Chapter 9

Sediment transport
1 Introduction
The Airy (Airy G. B., 1845) small amplitude theory (also named linear wave theory), described in chapter 3, provides a useful first approximation to the wave kinematics and is often extended to describe also processes related with nonlinear phenomena. However, waves are usually not small in amplitude, and larger waves produce the largest forces and greatest sediment movement, so nonlinear waves have to be studied for the analysis of some coastal processes. Sea level variations (wave setup and setdown) can be explained using some concepts of the linear theory; but the observed decrease and increase in the mean water level usually involve the wave height to the second power, which results in nonlinear quantities. These processes are explained with the radiation stress concept, that is the mean value of horizontal momentum across unit area of a vertical plane with respect to time, minus the mean flux in the absence of waves. Gradients in this quantity therefore correspond to a net addition or loss of momentum to a water column, i.e. a net force, arising from the processes of wave shoaling and breaking. Another nonlinear quantity is the mean transport of water toward the shoreline, the mass transport, which is not predicted by the linear Airy theory, which assumes that each water particle under a waveform is travelling in a closed elliptical orbit. We define the mass transport as:

1 t2 t1

t2 t1 d

u ( x, z )dzdt

(9.1)

where the time interval between t1 and t2 is a sufficiently long (many wave periods for irregular waves; one wave period for periodic waves). If we integrate over the depth from the bottom to the mean water surface, z=0, rather than the instantaneous water surface , we obtain M equal to zero, as predicted by linear theory. If we continue the integration up to , the mass transport becomes:

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E C

(9.2)

which shows that there is a nonlinear transport of water in the wave direction due to the larger forward transport of water under the wave crest because the total depth is greater when compared with the backward transport under the trough. From this formula, it follows that the mass transport is larger for more energetic waves. This mass transport has momentum associated with it, which means that forces will be generated whenever this momentum changes magnitude or direction by Newtons second law. To determine this momentum, we integrate the momentum flux from the bottom to the surface as follows:

Mf

1 t2 t1

t2 t1 d

( u )udzdt

(9.3)

This quantity has a first approximation f=MCg=En, which indicates that the flux of momentum is described by the mass transport times the group velocity. The sediment transport is usually divided into bed load, suspended load and swash load, as shown in the scheme of Figure 1.7. The bed load transport is either in sheet flow or rolled along the bottom, the suspended load is carried up within the fluid column and moved by currents, the swash load is moved on the beach face by the swash. The bed load transport is initiated when the resisting force of the sand particle on the bottom becomes smaller than a wave force on it. The depth of this point on the beach is called a critical depth for sediment movement and the critical velocity is defined as the water particle velocity at this depth. In the shallow water region where incident waves break, suspended load is generated by a great deal of sediment brought into suspension by the turbulence caused by breaking waves. Sediment materials are suspended and transported offshore by undertow currents. A large trough is formed and becomes deeper until the energy is completely exhausted. Offshore a bar is formed, localized between the breaking point and the deepest zone reached by vorticity. The swash load is generated in the swash zone, when fluid motion depends on the fluctuation of coastline associated with the frequency of oscillations: at low frequencies, if the beach is permeable and the sand is not saturated, the water percolates through the substrate and the backrush decreases, with accumulation of sediment. At high frequencies (storm waves), if the substrate is saturated, the water cannot percolate through the sand and the backrush current cannot decrease, with erosion.

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2 Basic concepts of sediment transport

2.1 Critical bed shear stress The sediment on the sea bed is transported when it is exposed to large enough forces, or shear stresses, by the water movements. These movements can be caused by the current or by the wave orbital velocities or by a combination of both. In fact, while on deep water there is no orbital motion of particles on the bottom, when the water depth roughly reaches one half of the wave length, the wave particle orbits begin to interact with the bottom, causing bed shear. If a steady flow over a bed composed of cohesionless grains is considered, these grains will not move at very small flow velocities, but when the flow velocity becomes large enough, the driving forces on the sediment particles will exceed the stabilizing forces. This flow velocity is called the critical flow velocity. A now classical solution to the problem based on dimensional analysis was offered by Shields (1936). The threshold of particle motion is supposed to be attained for a given ratio between driving and stabilizing forces. 2.2 The Shields parameter and modified Shields diagram The driving force acting on the bottom grains is a function of the second power 2 . On the other hand, the motion is of sediment diameter D, given by F bD contrasted by the individual grains tendency to stay on the bottom due to the friction caused by their submerged weight and to the presence of neighboring grains. For a non cohesive sediment, the particles submerged weight is defined as follows: W (
s

) gD 3

(9.4)

where s is the sediment density, is the fluid density, g is the gravity acceleration and D is the particle diameter. The ratio F/W is defined as Shields parameter (Shields, 1936):
b b

) gD

(s 1) gD

u*2 ( s 1) gD

(9.5)

where s (= s/ ) is the ratio between sediment density ( s) and fluid density ( ) 2 and u* is the friction velocity, defined as u* / . The parameter determining the characteristics of the near-bottom flow and hence the mobilizing force acting on individual sediment grains is the dimensionless boundary Reynolds number: R e* u* D (9.6)

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where: =kinematic fluid viscosity= / =(absolute) dynamic fluid viscosity Physical studies demonstrated that the condition for motion inception may be expressed as a critical Shields parameter c which value is a function of the Reynolds number f(Re*) :
c c c

) gD

(s 1) gD

u*2c ( s 1) gD

f ( Re* )

(9.7)

So the critical Shields parameter c is the effective Shields parameter ( ) at which sediment movement starts. The empirical diagram of c versus Re* is given in figure 9.1. Typical c values for sand in water are of the order 0.05.

Figure 9.1 Shields diagram for initiation of motion in steady turbulent flow (after Raudkivi, 1976). The Modified Shields diagram Madsen and Grant (1976) introduced the sediment-fluid parameter S*, which gives the relation between the critical Shields parameter and the sediment.

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Figure 9.2 - Modified Shield diagram (after Madsen and Grant, 1976). From the definition of
c

we obtain: u*c ( s 1) gD
c

(9.8)

which can be introduced in the definition of Re* to obtain the S* expression:

S* D ( s 1) gD 4v R e* 4
c

(9.9)

The sediment fluid parameter is often used to give a modified representation of the traditional Shields diagram, in which the values of S* are represented on the abscissa instead of the Reynolds parameter values. 2.3 Sediment fall velocity In order to describe suspended sediment transport, it is important to understand the behavior of suspended sand grains in different type of flow. The simplest case is when the fluid accelerations are negligible compared to the acceleration of gravity. In this case the relative velocity between sand and water is everywhere equal to the settling velocity wf. The rate at which a particle settles depends on grain and fluid properties (i.e. grain size, shape and density, water density, flow viscosity rate and turbulence). Assuming a spherical sediment grain, the force balance of submerged weight and fluid drag on a grain falling through an otherwise quiescent fluid gives: (
s

)g

D3

1 CD D 2 w2 f 2 4

(9.10)

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wf ( s 1) gD

4 3C D

(9.11)

Where: wf= sediment fall velocity; D = grain diameter; s= density of the particle; = density of the fluid; s= s/ . The drag coefficient CD is a function of the Reynolds number ReD =Dwf/v which is a function of S*, the sediment-fluid parameter defined by equation (9.9). From the empirical relationship of CD versus ReD , CD is obtained for a specified value of ReD. CD 1.4 36 / ReD (9.12) With this value of CD the dimensionless fall velocity is obtained, and the value is used with the specified value of ReD to obtain the corresponding value of S*. In this manner (Madsen and Grant 1976), the graph of nondimensional fall velocity as a function of the sediment fluid parameter, shown in figure 9.3 is obtained. The sediment fall velocity can be calculated as a function of the sediment fluid parameter: wf ( s 1) gD 1.82 for S* >300 (9.13)

For small values of S*, e.g. for quartz grains of D<0.1 mm in seawater, the sediment fall velocity is calculated from the Stokes law: wf or, using the S* parameter: wf ( s 1) gD 2 S * for S* <0.8 9 (9.15) ( s 1) gD 2 18v (9.14)

The fall velocity can also be calculated as a function of the median grain size D50 as follows: 36 D50
2

7.5( s 1) D50 2.8

wf

36 D50

(9.16)

where v is the kinematic viscosity N/m2; D50 is the median grain size; s is the ratio between the sediment density and the water density (s= s/ ). 2.4 Bed load and suspended load Of the total sediment load a distinction between two categories is usually made, on the basis that two different mechanisms are effective during the transport.

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Bed load Suspended load

Figure 9.3 - Nondimensional fall velocity for spherical particles versus the sediment fluid parameter (Madsen and Grant, 1976). The basic idea of this distinction is that the bed load is defined as the part of the total load that is in more or less continuous contact with the bed during the transport, so it involves that part of total load which is supported by intergranular forces (Bagnold, 1966). Thus the bed load must be determined almost exclusively by the effective bed shear acting directly on the sand surface. The suspended load is the part of the total load that is moving without continuous contact with the bed as a result of the agitation of fluid turbulence. 2.4.1 Bed-load and shear stress Making use of the Bagnolds definition of bed-load, it is fairly easy to estimate the weight of material which will be moved as bed-load under a certain effective stress . The bed-load must, due to this immersed weight, deliver an effective normal stress l (M/LT2) onto the top most of the immobile bed:
l

( s 1) g c B ( z ) dz
0

(9.17)

where cB is the volumetric concentration of bed-load in vol/vol, and s are the sediment density and porosity, respectively, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Assuming that the yield criterion for the top layer of immobile grains is
max c l

tan

(9.18) is given by:

the amount of bed-load which is in equilibrium with

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL DYNAMICS AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

c B ( z )dz
0

' c ( s 1) g tan

(9.19)
s

Here it is convenient to introduce the maximum concentration cmax, which is the volumetric concentration of solid sediment in the immobile bed. In terms of cmax, the vertical scale of the bed-load distribution is then defined by LB 1 c max
0

c B ( z )dz

(9.20)

Introducing this expression for LB into equation (9.18), we see that the vertical distribution scale measured in grain diameters is: LB d '
C s

c max tan

(9.21)

Bagnold (1966) gave tan s =0.63 as a typical value for fairly rounded grains corresponding to a maximum concentration of the same value, i.e. cmax=0.63 [vol/vol], and he noted that the product cmax tan s =0.63 is fairly constant at about 0.4 for different grain shapes. Hence, as rules of thumb we have: LB c max L B 2.5( ' 2.5( '
c )d c ) dc max

(9.22) (9.23)

LB is the equivalent thickness at rest of the bed-load, and cmaxLB is the corresponding solids volume per unit area of the bed. 2.4.2 Steady bed load in sheet flow transport The bed load transport rate can be expressed as : qb
0

c B ( z )u s ( z ) dz

c max L BU B

(9.24)

us is the sediment velocity distribution and cmax is the maximum concentration of solid sediment in the immobile bed. We can predict qb values empirically with reasonable confidence for steady flow because it was measured directly in a large number of experiments. One of the first theoretical approaches to the problem of predicting the rate of bed load transport was presented by Einstein (1950). One of the most important innovations in his analysis was the application of the theory of probability to account for the statistical variation of the agitating forces on bed particles caused by turbulence. Based on experimental observations, Einstein assumed that the mean distance traveled by a sand particle between erosion and subsequent deposition, is simply proportional to the grain diameter and independent of the hydraulic conditions and the amount of sediment in motion.

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The principle in Einsteins analysis is as follows: the number of particles, deposited in a unit area, depends on the number of particles in motion and on the probability that the dynamical forces permit the particles deposit the number of particles eroded from the same unit area depends on the number of particles within the area and on the probability that the hydrodynamic forces on these grains are sufficiently strong to move them. For equilibrium conditions the number of grains deposited must equal the number of particles eroded. In this way, a functional relation (bed load function) is derived between the two nondimensional quantities.
qB ( s 1) gd
2

(9.25)

where qB is the rate of bed load transport in volume of material per unit time and width. The general trend of can be also expressed by the Meyer-Peter and Muller (1948): (9.26) 8( ' c )1.5 Another expression is given in Nielsen (1992)
8( '
c

'

(9.27)

The representation of the

functions is given in figure 9.4.

2.4.3 Basics of suspended load transport formulation Under the assumption of an uniform flow, the relation between the average velocity (v), the water level slope (i) the water depth (h) and the bed shear friction coefficient (C) is given by the Chezy formula:

v C di
In that case, the shear stress is given by:
c

v2 C 2d

(9.28)

gv 2 / C 2

(9.29)

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL DYNAMICS AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

Figure 9.4 - Representation of the

functions

for such flow the vertical velocity gradient dv( z ) dz can be written as:
dv ( z ) dz ( z)
f

(9.30)

where f is the diffusion coefficient and is the shear stress at height z from the bed. The diffusion coefficient is given by the mixing length theory:
f

l2

dv( z ) dz

(9.31)

where l is the mixing length, given by: l=kz (near the bed) (9.32) (9.33)

kz 1 z / d (for the entire water column)

so the shear stress varies linearly with the height above the bed:

( z)

dv( z ) (kz ) (1 z / d ) dz
2

2 c

(1 z / d )

(9.34)

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the vertical gradient dv( z ) dz is: dv( z ) dz

c

kz

(9.35)

The solution of the above differential equation is : v( z )

C

1 z ln k z0

u* z ln k z0

(9.36)

where u* is the shear stress velocity, which is the velocity occurring at a certain elevation above the bed, assuming a logarithmic velocity profile. A physically important quantity is the velocity which marks the change of the turbulent flow of the logarithmic velocity profile to a much less turbulent or even laminar sublayer close to the bed: the velocity distribution near the bed is usually assumed be linear and tangent to the logarithmic distribution at a height zt above the bed. From dvt / dz found : vt / z t follows that zt=ez0. The velocity at the height zt is v* k g kC

vt

v
c is

(9.37) found: (9.38)

with equation (9.35) a new formulation for the bed shear stress
c

k 2 vt2

This expression relates the bed shear stress to the velocity near the bed for the combination of the two fundamentally different velocity profiles of a uniform flow and the orbital velocity due to the waves. The value of z0 is related to the apparent bottom roughness . Experimentally, Nikuradse found: z0/r=1/33 (9.39) The above given information is required to calculate the concentration of the material in suspension. This material is kept into suspension by the exchange of upward and downward transport as result of the turbulent diffusion. This upward diffusion coefficient for the sediment is related to the turbulent fluid diffusion coefficient. Thus, the upward transport due to turbulent diffusion is, in the equilibrium situation, equal to the downward motion of the sediment due to the fall velocity:

wc( z )

( z)

dc( z ) dz

(9.40)

where z is the height above the bed; w is the fall velocity of the sediment particles in still water; c(z) is the average concentration at height z above the bed; s(z) is the diffusion coefficient for the sediment at height z.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL DYNAMICS AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

( z)

s max

z d z d d

(9.41)

this results in a concentration distribution given by :

c( z ) c0

d z

a d a

Z0

(9.42)

where z* w / kv* dw / 4 s max ; c0 is the reference concentration at level z=a above the bed. Einstein calculated the value of c0 at a height a of only some grain diameters from the bed (Einstein, 1950). For a rippled or ondulated bed this assumption is not realistic. Bijker assumed therefore that a would be equal to the bed roughness r. The concentration ca at the top of this layer is calculated under the assumption that the bed load is transported in this layer by the average velocity and that the concentration is constant (in the same layer). The suspended load can be calculated as: qb = rvbedlayerca (9.43) Over the height z0 the velocity distribution is linear, from z0 to r the velocity distribution is logarithmic. This results in the following formula for the average velocity v in the bottom layer:

vbedlayer
or :

1 1 v* z0 r 2 k

r z0

v* z ln dz k z0

(9.44)

vbedlayer

6.34v*

(9.45)

2.5 The bottom boundary layer and the bed roughness The bottom boundary layer is the zone in the immediate vicinity of the bed where the fluid motion is significantly influenced by the frictional resistance of the bottom. The velocity in the boundary layer grades from zero at the bed to the velocity of the free stream at some distance above the bed. The thickness of the wave boundary layer ( ) depends on the wave period and is approximately (Madsen and Grant, 1976): ku*,w (9.46)

where k is the von Karmans constant (=0.4), u*,w is the wave-induced shear velocity and is the wave radian frequency (2 /T). The thickness of the wave boundary layer is typically in the order of a few centimeters. While an oscillatory boundary layer more or less breaks down and reforms twice every wave cycle, a current boundary layer is significantly thicker, as this layer has ample time to

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189

develop. The most important physical aspect of the boundary layer is the shear stress ( b) , i.e. the force which the fluid motion exerts on the bed. The shear 2 u* and determinates the velocity gradient close to stress can be defined as b the bed and the mobilising forces applied to the sediment grains on the bottom. This quantity is of fundamental importance to sediment entrainment and transport. Under unidirectional currents, the bed shear stress can be computed from the velocity profile. In the lower 1-2 m of the water this profile is generally well described by the von Karman-Prandtl equation: uz u* ln( z / z 0 ) k (9.47)

where u* is the mean velocity at elevation z above the bed, u* is the shear velocity associated with the current and z0 is the zero intercept of the velocity profile. However, sediment entrainment and concentration in surf zone are mainly determined by the shear stress due to waves. This is because the wave boundary layer is much thinner than the current boundary layer. Therefore, velocity gradients (the shear velocity) due to the waves are significantly larger than for the mean current. An appropriate way of determining shear velocity and bed shear stress is through the use of the definition of bed shear stress under waves:
b, w
2 u*, w

1 f wu 2 2

(9.48)

where is the density of the water, u is the free stream wave orbital velocity and fw is a wave friction factor, i.e. a coefficient of proportionality describing the relation between shear velocity and the free stream velocity. A commonly accepted expression for the non-dimensional wave-friction factor is due to Swart (1974):
fw exp(5.213(k s / A) 0.194 5.977)

ks / A

0.63

(9.49)

where ks is the bed roughness (or hydraulic roughness) and A is the water particle semi-excursion (i.e. orbital amplitude, A=umT/2 ) . For ks/A>0.63, fw=0.30. The bed roughness is usually defined as: (Nielsen, 1992): ks=30z0 (9.50) Hence, the rougher the bed the steeper the velocity gradients and the more stress exerted by the fluid motion. However, in sediment transport modeling, the specification of ks remains a problem. When waves and currents coexist, the bed roughness is mainly linked to the wave motion. Total bed roughness is composed of the grain roughness (roughness due to the individual particles on the bed kd), roughness exerted by bedforms (form drag roughness, kr) and due to sediment movement (km). The latter two terms are called moveable bed roughness. Thus: ks=kd+kr+km (9.51)

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL DYNAMICS AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

For a flat fixed bed, ks=kd=2.5D50 (where D50 is the mean grain size). However, in the surf zone the bed is rarely immobile and for a moveable bed under waves, Nielsen (1992) proposed ks 8
2 r

170 D50 ( ' 0.05)1 / 2 is the bedform wavelength and

(9.52) is the skin

where r is the bedform height, friction Shields parameter.

2.6 Bed load and suspended load: a simple parametrical model Bed load Bagnold (1966) pointed out one of the shortcomings in Einsteins formulation by stating the following paradox. Consider the ideal case of fluid flow over a bed of uniform, perfectly piled spheres in a plane bed, so that all particles are equally exposed. Statistical variations due to turbulence are neglected. When the tractive stress exceeds the critical value, all particles in the upper layer are peeled off simultaneously and are dispersed. Hence the next layer of particles is exposed to the flow and should consequently also be peeled off. The result is that all the subsequent underlying layers are also eroded, so that a stable bed could not exist at all when the shear stress exceeds the critical value. Bagnold explained the paradox by assuming that in a water-sediment mixture the total shear stress would be separated in two parts: = F+ G (9.53) where F is the shear stress transmitted by the intergranular fluid, while G is the shear stress transmitted because of the interchange of momentum caused by the encounters of solid particles, i.e. a tangential dispersive stress. The existence of such dispersive stresses was confirmed by his experiments. Bagnold argues that when a layer of spheres is peeled off, some of the spheres may go into suspension, while others will be transported as bed load. Thus a dispersive pressure on the next layer of spheres will develop and act as a stabilizing agency. Hence, a certain part of the total bed shear stress is transmitted as a grain shear stress G, and a correspondingly minor part as fluid stress = F+ G. Continuing this argument, it is understood that exactly so many layers of spheres will be eroded that the residual fluid stress F on the first immovable layer is equal to (or smaller than) the critical tractive stress G . The mechanism in transmission of a tractive shear stress greater than the critical is then the following: c is transferred directly from the fluid to the immovable bed, while the residual stress - c is transferred to the moving particles and further from these to the fixed bed as a dispersive stress. The effective bottom shear stress ( c' ) is given by:
' c

1 2

0.06 log 12d 2.5D50

U2

(9.54)

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191

Bijker (1986) presented a method for the calculation of sediment transport in combined wave and current motion. The mean bed shear stress ( wc ) by Bijker (1986) in this situation is given by:

1 w, max 2 c is the bed shear stress by current alone, and stress by wave alone:
wc c c

(9.55)
w,max

is the maximum bed shear (9.56) (9.57)

1 U2 2

1 2
w, max

0.06 log 12d k s 1 2 f cU m 2

0.2

U2

fw
where:

k exp 5.5 s Aw

6.3

(9.58)

d=water depth [m]; ks=bed roughness [m]; U=average velocity of current [m/s]; Aw=amplitude of the water particle on the bottom [m]; Um=maximum horizontal velocity of the water particle on the bottom [m/s]. The bed load transport is given by:

qB

2 D50

exp

0.27( s 1) D50 g
r wc stirring up

(9.59)

transporting

where: qB= bed load transport [m3/m s]; D50=median sediment grain size [m]; g=acceleration of gravity [m/s2]; r=ripple factor= c/ wc [-]; 0.27=experimental coefficient. Suspended load The suspended load is defined as the part of the total load which is moving without continuous contact with the bed as the result of the agitation of the fluid turbulence. The appearance of ripples will increase the bed shear stress (flow resistance). On the other hand, more grains will be suspended due to the flow separation on the lee side of the ripples, thus the suspended load is related to the total bed shear stress. Einstein-Bijker formula for suspended sediment transport is:
qS 1.83qB I1 ln d 0.033k s I2

(9.60)

where I1 and I2 are the Einsten integrals given by:

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL DYNAMICS AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

I1

0.216

A(z*

1)

1 A

(1 A)z*

1 B B

z*

dB
z*

(9.61) (9.62)

I2

0.216

A(z*

1)

1 A

(1 A) z*

1 B B

lnBdB

where A=ks /d; B=z/d; z*=wf /( u*,C); u *,c friction velocity. is the c / Von Karman constant ( =0.40, dimensionless) and qB is the bed load transport under combined wave and current [m3/m s]. The values of Integrals I1 and I2 can be used to calculate the Einstein Total Integral Q as follows:

Q [ I1 ln(d / 0.033k s ) I 2 ]

(9.63)

For given values ks, d and z* , the Einstein Total Integral Q can be also calculated using the table 9.1 or figure 9.5, which gives the representation of 1.83Q (= qS /qB) versus A(=ks//h). The suspended load qS is a function of the bed load transport and the Einstein Total Integral: qS 1.83Qq B (9.64) This indicates that the suspended load transport is directly and linearly proportional to the bed load. The total transport QT can now be written as: QT 2.7 Case study Example 1 Calculate the sediment fall velocity in sea water ( =1,025 Kg/m3 ; =10-6 m2/s) for a quartz sediment sand ( s =2,650 Kg/m3) with diameter D=0.15 mm. Solution: The sediment fall velocity can be calculated using the sediment fluid-parameter S* : s= s/ =2.59 g=acceleration due to gravity=9.8 m/s; D=0.15mm=1.5 10-4m.
D 1.5 10 4 ( s 1) gD ( 2.59 1) 9.8 1.5 10 4 1.81 6 4v 4 10 The figure 9.5 in correspondence of S*=1.81 the dimensionless fall velocity can be calculated by the following expression: S*

qB

qS

q B (1 1.83Q)

(9.65)

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193

wf ( s 1) gD so we have: wf Example 2 S * ( s 1) gD

S*

0.3

0.0145m / s 1.45cm / s

In a coastal region, (sea water density =1025 kg/m3; kinematic viscosity v=10-6 m2/s) the flow speed is U=1 m/s at 2 m water depth; Wave parameters are: H=0.5 m and T=8 s (L=35 m); the sediment density is 2650 kg/m3 and D50=0.15 mm. The bed roughness is ks=2 cm. Calculate the sediment transport under current and under combined wave and current. Solution: The effective bottom shear stress is given by:
' c

1 2
1 2

0.06 log 12d 2.5 D50

0.06 log 12d k s
' c r c 2

U2

1.33 N / m 2

The total bottom shear stress is:

c

U2

3.24 N / m 2

The ripple factor is: 0.41

The bed load transport is: qB 2 D50

c

exp

0.27( s 1) D50 g
r wc

1.0395 10-5

m3 m s

The relative density of the sediment is: s The fall velocity is: 36 D50
2 s

2.59

7.5( s 1) D50 2.8

wf

36 D50

0.012 m/s

The friction velocity is:

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL DYNAMICS AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

u *,c

0.056 m/s

the Q values can be calculated by numerical integration or using figure 9.5 or using table 9.1. By numerical integration: I1 A ( z* 1) 0.216 (1 A) z*
A ( z* 1) 0.216 (1 A) z*
1 A 1 A

1 B B
z*

z*

dB

2.62

I2

1 B B

ln BdB -4.83

The suspended sediment transport is:

qS 1.83q B Q 1.83q B I 1 ln h 0.033k s I2

3.0755 10-4

m3 m s

Figure 9.5 - Suspended sediment transport parameters.

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195

The total sediment transport is:

QT qB qS m3 3.1795 10 m s
-4

If we consider the combined wave and current, by linear wave theory the amplitude of water particle on the bottom is: Aw H 1 2 sinh(2 h / L)
2 T
0.2

0.68

the maximum horizontal velocity of water particle on the bottom is:

Um Aw Aw

0.53 m/s

the wave friction coefficient is: fw k exp 5.5 s Aw 6.3 0.028

the maximum bottom shear stress by wave is:

1 2 =4.07 N/m2 f cU m 2 The mean bottom stress under combined wave and current is:
w , max

wc

1 2

w , max

=5.28 N/m2

the bed load transport is:

qB 2 D50
c

exp

0.27( s 1) D50 g
r wc

= 1.2532 10-5

m3 m s

the friction velocity is:

u *,WC
Wc

=0.072 m/s

The suspended sediment transport parameters are: A=ks /d =0.01 z*=wf /( u*,wC)=0.42 the Q values can be calculated by numerical integration or using figure 9.5 or using table 9.1 . By numerical integration:
I1 A ( z* 1) 0.216 (1 A) z*
1 A

1 B B

z*

dB

3.8

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I2

A ( z* 1) 0.216 (1 A) z*

1 A

1 B B

z*

ln BdB -6.3

. ks/h EINSTEIN INTEGRAL FACTOR Q z* 0.40 z* z* z* z* z* =0.60 =0.80 =1.00 =1.50 =2.00 3880 527 88 20.0 2.33 0.973 2430 377 71.6 17.9 2.31 0.973 1300 239 53.6 14.4 2.28 0.967 803 169 42.7 13.6 2.25 0.967 496 119 33.9 11.9 2.21 0.967 260 74.3 24.6 9.8 2.13 0.962 158 51.2 19.1 8.4 2.05 0.951 95.6 35.1 14.6 7.0 1.96 0.940 48.5 20.8 10.0 5.4 1.78 0.907 28.6 13.8 7.3 4.3 1.62 0.869 16.5 8.9 5.2 3.3 1.42 0.809 7.7 4.8 3.1 2.2 1.10 0.694 4.1 2.8 2.0 1.5 0.84 0.568 2.0 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.55 0.414 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.17 0 0 0 0 0 z* =3.00 0.432 0.432 0.432 0.432 0.431 0.431 0.430 0.428 0.424 0.417 0.404 0.374 0.339 0.317 z* =4.00 0.276 0.276 0.276 0.276 0.275 0.275 0.275 0.274 0.273 0.270 0.264 0.249 0.236
Table 9.1- Einstein Integral factor Q.

z*=0.00

0.00001 303000 0.00002 144000 0.00005 53600 0.0001 25300 0.0002 11900 0.0005 4360 0.001 2030 0.002 940 0.005 336 0.01 153 0.02 68.9 0.05 23.2 0.1 9.8 0.2 3.9 0.5 0.8 1 0

z* =0.20 32800 17900 7980 4320 2330 1020 545 289 123 63.9 32.8 13.1 6.3 2.8 0.7 0

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The suspended sediment transport is:

qS 1.83qB Q 1.83qB d I1 ln 0.033k s I2

5.6481 10-4

m3 m s

The total sediment transport is:

QT qB qS m3 5.7734 10 m s
-4

3 Basic shore processes

When waves approach a sloping beach and break, nearshore currents are generated, which action depends on the beach characteristics and the wave conditions. Beach morphology is strongly controlled by nearshore currents because of sediment movements; water fluxes between the coast and the offshore zone contribute to renew the coastal waters. Nearshore current patterns are a combination of longshore currents, rip currents and undertow. For large incident wave angle, alongshore momentum generated by the wave breaking process sets up strong longshore currents. The forward flow of the water particles in the breaking process sets up longshore currents. Smaller incident wave angle generate weaker longshore currents. The forward flow of the water particles in the breaking waves also pumps water across the breaking zone, increasing the water level there. The onshore momentum of the waves holds some of this water close to shore, causing a shoreward elevated water level (wave set-up). This phenomenon can be explained by the concept of radiation stress, introduced by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1964) and described in chapter 3. 3.1 Nearshore circulation The explaination for the generation of the cell circulation was developed following the introduction of the concept of radiation stress by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1964), defined as the excess of flow of momentum due to the presence of waves. The shoreward component of the radiation stress produces a set-down immediately offshore of the breakers and a set-up within the surf zone. In a two-dimensional case, the wave crests are always parallel to the shoreline. Averaging over one wave period, continuity of mass must be satisfied at every cross section. This necessitates a vertical distribution of mass transport velocity: forward flow at the surface and near the bottom, return flow near middepth (Ippen, 1966). The forward flow at the surface transports the water in surface rollers toward the coast,and the wave drift is also directed toward the coast. These contributions are concentrated near the surface. As the net flow must be zero, they are compensated by a return flow in the offshore direction, which is concentrated near the bed (undertow).

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In a three-dimensional case, a cellular circulation takes place, which is constituted by longshore currents and rip currents.

Figure 9.6-Nearshore circulation pattern. Two dimensional case (after Ippen, 1966). The longshore current is generated by the shore-parallel component of the radiation stress associated with the breaking process for obliquely incoming waves. This current, which is parallel to the shoreline, carries the sediments alongshore and it is approximately proportional to the square root of the wave height and to sin(2 b), where b is the wave incidence angle at breaking. The movement of beach sediment along the coast is referred to as littoral transport or longshore sediment transport, whereas the actual volumes of sand involved in the transport are termed the littoral drift. This longshore movement of beach sediments is of particular importance because the transport can either be interrupted by the construction of jetties and breakwaters (structures which block all or a portion of the longshore sediment transport), or can be captured by inlets and submarine canyons. In the case of a jetty, the result is a buildup of the beach along the updrift side of the structure and an erosion of the beach downdrift of the structure (CEM, 2001). The rip currents are part of cellular circulations fed by longshore currents within the surf zone that increase from zero at a point between two neighboring rips, reaching a maximum just before turning seaward to form the rip (see figure 9.6). The longshore currents are in turn fed by the slow shoreward transport of water into the surf zone from breaking waves. A nearshore circulation cell thus consists of longshore currents feeding the rips, the seaward flowing rip currents that extend through the breaking zone and spread out into rip heads, and a return onshore flow to replace the water moving offshore through rips. (Shepard and Inman, 1950). The cell circulation results from alongshore variation in wave heights, which in turn produce a longshore variation in set-up elevations. The set-up results from the Sxx onshore component of the radiation stress being balanced by the pressure gradient of the seaward-sloping water surface in the nearshore. Balancing those forces yields:

8 3 2

d x

(9.66)

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For the cross-shore slope of the set-up denoted by . There is a direct proportionality with the beach slope S 0 d / x , but not a direct dependence on the

Figure 9.7 - The nearshore cell circulation consists of (1) feeder longshore currents, (2) seaward-flowing rip currents, and (3) a return flow of water from the offshore zone into the surf zone (after Komar, 1988). wave height. However, the larger waves break in deeper water than smaller waves, and the set up therefore begins farther seaward at longshore locations where the larger waves occur. Inside the surf zone, the mean water level is higher shoreward of the larger breakers than it is shoreward of the small waves. A longshore pressure gradient therefore exists, which will drive a longshore current from positions of high waves and set-up to adjacent position of low-waves. In addition of the Sxx component of the radiation stress, there is a Syy component, a moment flux acting parallel to the wave crest, in this case parallel to the shoreline. This component is given by:

S yy

kd 1 gH 2 8 sinh(2kd )

(9.67)

since the wave height varies alongshore, Syy will similarly vary and there will exist a longshore gradient:

S yy y

1 kd gH 4 sinh(2kd )

H y

(9.68)

This longshore gradient produces a flow of water away from the regions of high waves and toward position of low waves. The flow then turns seaward as a rip current where the waves and the set-up are lowest and the longshore currents converge.

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201

The cell circulation therefore depends on the existence of variations in wave heights along the shore. The most obvious way to produce this variation is by wave refraction, which can concentrate the wave rays in one area of a beach, causing high waves, and at the same time spread the rays in the adjacent area of the beach and then produce low waves. The position of rip currents and the overall cell circulation will then be governed by wave reflection and hence by the offshore topography. Headlands, breakwaters and jetties can affect the incident waves by the partial sheltering of the shore and thereby produce significant longshore variations in wave height and set-up. Wave reflection and diffraction produce alongshore gradients with lower waves and set-up in the lee of the headland or breakwater, which in turn generate longshore currents flowing inward toward the sheltered region. In some situations this process can account for the development of strong rip currents adjacent to jetties and breakwaters. An example of rip current acting on bottom topography is the phenomenon of rip channels. On a barred profile the wave breaking on the bar will induce a wave set-up, causing an increase of water level inshore of the bar. A bar will be in many cases interrupted by holes (rip channels) found at more or less regular intervals. The wave breaking is less intensive in the rip-channels due to the larger depth and because the wave refraction may concentrate the wave energy on the bars at the sides of the channel. Wave-current interaction may affect the development of rip-currents. In fact, the weak currents generated by a gentle alongshore variation of the wave field can cause significant refractive effect on the waves as to change the structure of the forcing which drives the currents and the instability of the cellular circulation. When currents are weak compared to the wave group velocity, their effects on waves are small, but such effects are sometimes not negligible. This is the case of rip currents produced by alongshore topographic variations on otherwise alongshore uniform beaches. These alongshore variations in the topography, like gentle rip channels, produce longshore variations in the radiation stress and provides the source of vorticity and of horizontal circulations, which interact with the waves, so wave radiation stress will be modified. Such changes of course are small relative to the effect due to wave breaking, but can be comparable to the variations caused by the topography. When this is the case, the circulations of interest can be significantly affected by the wave-current interaction. The interaction of the narrow offshore directed rip currents and incident waves produces a forcing effect opposite to that due to topography, hence it reduces the strength of the currents and restricts their offshore extent. The two physical processes due to refraction by currents, behind the wave rays and changes in the wave energy, both contribute to this negative feedback, on the wave forcing (Yu and Slinn, 2003).

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Figure 9.8 - The circulation current generated by normally incident waves on a barred coast with rip-channels (after Fredse and Deigaard, 1992). 3.2 Wave run-up in the swash zone The wave run-up is defined as the maximum elevation of the wave uprush above the mean sea level. The uprush is given by the sum of two components: the positive elevation of the mean water level caused by wave action and the fluctuations above the mean water level (swash). The concept of wave run-up is frequently used to describe the beach profile processes. The wave run-up parameter calculation depends on the processes of wave transformation, such as the wave reflection, the interaction between the bottom and the waves and the sediments properties (e.g. porosity and permeability). Actually, some formulations of wave run-up are based on the empirical studies carried out by Hunt (1979) for regular waves and for irregular waves. Regular waves For regular breaking waves, the run-up is a function of the beach slope, incident wave height and wave steepness. According the Hunt (1979) formulation:
R H0
0
0

for 0.1< 0 <2.3

(9.69)

is the so-called surf-similarity parameter:

0

tan

H0 L0

1/ 2

(9.70)

where is the beach slope, H0 and L0 are the incident wave height and the wave length on deep waters, respectively, and the ratio H0 / L0 is the wave steepness. Irregular waves For irregular waves the wave run-up is a function of the similarity parameter and depends on the interaction between individual runup bores (CEM, 2001).

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203

The maximum run-up is an important parameter to describe the active portion of the beach profile. Mase (1988) describes the expressions (Table 9.2) for the maximum run-up (Rmax) and other run-up parameters valid for flat and impermeable beaches and for 1 / 30 tan 1 / 5 , H 0 L0 0.007 . 3.3 Bar formation by cross-shore flow mechanisms The classic response of a planar beach to storm waves consists of erosion of the beachface and inner surf zone and deposition around the wave breakpoint resulting in the formation of a storm bar. The first explanation of bar formation was given as early as 1863 by Hagan (in Komar, 1976) who explained a bar formation by a seaward going undertow meeting the shoreward moving waves. This intuitive idea has now been formalised where the undertow is represented by the bed return flow and the intuitive expression shoreward moving waves refers to the shoreward flow asymmetry associated with the highly non-linear shoaling waves. Thus, offshore of the breakpoint, the residual flow close to the bed is shoreward, whereas onshore of the breakpoint, the near-bed flow is seaward. This results in a region of flow convergence and hence sediment accumulation close to the breakpoint and the formation of a bar (Dyhr-Nielsen and Sorensen, 1970). For bars formed according to the cross-shore flow mechanism, the distance from the shoreline to the bar crest (xbar) is described by (Holman and Sallenger, 1993)

xbar

db tan

Hb tan

(9.71)

where db is the depth at the break point, tan( ) is the nearshore gradient, is the breaker criterion and Hb is the breaker height. The cross-shore flow mechanism of bar formation does not account for the formation of multiple bars because only one breakpoint or breaker zone will occur. However, several explanations can be given for the formation of multiple bars according to the cross-shore flow mechanism. The first involves the presence of multiple breakpoints. Once waves break on an outer bar of a gently sloping beach they may recover and reform as they travel across the deeper shoreward trough. These reformed waves may break for a second or perhaps a third time before they eventually reach the shoreline, resulting in multiple bar morphology. The presence of several distinct wave climates, each one responsible for a single bar, may result in multiple bar morphology (Evans, 1939). Another mechanism may involve varying water levels and breaker position due to tides (Komar, 1976).

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL DYNAMICS AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

Table 9.2 - Mase (1988) expressions for run-up parameters. Symbol Maximum Run-up Rmax Formulation
Rmax H0 R2% H0 R1 / 10 H0 R1 / 3 H0 R H0 2.32
0.77 0

Run-up exceeded by 2% of the R2% crests Average of the highest 1/10 of the R1/10 run-ups Average of the highest 1/3 of the R1/3 run-ups Mean run-up
R

1.86

0.71 0

1.70

0.71 0

1.38

0.70 0

0.88

0.69 0