Chapter 8

Digital Filter Structures

Block Diagram Representation
The digital filter described the
input-output relation involves a
finite sum of products, and a direct
implementation.
The structural representation
provides the relations between
some pertinent variables with
input and the output that, in turn,
provides the keys to the
implementation
The convolution sum description
of an LTI discrete-time system
can, in principle, be used to
implement the system
Here the input-output relation
involves a finite sum of products:

On the other hand, an FIR system
can be implemented
using the convolution sum which is a
finite sum of products:



The implementation of an LTI digital
filter can be either in software or
hardware form, depending on
applications

In either case, the signal variables
and the filter coefficients cannot be
represented with infinite precision
] [ ] [ ] [
0 1
k n x p k n y d n y
M
k
k
N
k
k
+ =

= =
] [ ] [ ] [
0
k n x k h n y
N
k
=

=
Block Diagram Representation
A structural representation using
interconnected basic building
blocks is the first step in the
hardware or software
implementation of an LTI digital
filter.
In the time domain, the input-output
relations of an LTI digital filter is
given by the convolution sum


or, by the linear constant coefficient
difference equation

For the implementation of an LTI
digital filter, the input-output
relationship must be described by a
valid computational algorithm

Consider the causal first-order LTI
digital filter shown below



The filter is described by the
difference equation

Using the above equation we can
compute y[n]for n 0 knowing y[1]
and the input x[n] for n 1
] [ ] [ ] [ k n x k h n y
k
=

=
] [ ] [ ] [
0 1
k n x p k n y d n y
M
k
k
N
k
k
+ =

= =

] 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 1 [ ] 2 [
] 0 [ 1 [ ] 0 [ ] 1 [
] 1 [ ] 0 [ ] 1 [ ] 0 [
1 0 1
1 0 1
1 0 1
x p x p y d y
x p x p y d y
x p x p y d y
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
] 1 [ ] [ ] 1 [ ] [
1 0 1
+ + = n x p n x p n y d n y
Basic Building Blocks
The computational algorithm of an
LTI digital filter can be conveniently
represented in block diagram form
using the basic building blocks
shown below






Advantages of block diagram
representation
Easy to write down the
computational algorithm by
inspection


Easy to analyze the block diagram to
determine the explicit relation
between the output and input

Easy to manipulate a block diagram to
derive other equivalent block
diagrams yielding different
computational algorithms

Easy to determine the hardware
requirements

Easier to develop block diagram
representations from the transfer
function directly
x[n] y[n]
w[n]
Adder
z
-1
x[n] y[n]
Unit delay

x[n] x[n]
x[n]
Pick-off node
y[n] x[n]
Multiplier
A
Analysis of Block Diagrams
Write down the expressions for the
output signals of each adder as a
sum of its input signals, and
develop a set of equations relating
the filter input and output signals in
terms equations relating the filter
input and output signals in terms of
all internal signals
Eliminate the unwanted internal
variables to obtain the expression
for the output signal as a function of
the input
Example - Consider the following
single-loop feedback structure

The output E(z) of the adder is

E(z)=X(z)+G
2
(z)Y(z)

But from the figure
Y(z)=G
1
(z)E(z)
Eliminating E(z) from the previous
equations we arrive at


which leads to
) ( ) ( ) ( )] ( ) ( 1 [
1 2 1
z X z G z Y z G z G =
) ( ) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
) (
2 1
1
z G z G
z G
z X
z Y
z H

= =
Analysis of Block Diagrams
Example Analyze the following
cascade lattice structure





The output signals of the four
adders are given by

From the figure we observe



Substituting the last two relations in
the first four equations we get





From the second equation we get W
2

= W
1
/(1 + z
1
) and from the third
equation we get W
3
= ( + z
1
)W
2
2 1
2 1 3
1 1 2
2 1
S W Y
W S W
S W W
S X W
|
c
o
o
+ =
+ =
=
=
2
1
1
3
1
2
W z S
W z S

=
=
3
1
1
2 2
1
3
2
1
1 2
3
1
1
W z W Y
W W z W
W z W W
W z X W

+ =
+ =
=
=
|
c
o
o
Analysis of Block Diagrams
Combining the last two equations
we get



Substituting the above equation in




we finally arrive at

For physical realizability of the digital
filter structure, it is necessary that
the block diagram representation
contains no delay free loops
To illustrate the delay-free loop
problem consider the structure below




To illustrate the delay-free loop
problem consider the structure below

The Delay-Free Loop Problem
1
1
1
3
1
W
z
z
W

+
+
=
o
c
3
1
1
3
1
1
,
W z W Y
W z X W

+ =
=
|
o
2 1
2 1
) ( 1
) (
) (


+ + +
+ + +
= =
z z
z z
X
Y
z H
o oc o
c |o |
The Delay-Free Loop Problem
The determination of the current
value of y[n] requires the
knowledge of the same value
However, this is physically
impossible to achieve due to the
finite time required to carry out all
arithmetic operations on a digital
machine
Solution: Replace the portion of the
overall structure containing the
delay-free loops by an equivalent
realization with no delay-free loops

A digital filter structure is said to be
canonic if the number of delays in
the block diagram representation is
equal to the order of the transfer
function
Otherwise, it is a noncanonic
structure
The structure shown below is
noncanonic as it employs two delays
to realize a first-order difference
equation

y[n]=-d
1
y[n-1]+p
0
x[n]+ p
1
x[n-1]

Canonic & Noncanonic Structures
Equivalent Structures
Two digital filter structures are
defined to be equivalent if they
have the same transfer function
A simple way to generate an
equivalent structure from a given
realization is via the transpose
operation:
Reverse all paths
Replace pick-off nodes by adders,
and vice versa
Interchange the input and output
nodes

A redrawn transposed structure is
shown below




All other methods for developing
equivalent structures are based on a
specific algorithm for each structure
There are literally an infinite number
of equivalent structures realizing the
same transfer function
Under infinite precision arithmetic
any given realization of a digital filter
behaves identically to any other
equivalent Structure

Equivalent Structures
However, in practice, due to the
finite word-length limitations, a
specific realization behaves totally
differently from its other equivalent
realizations
Hence, it is important to choose a
structure that has the least
quantization effects when
implemented using finite precision
arithmetic
One way to arrive at such a
structure is to determine a large
number of equivalent structures,
analyze the finite word length
effects in each case and select the
one showing the least effects
In certain cases, it is possible to
develop a structure that by
construction has the least
quantization effects

A causal FIR filter of order N is
characterized by a transfer function
H(z) given by


In the time-domain the input-output
relation of the above FIR filter is
given by

An FIR filter of order N is
characterized by N+1 coefficients
and, in general, require N+1
multipliers and N two-input adders
Structures in which the multiplier
coefficients are precisely the
coefficients of the transfer function
are called direct form structures

Basic FIR Digital Filer Structures

=

=
N
n
n
z n h z H
0
] [ ) (

=
=
N
k
k n x k h n y
0
] [ ] [ ] [
Direct Form FIR Filter Structures
A direct form realization of an FIR
filter can be readily developed from
the convolution sum description as
indicated below for N 4





An analysis of this structure yields

y[n]=h[0]x[n]+h[1]

x[n-1]+h[2]

x[n-2]
+h[3]

x[n-3]+h[4]

x[n-4]
The direct form structure is also
known as a transversal filter


The transpose of the direct form
structure shown earlier is indicated
below






Both direct form structures are
canonic with respect to Delays
Basic FIR Digital Filter Structures
Basic FIR Digital Filter Structures
A higher-order FIR transfer function
can also be realized as a cascade
of second-order FIR sections and
possibly a first order section
To this end we express H(z) as



Both direct form structures are
canonic with respect to delays
where K=N/2 if N is even and
K=(N+1)/2 if N is odd, with
2K
= 0

The polyphase decomposition of
H(z) leads to a parallel form structure
To illustrate this approach, consider
a causal FIR transfer function H(z)
with N = 8



H(z) can be expressed as a sum of
two terms, with one term containing
the even-indexed coefficients and
the other containing the odd-indexed
coefficients
Poly-phase Realization
Direct Form FIR Filter Structures
[
=

+ + =
K
k
k k
z z h z H
1
2
2
1
1
) 1 ( ] 0 [ ) ( | |
8 7
6 5 4 3
2 1
] 8 [ ] 7 [
] 6 [ ] 5 [ ] 4 [ ] 3 [
] 2 [ ] 1 [ ] 0 [ ) (



+ +
+ + + +
+ + =
z h z h
z h z h z h z h
z h z h h z H
) ] 7 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 1 [ (
) ] 8 [ ] 6 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 0 [ (
) ] 7 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 1 [
) ] 8 [ ] 6 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 0 [ ( ) (
6 4 2 1
8 6 4 2
7 5 3 1
8 6 4 2




+ + + +
+ + + + =
+ + + +
+ + + + =
z h z h z h h z
z h z h z h z h h
z h z h z h z h
z h z h z h z h h z H
By using the notation


We can express H(z) as


The above decomposition is more
commonly known as the 2-branch
polyphase decomposition

In a similar manner, by grouping the
terms in the original expression for
H(z), we can re-express it in the form


where now



The 3-branch polyphase
decomposition is shown below
Basic FIR Digital Filter Structures
3 2 1
1
4 3 2 1
0
] 7 [ ] 5 [ ] 3 [ ] 1 [ ) (
] 8 [ ] 6 [ ] 4 [ ] 2 [ ] 0 [ ) (


+ + + =
+ + + + =
z h z h z h h z E
z h z h z h z h h z E
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
1 2
0
z E z z E z H

+ =
E
0
(z
2
)
E
1
(z
2
)
z
-1

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3
2
2 3
1
1 3
0
z E z z E z z E z H

+ + =
2 1
2
2 1
1
2 1
0
] 8 [ ] 5 [ ] 2 [ ) (
] 7 [ ] 4 [ ] 1 [ ) (
] 6 [ ] 3 [ ] 0 [ ) (



+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
z h z h h z E
z h z h h z E
z h z h h z E
E
0
(z
3
)
E
1
(z
3
)
z
-1

E
2
(z
3
)
z
-1
In the general case, an L-branch
polyphase decomposition of an FIR
transfer function of order N is of the
form

where


The subfilters E
m
(z
L
) are also FIR
filters

The symmetry (or antisymmetry)
property of a linear-phase FIR filter
can be exploited to reduce the
number of multipliers into almost half
of that in the direct form
Consider a length-7 Type 1 FIR
transfer function with a :

Rewriting H(z) in the form



Basic FIR Digital Filter Structures
Linear phase FIR Structures
) ( ) (
1
0
L
L
m
m
m
z E z z H


=

=

m
L N
n
m
z m Ln h z E

+
=

+ =
/ ) 1 (
0
] [ ) (
6 5
4 3 2 1
] 0 [ ] 1 [
] 2 [ ] 3 [ ] 2 [ ] 1 [ ] 0 [ ) (


+ +
+ + + + =
z h z h
z h z h z h z h h z H
3 4 2
5 1 6
] 3 [ ) ]( 2 [
) ]( 1 [ ) 1 ]( 0 [ ) (


+ + +
+ + + =
z h z z h
z z h z h z H
A similar decomposition can be
applied to a Type 2 FIR transfer
function
For example a length-8 Type 2 FIR
transfer function can be expressed
as :





Note: The Type 1 linear-phase
structure for a length-7 FIR filter
requires 4 multipliers, whereas a
direct form realization requires 7
multipliers

In some applications, such as
musical and sound processing, FIR
filter structures of the form shown
below are employed



The structure consists of a chain of
M1 + M2 + M3 unit
delays with taps at the input at the
end of first M
1
delays at the end of
next M
2
delays, and at the output
Signals at these taps are then
multiplied by constants
0
,
1
,
2
,
and
3
and added to form the output
The structure is referred to as the
tapped delay line
Basic FIR Digital Filter Structures
Tapped Delay Lines
) ]( 3 [ ) ]( 2 [
) ]( 1 [ ) 1 ]( 0 [ ) (
4 3 5 2
6 1 7


+ + + +
+ + + =
z z h z z h
z z h z h z H
We concern about causal IIR digital
filters characterized by a real
rational transfer function of z
1
or,
equivalently by a constant
coefficient difference equation
The realization of the causal IIR
digital filters requires some form of
feedback
An N-th order IIR digital transfer
function is characterized by 2N+1
unique coefficients, and in general,
requires 2N+1 multipliers and 2N
two-input adders for Implementation
Direct form IIR filters: Filter
structures in which the multiplier
coefficients are precisely the
coefficients of the transfer function

Consider for simplicity a 3rd-order
IIR filter with a transfer function



We can implement H(z) as a
cascade of two filter sections as
shown below


where
Basic IIR Digital Filter Structures
3
3
2
2
1
1
3
3
2
2
1
1 0
1 ) (
) (
) (


+ + +
+ + +
= =
z d z d z d
z p z p z p p
z D
z P
z H
H
1
(z) H
2
(z)
X(z)
W(z)
Y(z)
3
3
2
2
1
1
2
3
3
2
2
1
1 0 1
1
1
) (
1
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (


+ + +
= = =
+ + + = = =
z d z d z d z D z X
z Y
z H
z p z p z p p z P
z X
z W
z H
The filter section can be seen to be
an FIR filter and can be realized as
shown below

A cascade of the two structures
realizing and leads to the realization
of shown below and is known as the
direct form I structure





The direct form I structure is non-
canonic as it employs 6 delays to
realize a 3rd-order transfer function
A transpose of the direct form I
structure is shown on the right and is
called the direct form I
t
Structure
Basic IIR Digital Filter Structures
] 3 [ ] 2 [ ] 1 [ ] [ ] [
3 2 1 0
+ + + = n x p n x p n x p n x p n w
Various other non-canonic direct
form structures can be derived by
simple block diagram manipulations
as shown below






Observe in the right-hand-side
direct form structure, the signal
variable at nodes and are the
same, and hence the two top
delays can be shared

By expressing the numerator and the
denominator polynomials of the
transfer function as a product of
polynomials of lower degree, a digital
filter can be realized as a cascade of
low-order filter sections
Consider, for example,
H(z)=P(z)/D(z) expressed as


Examples of cascade:
Basic IIR Digital Filter Structures
Cascade Form IIR Filter Structures
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
3 2 1
3 2 1
z D z D z D
z P z P z P
z D
z P
z H = =
There are a total of 36 different
cascade realizations of


based on pole-zero-pairings and
ordering
Due to finite word-length effects,
each such cascade realization
behaves differently from others
Usually, the polynomials are
factored into a product of 1
st
- order
and 2
nd
-order polynomials


In the above, for a first-order factor

2k
=
2k
= 0

Consider the 3rd-order transfer
function



One possible realization is shown
below


Basic IIR Digital Filter Structures
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
3 2 1
3 2 1
z D z D z D
z P z P z P
z H =
[
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
=


k
k k
k k
z z
z z
p z H
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
0
1
1
) (
o o
| |
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=

2
22
1
12
2
22
1
12
1
11
1
11
0
1
1
1
1
) (
z z
z z
z
z
p z H
o o
| |
o
|
A partial-fraction expansion of the
transfer function in z
1
leads to the
parallel form I structure
Assuming simple poles the transfer
function H(z) can be expressed as


In the above for a real pole
2k
=

1k
= 0
A direct partial-fraction expansion of
the transfer function in z leads to
the parallel form II structure
Assuming simple poles, the transfer
function H(z) can be expressed as

In the above, for a first-order factor

2k
=
2k
= 0
The two basic parallel realizations of
a 3rd-order IIR transfer function are
shown below
Basic IIR Digital Filter Structures
Parallel Form IIR Filter Structures

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
+ =

k
k k
k k
z z
z
z H
2
2
1
1
1
1 0
0
1
) (
o o

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
+ =


k
k k
k k
z z
z z
z H
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
0
1
) (
o o
o o
o
An M-th order real-coefficient
allpass transfer function A
M
(z) is
characterized by M unique
coefficients as here the numerator
is the mirror-image polynomial of
denominator
A direct form realization of A
M
(z)
requires 2M multipliers
Objective - Develop realizations of
AM(z) requiring only M multipliers
An arbitrary allpass transfer
function can be expressed as a
product of 2
nd
order and/or 1
st
order
allpass transfer functions
We consider first the minimum
multiplier realization of a 1st-order
and a 2nd-order allpass transfer
functions

The LTI discrete-time systems
considered so far are single-input,
single-output structures
characterized by a transfer function
Often, such a system can be
efficiently realized by interconnecting
two-input, two-output structures,
more commonly called two-pairs
Figures below show two commonly
used block diagram representations
of a two-pair


Here Y
1
and Y
2
denote the two
outputs, and X
1
and X
2
denote the
two inputs, where the dependencies
on the variable z has been omitted
for simplicity
Realizations of All-Pass Filter
Digital Two-Pairs
The input-output relation of a digital
two-pair is given by


In the above relation the matrix
given by


is called the transfer matrix of the
two-pair
It follows from the input output
relation that the transfer parameters
can be found as follows:

An alternate characterization of the
two-pair is in terms of its chain
parameters as


where the matrix given by


is called the chain matrix of the two-pair
The relation between the transfer
parameters and the chain
parameters are given by
Digital Two-Pairs
Cascade Connection - -cascade



Here



As a results,


Hence



Digital Two-Pairs
Cascade Connection - T-cascade


Here



As a results,


Hence



Constrained Two-Pair



It can be shown that







Digital Two-Pairs
Consider first the 1st-order allpass
transfer function given by


We shall realize the above transfer
function in the form a structure
containing a single multiplier d
1
as
shown below


We express the transfer function
A
1
(z) = Y
1
/ X
1
in terms of the
transfer parameters of the two-pair
as
All-Pass Filter Structures
22 1
21 12 22 11 1 11
22 1
1 21 12
11 1
1
) (
1
) (
t d
t t t t d t
t d
d t t
t z A

+ =
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (

+
+
=
z d
z d
z A
A comparison of the above with

Yields


Substituting t
11
= z
1
and t
22
= z
1
in
t
11
t
22
= 1 we get

There are 4 possible solutions to
the above equation:







Firs-Order All-Pass Filter Structures
From the transfer parameters of this
allpass we arrive at the input-output
relations


A realization of the above two-pair
is sketched below


By constraining the X
2
, Y
1
, terminal-
pair with the multiplier d
1
, we arrive
at the Type 1A allpass filter
structure shown Below:
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (

+
+
=
z d
z d
z A
1 , ,
21 12 22 11
1
22
1
11
= = =

t t t t z t z t
2 2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1 2
) 1 ( X Y z X z X z Y
X z X Y
+ = + =
=

In a similar fashion, the other three

single multiplier first-order allpass
filter structures can be developed
as shown below

Firs-Order All-Pass Filter Structures
A 2
nd
-order allpass transfer function
is characterized by 2 unique
coefficients
Hence, it can be realized using only
2 multipliers
Type 2 allpass transfer function
Second-Order All-Pass Filter Structures
2
2 1
1
1
2 1
1 2 1
2
1
) (


+ +
+ +
=
z d d z d
z z d d d
z A
Type 3 allpass transfer function:
Type-3 All-Pass Filter Structures
Example Realize




A 3-multiplier cascade realization of
the above allpass transfer function
is shown below
Realization Using Multiplier Extraction
Approaches
2
2
1
1
2 1
1 2
3
1
) (


+ +
+ +
=
z d z d
z z d d
z A
) 5 . 0 8 . 0 1 )( 4 . 0 1 (
) 8 . 0 5 . 0 )( 4 . 0 1
2 . 0 18 . 0 4 . 0 1
4 . 0 18 . 0 2 . 0
) (
2 1 1
2 1 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3




+ +
+ + +
=
+ +
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
z z z
z z z
z A
The algorithm is based on the
development of a series of (m1)th-
order allpass transfer functions
A
m1
(z) from an mth-order allpass
transfer function A (z) for m=M, M
m
th
-order allpass transfer function
Am(z) for m = M, M 1,...,1
Let

We use the recursion

Where k
m
= A
m
() = d
m
It has been shown earlier that A
M
(z)
is stable if and only if

Realization Using Two-Pair Extraction Approaches
If the allpass transfer function
A
m1
(z) is expressed in the Form


then the coefficients of A
m1
(z) are
simply related to the coefficients of
A
m
(z) through


To develop the realization method
we express A
m
(z) in terms of A
m-1

(z)
m
m m
m
m m m
z d z d z d z d
z z d z d z d d
z Am
m
m

+ + + + +
+ + + + +
=




) 1 (
2 1
) 1 (
2 1
1 2 1
1 2 1
1
) (

1 , , 1 , ,
) ( 1
) (
) (
1
=
(

M M m
z A k
k z A
Z Z A
m m
m m
m
) 1 ( ' ) 2 (
2
' 1 '
) 1 ( ) 2 ( '
1
1 ' '
1
2 1
) ( 1

+ + + +
+ + + +
=
m
m
m
m m
m m z
m m
z d z d z d
z z d d d
Z Am

1 1 ,
1
2
'
s s

=

m i
d
d d d
d
m
i m m i
i
) ( 1
(
) (
1
1
1
1
z A z k
z A z k
z A
m m
m m
m

+
+
=
A
m-1
(z)
X
1
X
2
Y
1
A
m
(z)

Y
2
(

22 21
12 11
t t
t t
The transfer function Am(z) = Y1/X1
of the constrained two-pair can be
expressed as


Comparing the above with


we arrive at the two-pair transfer
parameters

Corresponding input output
relations are

Realization Using Two-Pair Extraction Approaches
A direct realization of the above
equations leads to the following 3-
multiplier two-pair



The transfer parameters


lead to the 4 multiplier two pair
structure shown below
) ( 1
) ( ) (
) (
1 22
1 21 12 22 11 11
z A t
z A t t t t t
z A
m
m
m

=
) ( 1
) (
) (
1
1
1
1
z A z k
z A z k
z A
m m
m m
m

+
+
=
1 , ) 1 ( , ,
21
1 2
12
1
22 11
= = = =

t z k t z k t k t
m m m
2
1
1 2
2
1 2
1 1
) 1 (
X z k X Y
X z k X k Y
m
m m

=
+ =
m m
m m
k t z k
t z k t k t
+ = =
= =

1 , ) 1 (
, ,
21
1
12
1
22 11
Likewise, the transfer parameters


lead to the 4-multiplier two-pair
structure shown below





A 2-multiplier realization can be
derived by manipulating the input-
output relations:



Realization Using Two-Pair Extraction Approaches
Making use of the second equation,
we can rewrite the equations as




lead to the 2-multiplier two-pair
structure, known as the lattice
structure, shown below



Consider the two-pair described by
2
21
1 2
12
1
22 11
1 , 1
, ,
m m
m m
k t z k t
z k t k t
= =
= =

2
1
1 2
2
1 2
1 1
) 1 (
X z k X Y
X z k X k Y
m
m m

=
+ =
2
1
2 1
X z Y k Y
m

+ =
2
1
1 2
2
1
2 1
X z k X Y
X z Y k Y
m
m

=
+ =
m m
m m
k t z k t
z k t k t
+ = =
= =

1 , ) 1 (
, ,
21
1
12
1
22 11
Its input-output relations are given by


Define
Y
1
= V
1
+ z
-1
X
2
and Y
2
= X
1
+ V
1,

leading to the following 1-multimplier
architecture




An m
th
-order allpass transfer function
A
m
(z) is then realized by constraining
any one of the two-pairs of the (m-
1)
th
order allpass transfer function
A
m-1
(z)
Realization Using Two-Pair Extraction Approaches




The process is repeated until the
constraining transfer function is
A
0
(z) = 1
The realization of A
m
(z) based on
the extraction of the two-pair lattice
is shown below
2
1
1 2
2
1
1 1
) 1 (
) 1 (
X z k X k Y
X z k X k Y
m m
m m

+ =
+ =
Next, the allpass A
2
(z) is realized as
a lattice two-pair characterized by the
multiplier coefficient k
2
=d
2
= 0.2708
and constrained b an allpass A
1
(z) as
indicated below



The allpass transfer function A1(z) is
of the form


Its coefficients is given by

Realization Using Two-Pair Extraction Approaches

Finally, the allpass A
1
(z) is realized
as a lattice two-pair characterized
by the multiplier coefficient k
1
=d
1
=
0.3574 and constrained b an
allpass A
1
(z) as indicated below
1 "
1
1 "
1
1
1
) (

+
+
=
z d
z d
z A
3573771 . 0
2708333 . 1
4541667 . 0
1 ) ( 1
'
2
'
1
2
2
'
1
'
2
'
1 "
1
= =
+
=
'

=
d
d
d
d d d
d
We have shown earlier that the 1
st
-
order lowpass transfer Function


and the 1st-order highpass transfer
function


are doubly-complementary pair
Moreover they can be expressed as



Where is a 1st-order allpass
transfer function

Tunable Lowpass and Highpass Digital Filters

A realization of H
LP
(z) and H
HP
(z)
based on the allpass-based
decomposition is shown below



The 1st-order allpass filter can be
realized using any one of the 4
single-multiplier allpass structures
In the following example, the 3-dB
cutoff frequency can be varied by
changing the multiplier coefficient
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

1
1
1
1
2
1
) (
z
z
z H
LP
o
o
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

1
1
1
1
2
1
) (
z
z
z H
LP
o
o
)] ( 1 [
2
1
) (
)] ( 1 [
2
1
) (
1
1
z A z H
z A z H
LP
LP
=
+ =
The 2nd-order bandpass transfer
function


and the 2nd-order bandstop transfer
function


also form a doubly-complementary pair
Thus, they can be expressed in the
form


Where

Tunable Bandpass and Bandstop Digital Filters

A realization of H
BP
(z) and H
BS
(z)
based on the allpass-based
decomposition is shown below



The 2
nd
-order allpass filter can be
realized using a cascaded single-
multiplier lattice structure
In the following structure the
multiplier controls the center
frequency and the multiplier
controls the 3-dB bandwidth
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

=

2 1
2
) 1 ( 1
1
2
1
) (
z z
z
z H
BP
o o |
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
=


2 1
2 1
) 1 ( 1
1
2
1
) (
z z
z z
z H
BS
o o |
| o
)] ( 1 [
2
1
) (
)] ( 1 [
2
1
) (
2
2
z A z H
z A z H
BS
BP
+ =
=
2 1
2 1
2
) 1 ( 1
) 1 (
) (


+ +
+ +
=
z z
z z
z A
o o |
o | o
Consider the cascaded lattice
structure derived earlier for the
realization of an allpass transfer
function



A typical lattice two-pair here is as
shown below




Its input-output relations are given by

IIR Tapped Cascaded Lattice Structures

From the input-output relations we
derive the chain matrix description
of the two-pair:


The chain matrix description of the
cascaded lattice structure is
therefore


From the above equation we arrive
at
(

=
(

) (
) ( 1 1 1
) (
) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
1
1
z S
z W
z k
z k
z k
z k
z k
z k
z Y
z X
) ( ) 1 (
) ( } )] 1 ( [
] ) 1 ( [ 1 { ) (
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
3
3
2
2 3 1 2
1
3 2 2 1 1
z W z d z d z d
z W z k z k k k k
z k k k k z X

+ + + =
+ + + +
+ + + =
W
m+1
(z)
S
m+1
(z)
S
m
(z)
W
m
(z)
3
3
2
2
1
1 1
1
1
1
) (
) (

+ + +
=
z d z d z d z X
z W
(

=
(

+
+
) (
) ( 1
) (
) (
1
1
1
1
z S
z W
z k
z k
z S
z W
m
m
m
m
m
m
using the relation S1(z)= W1(z) and
the relations


The transfer function W
1
(z)/X
1
(z) is
thus an all-pole function with the
same denominator as that of the 3rd-
order allpass function A
3
(z):





IIR Tapped Cascaded Lattice Structures

A two-step method to realize an
Mth-order arbitrary IIR transfer
function
H(z)=P
M
(z)/D
M
(z)
Step 1: An intermediate allpass
tranfer function A
M
(z)=z
-M
D
M
(z
-1
)
/D
M
(z) is realized in the form of a
cascaded lattice structure
Step 2: A set of independent
variables are summed with
appropriate weights to yield the
desired numerator PM(z)
To illustrate the method, consider
the realization of a 3rd-order allpass
function

3 3 2 2 1 1
, , d k d k d k = ' = ' ' =
3
3
2
2
1
1 1
1
1
1
) (
) (

+ + +
=
z d z d z d z X
z W
Gray Markel Method
3
3
2
2
1
1
3
3
2
2
1
1 0
3
3
1 ) (
) (
) (


+ + +
+ + +
= =
z d z d z d
z p z p z p p
z D
z P
z H
In the first step, we form 3rd-order
allpass transfer function
A
3
(z)=Y
1
(z)/X
1
(z)= z
-3
D
3
(z
-1
)/D
3
(z)
Realization of A
3
(z) has been
illustrated earlier resulting in the
structure shown below



Objective:Sum the independent
signal variables Y
1
, S
1
, S
2
, and S
3

with weights {
i
} as shown below to
realize the desired numerator P
3
(z)

IIR Tapped Cascaded Lattice Structures

To this end, we first analyze the
cascaded lattice structure realizing
and determine the transfer
functions S
1
(z)/X
1
(z), S
2
(z)/X
1
(z),
and S
3
(z)/X
1
(z)



We have already shown


From the figure it follows that

And hence

) (
1
) (
) (
3 1
1
z D z X
z S
=
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
1
1 1
1
1 2
z S z d z S z k z S

+ ' ' = + =
) ( ) (
) (
3
1
1
1
2
z D
z d
z X
z S

+
' '
=
We have



From the last equation we get


Substituting
and
in

We arrive at
IIR Tapped Cascaded Lattice Structures

From

we observe

Thus




Note:the numerator of S
i
(z)/X
1
(z) is
precisely the numerator of the
allpass transfer function

) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1
1 2 1
2
1
2 2 3
1
1
1 2
z S z d z W z S
z S z z W d z S
z S z d z S

' '
=
+
'
=
+
' '
=
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
1
1 2
z S z d z W

' '
+ =
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
1
1 2
z S z d z W

' ' + =
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1
1 2
z S z d z S

+ ' ' =
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2 2 3
z S z z W d z S

+
'
=
) ( ] ) 1 ( [
) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
2 1
2 1 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 2 3
z S z z d d d
z S z d z z S z d d z S


+ + ' ' ' + ' =
+ ' ' + ' ' + ' =
2
1
2
2
1 2 1
1
1 ) ( 1 d
d
d
d d d
d
' +
'
=
'
' ' '
= ' '
) 1 (
2 1 1
+
' ' '
=
'
d d d
) ( ) ( ) (
1
2 1
1 2 3
z S z z d d z S

+
'
+
'
=
) ( ) (
) (
3
2 1
1 2
1
3
z D
z z d d
z X
z S

+ ' + '
=
) (
) (
) (
z W
z S
z A
i
i
i
=
We now form







Substituting the expressions for the
various transfer function in the above
equation we arrive at



IIR Tapped Cascaded Lattice Structures

Comparing the numerator of
Y
0
(z)/X
1
(z) with the desired
numerator P
3
(z) and equating like
powers of z-1 we obtain




Solving the above equations we
arrive at




) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
1
1
4
1
2
3
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
0
z X
z S
z X
z S
z X
z S
z X
z Y
z X
z Y
o o o o + + + =
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
3
4
1
1 3
2 1
1 2 2
1
0
3 2
1
1
2 3 1
z D
z d z z d d
z X
z Y
z z d z d d
o o o
o
+ + ' ' + + ' + ' +
=
+ + +


3 1
2 2 1 1
1 3 1 2 2 1
0 4 1 3 2 2 3 1
p
p d
p d d
p d d d
=
= +
= + ' +
= + ' ' + ' +
o
o o
o o o
o o o o
1 3 2 2 3 1 0 4
1 2 2 1 1 3
1 1 2 2
3 1
d d d p
d d p
d p
p
' ' ' =
' =
=
=
o o o o
o o o
o o
o
An arbitrary Nth-order FIR transfer
function of the form

can be realized as a cascaded lattice
structure as shown below



From figure, it follows that


In matrix form the above equations
can be written as

FIR Cascaded Lattice Structures
Denote


Then it follows from the input-output
relations of the m-th two-pair that


From the previous equation we
observe





G
1
(z) is the mirror-image of H
1
(z)




n
N
n
n N
z p z H

=

+ =
1
1 ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
z Y z z X k z Y
z Y z k z X z X
m m m m
m m m m

+ =
+ =
(

=
(

) (
) (
1
) (
) (
1
1
1
1
z Y
z X
z k
z k
z Y
z X
m
m
m
m
m
m
) (
) (
) ( ,
) (
) (
) (
0 0
z X
z Y
z G
z X
z X
z H
m
m
m
m
= =
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
z G z z H k z G
z G z k z H z H
m m m m
m m m m

+ =
+ =
1
1 1
1
1 1
) ( , 1 ) (

+ = + = z k z G z k z H
1 ) ( / ) ( ) ( / ) ( ) (
1 ) ( / ) ( ) (
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
= = =
= =
z X z X z X z Y z G
z X z X z H
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
1
1
1
1
1

= + = z H z zk z z G
If we choose k
N
=p
N
, then H
N-1
(z)
reduces to an FIR transfer function of
order N-1and can be written in the
form

where


Continuing the above recursion
algorithm, all multiplier coefficients of
the cascaded lattice structure can be
computed
FIR Cascaded Lattice Structures
n
N
n
n N
z p z H

=

' + =
1
1
1
1 ) (
1 1 ,
1
2
s s

= '

N n
k
p k p
p
N
n N N N
n