University of Chicago, where he opened a clinic based upon his primary theoretical paradigms, which evolved into a psychotherapeutic approach called clientcentered therapy, and later renamed person-centered therapy. The 1951 book, ClientCentered Therapy outlined Rogers's distinctive therapeutic philosophy and style: the client should be free to determine her/his own therapeutic path rather than being led by a clinician toward self-awareness. This paradigm was expanded further, based upon Rogers's many years of clinical experience in his 1961 book On Becoming a Person, published during his tenure at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Simultaneous with his work in psychotherapy, Rogers was also an educator and applied the person-centered approach to theories about education. Rogers believed strongly that graduate students learn best when engaged in learning what they are truly interested in and that institutions that are too proscriptive are doing disservice to the creative aspects of the fields of education and scienceviews he expressed and expanded upon in the book Freedom to Learn (1969) and later updated in Freedom to Learn for the 80s (1983). However, Rogers chose to leave the elite world of academia in 1963, moving to California and working at the Western Behavioral Science Institute. In 1968 he helped found the Center for Studies of the Person, an organization of person-centered professionals conducting workshops, research, and activist initiatives. The mandate of the center is to: . . . explore the richness of the Person: to help individuals discover and experience more fully in their own lives and relationships even in their organizations - the wealth of what

4 it means to be personal. Of what it means, for example, to be private as well as to be open, of what it means to yield to others and what it means to be self-controlling. . . . . This Center intends to experience anew and in its own life the meaning of democracy and of community. In its scientific aims, it intends to go beyond the narrow limits of existing social science methodologies. It intends to invent and submit to the public methods of study suited to the dignity and depth of its subject, being human. It will use means of knowing designed to expand a person's hope for him- or herself. This is a center for persons. (Center for Studies of the Person, 2005). Rogers remained active with the Center for the rest of his life, traveling internationally and facilitating groups on person-centered approaches. Through the Center, Rogers was instrumental in the development of the use of encounter groups and applied his personcentered approach to improving group dynamics in corporate, government, and international diplomatic arenas. The political implications of the person-centered approach are outlined in Rogers's 1978 book, Carl Rogers on Personal Power. While working with the center, Rogers continued to write, both personal reflections and professional observations, until his death at age 85 in 1987. Major Concepts of Carl Rogers The main crux of Rogerian theory is that the human experience is unique to each individual and, if given appropriate conditions for self-exploration and inquiry, people will shed defenses ("masks" or "false selves" as Rogers called them) and gravitate toward psychological health. This core belief developed into a theorycoined Becoming a Personwhich grew out of experience gained through thousands of hours in clinical practice. Thus, Rogers was an applied psychologist, following in the footsteps of Freud and Jung in his own work, using what he learned while practicing psychotherapy to develop theories about the human condition and human relationships, including the relationship of client and therapist. Rogers wrote extensively on Becoming a Person. Primary to this theoretical construct is the belief that human beings are not static constructions or unchanging personalities, but are dynamic, ever-changing entities: the person (or self) is a process. In addition, Rogers believed in the inherent positive potentialities of all living things. Such capacity is "evident in all organic and human lifeto expand, extend, become autonomous, develop, maturethe tendency to express and activate all the capacities of the organism, to the extent that such activation enhances the organism or the self" (1961, p. 35). These central ideas were supported by several suppositions about the nature of the human being. First, human beings are motivated toward self-actualization, as stated above. Human beings also have personal power, or "vast resources for self-understanding, for altering self-concept, his attitudes, and his self-directed behavior" (Rogers, 1978, p. 7). Problems arise for people for whom this personal power is diminished or restricted due to domination from others, either overt (such as martial law) or covert (such as finding one's self in a manipulative relationship). The implication for placing so much power squarely upon the individual is great; including the potential for personal, social, and political change if all persons are granted the innate ability to move toward self-actualization. As noted above, Rogers applied this theory both within the psychotherapeutic container, and in the fields of education, business, and government. Nonetheless, the primacy of the power of the individual and how that power can be realized and enhanced through the psychotherapeutic relationship is fundamental to all of the ways in which person-centered approaches have been applied. In addition to the problems that arise when personal power is diminished, discrepancies between a perceived Ideal Self and a Real Self may lead to psychological distress. The Ideal Self is a self-concept held by an individual that may or may not accurately reflect reality. If one's Ideal Self and Real Self are in alignment, psychological congruence is present. If the Ideal Self is out of alignment with the Real Self, incongruence occurs and is generally expressed through psychological distress. If the individual dimly perceives such an incongruence in himself, then a tension state occurs which is known as anxiety. The incongruence need not be sharply perceived. It is enough that it is subceivedthat is, discriminated as threatening to the self without any awareness of the content of the threat. Such anxiety is often seen in therapy as the individual approaches awareness of some element of his experience which is in sharp contradiction to his self-concept. (Rogers, 1989, p. 223) Applications of Theory Since Rogers believed that the human experience is a process rather than a product, the evolution of the self is ever-evolving and thus the unlimited human potential present in all people is ever-present. Rogers also believed that the unmasking of the incongruence between the selves was most effectively achieved in relationship. If this inherent strength can be nurtured through a relationship such as in psychotherapy, it would lead toward healing for those involved. Rogers elucidated six necessary conditions that must occur over a sustained period of time to achieve personality change. 1. Two persons are in psychological contact. 2. The first, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of incongruence, being vulnerable and anxious. 3. The second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is congruent or integrated in the relationship. 4. The therapist experiences unconditional positive regard for the client. 5. The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the client's internal frame of reference and endeavors to communicate this experience to the client. 6. The communication to the client of the therapist's empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard is to a minimal degree achieved. (Rogers, 1989, p. 221) Through this therapeutic relationship, Rogers posited that the client becomes more "integrated, more effective . . . . He changes his perception of himself, becoming more

5 realistic in his views of self. He becomes more like the person he wishes to be. He values himself more highly. He is more self-confident and self-directing" Rogers, 1961, p. 36). This is what is meant by Becoming a Person (1961). Rogers developed four criteria through which one could discern when one Becomes a Person: 1. Openness to Experience: his own and that around him. "It is the opposite of defensiveness" (Rogers, 1961, p. 115). This openness includes the ability to see variation of truths rather than monolithic patterns which may have caused discordance and misunderstanding (incongruence) in the past. As Rogers noted, it enables a client to "tolerate ambiguity" (Rogers, 1961, p. 115). 2. Trust in One's Organism: "There is a gradual growth of trust in and even affection for the complex, rich, varied assortment of feelings and tendencies which exist in him at the organic level" (Rogers, 1961, p. 119). This trust leads to greater self-acceptance and reliance on one's inner wisdom. "Consciousness, instead of being the watchman over a dangerous and unpredictable lot of impulses, of which few can be permitted to see the light of day, becomes the comfortable inhabitant of a society of impulses and feelings and thoughts, which are discovered to be very satisfactorily self-governing when not fearfully guarded" (Rogers, 1961, p. 119). 3. An Internal Locus of Evaluation: Authority lies within the self rather than in society or another person. The central question shifts from trying to live up to or please others to: "Am I living in a way which is deeply satisfying to me, and which truly expresses me?" (Rogers, 1961, p119). 4. Willingness to be a Process: As stated earlier, Rogers believed the human experience is process rather than product. Thus, there needs to be recognition by the client that therapy does not end in the result of a fixed state in which problems are solved. Rather, it is the enabling of the person-as-process to be able to handle situations as they arise in each present moment and remain congruent and true to one's self. This is the essence of "a process of becoming" (Rogers, 1961, p.122).The Role and Quality of the Therapist As the six criteria that facilitate psychological change listed above suggest, the relationship between therapist and client is of profound importance. Rogers was very clear in his writing to stress that within the relationship techniques and methods are less critical to successful psychotherapy than the attitudes and qualities developed by and consciously held by the therapist (Rogers, 1951). Rogers stressed that "unconditional positive regard" for the individual is tantamount among the qualities necessary for successful therapy to occur (1961, p. 239). Through this he meant that it is necessary for therapists to develop "an orientation which stresses the significance and worth of each person" as an individual capable of operating from a place of inner wisdom (Rogers, 1951, p. 21). Thus, the process of therapy should be non-directive. The core of the role of the therapist in client-centered therapy is related to the quality of the psychotherapeutic relationship: How can I provide a relationship which this person may use for his own personal growth? . . . . If I can provide a certain type of relationship, the other person will discover within himself the capacity to use that relationship for growth, and change and personal development will occur. (Rogers, 1961, pp. 32-33) Rogers often pointed out the folly of using techniques or methods without the therapist maintaining proper attention to unconditional positive regard for the client and personal self-awareness. The client is apt to be quick to discern when the counselor is using a "method," an intellectually chosen tool which he has selected for a purpose. On the other hand, the counselor is always implementing, both in conscious and nonconscious ways, the attitudes which he holds toward the client . . . Thus a counselor who basically does not hold the hypothesis that the person has significant capacity for integrating himself may think that he has used nondirective "methods" and "techniques," and proved to his own satisfaction that these techniques are unsuccessful. (Rogers, 1951, pp. 25-26) He suggested that an effective tool a therapist may use to develop and hone her/his therapeutic process is voice recording and transcription of actual sessions. Through detailed observation, the therapist may uncover times when the therapeutic process may be derailed by unconscious personal agenda or bias, or breaks in the empathic relationship. The role of the therapist in client-centered therapy is to affirm and acknowledge the experience and feelings of the client without being directive. Rogers asserted often that if this attitudinal stance can be maintained by the therapist, change would occur for the client. Applications Beyond Therapy "I realize that whatever I have learned is applicable to all of my human relationships, not just working with clients with problems" (Rogers, 1961, p. 32). Client-centered therapy and the evolution of humanistic psychology have radically altered the field of psychotherapy. But Rogers believed that much of the use of unconditional positive regard was not limited to the psychotherapeutic container. As noted above, person-centered approaches continue to be applied in a variety of settings. Most notably in the last decade of Rogers's life, he devoted much of his time to traveling throughout the world, including Brazil, Japan, the former Soviet Union, and South Africa facilitating the training of helping professionals and organizational leaderships in personcentered approaches. The same principles applied in client-centered therapy that Rogers had found so affective proved to have direct and profound applications for regional and international conflicts. One example of Rogers's work on an international level was the 1985 Rust Workshop, a four-day gathering of international leaders and notable people from various fields including authors, professors, and peace activists, brought together to discuss the tensions at the time in Central America. Attended by fifty influential people from seventeen nations, the workshop utilized the processes Rogers and his staff from the Center for

6 Studies of the Person had developed over two decades for use in encounter groups, professional training sessions, and conflict resolution settings: no set agenda for the workshop and the staff facilitated each session holding an attitude of unconditional positive regard (Rogers, 1989). This work, as well as his other international peace projects, including work in Northern Ireland and South Africa led to Rogers being nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize days before he passed away in February, 1987. The legacy left by Carl Rogers continues on in multiple arenas. In honor of the remembrance of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Rogers, Kirschenbaum (2004) made note of the continuing influence Rogers's theory and practice has on the counseling and helping professions: Moreover, Rogers's work continues to serve as a foundation for the counseling profession (Capuzzi & Gross, 2001; Gibson & Mitchell, 1999; Gladding, 2000; Nugent, 2000). It also plays a major part in the practice of the vast number of counselors, clinical psychologists, and psychotherapists who describe their practice as "eclectic" or "integrative," including the client-centered approach as a major component in their repertoire (Aspy, Aspy, Russel, & Wedel, 2000; Bergin & Garfield, 1994; Sharf, 2000). And it continues to exert a significant influence on numerous helping professions from social work to pastoral counseling to the health professions. (p. 123) But Rogers's influence extends beyond the field of psychology, just as the career of the man did during his lifetime. While some of Rogers's critics felt that his theory was superficial (DeMott 1979), overly optimistic, and underestimated the capacity for human evil (May, 1982), the simplicity of his message and his unyielding belief in the strength and power of human potential is carried on in humanistic and transpersonal fields today (Sharf, 2000; Cowley, 1993). Rogers did not simply practice psychotherapy differently than other psychologists of his day. He instead developed an entire way of beinga lived expression of positivity and reverence for othersthat changed the face of the helping professions in many ways. From this perspective, Rogers envisioned a new world, a place of peace and harmony that he did not see come to complete fruition in his lifetime, but one in which he was able to capture glimpses in the successes in counseling rooms, encounter groups, and peace initiatives. His vision began, and continued to be founded on the central principle of the strength of the individual. This new world will be more human and humane. It will explore and develop the richness and capacities of the human mind and spirit. It will produce individuals who are more integrated and whole. It will be a world that prizes the individual personthe greatest of our resources Research methodology 1) Non-parametric tests are used when something is very "wrong" with yo u r d a t a - - u s u a l l y t h a t t h e y a r e v e r y n o n - n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d , o r N i s v e r y s m a l l . T h e r e a r e a v a r i e t y o f w a ys o f a p p r o a c h i n g n o n parametric statistics; often they involve either rank -ordering the data, or "Monte-Carlo" random sampling or exhaustive sampling from the data set. T h e w h o l e i d e a w i t h n o n - p a r a m e t r i c s i s t h a t s i n c e yo u c a n ' t a s s u m e that the usual distribution holds (e.g., the X distribution for the X t e s t , n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t - t e s t , e t c . ) , yo u u s e t h e c a l c u l a t e d statistic but apply a new test to it based only on the data set itself. A parametric test is based directly on statistics derived from a distribution with parameters, such as the normal distribution. A nonparametric test is not based on normal distribution and is often based on the rules of probability and counting. Th ey are usually slightly less statistical power than the equivalent parametric test. (3) Variables used in an experiment or modelling can be divided into three types: "dependent variable", "independent variable", or other. The "dependent variable" represents the output or effect, or is tested to see if it is the effect. The "independent variables" represent the inputs or causes, or are tested to see if they are the cause. Other variables may also be observed for various reasons. Mathematics In calculus, a function is a map whose action is specified on variables. Take x and y to be two variables. A function f may map x to some expression in x. Assigning gives a relation between y and x. If there is some relation specifying y in terms of x, theny is known as a dependent variable (and x is an independent variable). Statistics In a statistics experiment, the dependent variable is the event studied and expected to change whenever the independent variable is altered.[1] Modelling In mathematical modelling, the dependent variable is studied to see if and how much it varies as the independent variables vary. In the simple stochastic linear model the term is the i th value of the dependent variable and is i th value of the independent variable. The term is known as the "error" and contains the variability of the dependent variable not explained by the independent variable. With is: variables. Simulation In simulation, the dependent variable is changed in response to changes in the independent variables. Statistics synonyms multiple independent variables, the expression , where n is the number of independent

7 Independent variable An independent variable is also known as a "predictor variable", "regressor", "controlled variable", "manipulated variable", "explanatory variable", "exposure variable" (see reliability theory), "risk factor" (see medical statistics), "feature" (in machine learning and pattern recognition) or an "input variable."[2][3] "Explanatory variable" is preferred by some authors over "independent variable" when the quantities treated as "independent variables" may not be statistically independent.[4][5] Independent variable(s) may be of these kinds: continuous variable(s), binary/dichotomous variable(s), nominal categorical variable(s), ordinal categorical variable(s), among others. Dependent variable A dependent variable is also known as a "response variable", "regressand", "measured variable", "responding variable", "explained variable", "outcome variable", "experimental variable", and "output variable".[3] If the independent variable is referred to as an "explanatory variable" (see above) then the term "response variable" is preferred by some authors for the dependent variable.[3][4][5] Other variables A variable may be thought to alter the dependent or independent variables, but may not actually be the focus of the experiment. So that variable will be kept constant or monitored to try to minimise its effect on the experiment. Such variables may be called a "controlled variable" or "control variable" or "extraneous variable". Extraneous variables, if included in a regression as independent variables, may aid a researcher with accurate response parameter estimation, prediction, and goodness of fit, but are not of substantive interest to the hypothesis under examination. For example, in a study examining the effect of post-secondary education on lifetime earnings, some extraneous variables might be gender, ethnicity, social class, genetics, intelligence, age, and so forth. A variable is extraneous only when it can be assumed (or shown) to influence thedependent variable. If included in a regression, it can improve the fit of the model. If it is excluded from the regression and if it has a non-zero covariance with one or more of the independent variables of interest, its omission will bias the regression's result for the effect of that independent variable of interest. This effect is called confounding or omitted variable bias; in these situations, design changes and/or statistical control is necessary. Extraneous variables are often classified into three types: 1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of the individuals being studied that might affect their actions. These variables include age, gender, health status, mood, background, etc. 2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the persons conducting the experiment which might influence how a person behaves. Gender, the presence of racial discrimination, language, or other factors may qualify as such variables. 3. Situational variables are features of the environment in which the study or research was conducted, which have a bearing on t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t i n a n e g a t i v e w a y. In c l u d e d a r e t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e , l e v e l o f a c t i v i t y, l i g h t i n g , a n d t h e t i m e o f d a y. In quasi-experiments, differentiating between dependent and other variables may be downplayed in favour of differentiating between those variables that can be altered by the researcher and those that cannot. Variables in quasi-experiments may be referred to as "extraneous variables", "subject variables", "experimental variables", "situational variables", "pseudo-independent variables", "ex post facto variables", "natural group variables" or "non-manipulated variables". In modelling, variability that is not covered by the explanatory variable is designated by and is known as the "residual", "side effect", "error", "unexplained share", "residual variable", or "tolerance". Examples

Effects of vitamin C on life span In a study whether taking vitamin C pills daily make people live longer, researchers will dictate t he vitamin C intake of a group of people over time. One part of the group will be given v i t a m i n C p i l l s d a i l y. T h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e g r o u p w i l l b e g i v e n a placebo pill. Nobody in the group knows which part they are in. The researchers will check the life s pan of the people in both groups. Here, the dependent variable is the life span and the independent variable is a binary variable for the use or non use of vitamin C.

Effect of fertilizer on plant growth In a study measuring the influence of different quantities of fertilizer on plant growth, the independent variable would be the amount of fertilizer used. The dependent variable would be the growth in height or mass of the plant. The controlled v a r i a b l e s w o u l d b e t h e t yp e o f p l a n t , t h e t yp e o f f e r t i l i z e r , t h e amount of sunlight the plant gets, the size of the pots, etc.

E f f e c t o f d r u g d o s a g e o n s ym p t o m s e v e r i t y

In a study of how different doses of a drug affect t he severity o f s ym p t o m s , a r e s e a r c h e r c o u l d c o m p a r e t h e f r e q u e n c y a n d i n t e n s i t y o f s ym p t o m s w h e n d i f f e r e n t d o s e s a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d . Here the independent variable is the dose and the dependent v a r i a b l e i s t h e f r e q u e n c y/ i n t e n s i t y o f s ym p t o m s .

Effect of temperature on pigmentation

8 In measuring the amount of color removed from beetroot samples at different temperatures, temperature is the independent variable and amount of pigment removed is the dependent variable.

Effect of education on wealth

I n s o c i o l o g y, i n m e a s u r i n g t h e e f f e c t o f e d u c a t i o n o n i n c o m e o r wealth, the dependent variable is level of income/wealth and the independent variable is the education level of the individual. variable is anything that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed, such as memory, attention, time taken to perform a task etc. Variable are given a special names that only apply to experimental investigations. One is called the dependent variable and the other the independent variable. In an experiment, the researcher is looking for the possible effect on the dependent variable that might be caused by changing the independent variable. Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes) assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV. For example, we might change the type of information (e.g. organized or random) given to participants to see what affect this might have on the amount of information remembered. In this particular example the type of information is the independent variable (because it changes) and the amount of information remembered is the dependent variable (because this is being measured). When we conduct experiments there are other variables that can affect our results, if we do not control them. The researcher wants to make sure that it is the manipulation of the independent variable that has changed the changes in the dependent variable. Hence, all the other variables that could affect the DV to change must be controlled. These other variables are called extraneous or confounding variables. Extraneous Variables Extraneous variables These are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect the results (e.g. DV) of the experiment. Extraneous variables should be controlled were possible. They might be important enough to provide alternative explanations for the effects. There are two types of extraneous variables: 1. Situational variables These are aspects of the environment that might affect the participants behavior e.g. noise, temperature, lighting conditions etc. Situational variables should be controlled so they are the same for all participants. 2. Participant / Person variables This refers to the ways in which each participant varies from the other, and how this could effect the results e.g. mood, intelligence, anxiety, nerves, concentration etc. For example, if a participant that has performed a memory test was tired, dyslexic or had poor eyesight, this could affect their performance and the results of the experiment. The experimental design chosen can have an affect on participant variables. Suppose I wanted to measure the effects of Alcohol (IV) on driving ability (DV) I would have to try to ensure that extraneous variables did not affect the results. These variables could include: Familiarity with the car: Some people may drive better because they have drove this make of car before. Familiarity with the test: Some people may do better than others because they know what to expect in the test. Used to drinking. The effects of alcohol on some people may be less than on others because they are used to drinking. Full stomach. The effect of alcohol on some subjects may be less than on others because they have just had a big meal. If these extraneous variables are not controlled they may become confounding variables, because they could go on to affect the results of the experiment. (4)