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Year
Milestone
J. E. E. Lenoir and Nikolaus Otto developed atmospheric engine wherein combustion of fuel-air charge during first half of outward stroke of a free piston accelerating the piston which was connected to a rack assembly. The free piston would produce work during second half of the stroke creating vacuum in the cylinder and the atmospheric pressure then would push back the piston. Nikolaus Otto developed 4-stroke SI engine where in the fuel-air charge was compressed before being ignited. Dougald Clerk developed the first 2-stroke engine Atkinson develops an engine having lower expansion stroke than the compression stroke for improvement in engine thermal efficiency at cost of specific engine power. The Atkinson cycle is finding application in the modern hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) Rudolf Diesel takes patent on engine having combustion by direct injection of fuel in the cylinder air heated solely by compression , the process now known as compression ignition (CI) Henry Ford develops first automobile powered by the IC engine Rudolph Diesel developed CI engine prototype, also called as the Diesel engine Antiknock additive tetra ethyl lead discovered by the General Motors became commercially available which provided boost to development of high compression ratio SI engines Felix Wankel developed rotary internal combustion engine Multipoint port fuel injection introduced on production gasoline cars Variable valve timing and lift control introduced on gasoline cars
18601867
Electronic fuel injection on heavy duty diesel introduced Carburettor was replaced by port fuel injection on all US production cars Direct injection stratified charge (DISC) engine powered cars came in production by Mitsubishi and Toyota
More advanced and newer combustion systems are dealt as special variations of the IC engines. For
example the direct injection stratified charge (DISC) engine is taken as a special variant of SI engine. The homogeneous charge compression ignition engines are being developed around the conventional SI and CI engines and are discussed accordingly.
Figure 1.1
Table 1.2
Sequence of Events in 4-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
Event Time of Occurrence, Crank angle
60 -40 CA aBDC in the beginning of compression stroke 45 -15 CA bTDC towards the end of compression stroke
Spark ignition
turbulent Begins shortly after ignition up to 15 to 30 CA aTDC Early in the expansion stroke
CA: Crank Angle, ATDC: After Top Dead Centre; BTDC: Before Top Dead Centre; ABDC: After Bottom Dead Centre; BBDC:Before Bottom Dead Centre;
Figure 1.2
Table 1.3
Sequence of Events in 4-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
Event Time of occurrence, Crank angle
Intake valve opens 5 -20 CA bTDC at the end of exhaust stroke (IO) Exhaust closes (EC) valve 8 to 20 CA aTDC in the beginning of intake stroke
Intake valve closes 40 -20 CA aBDC in the beginning of compression stroke (IC) Start (SOI) of Injection 15-5 CA bTDC towards the end of compression stroke. Injection duration at full engine load about 15 to 25 CA
Start of combustion 5 -0 CA bTDC, (considering ignition delay after injection) (SOC) End of combustion 20 to 30 CA aTDC in expansion stroke
(EOC) Exhaust valve opens 40 to 30 CA bBDC Shortly before the end of expansion stroke (EC)
CO = Carbon monoxide, HC = Unburned hydrocarbons, NO x = Nitrogen oxides mainly mixture of NO and NO2 , PM = Particulate matter Other engine emissions include aldehydes such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde primarily from the alcohol fuelled engines, benzene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
Figure 1.4
Engine emissions undergo chemical reactions in atmosphere known largely as photochemical reactions and give rise to other chemical species which are hazardous to health and environment. Linkage of engine emissions and air pollutants is shown in Fig. 1.5.
TSP = Total suspended particulate matter in air PAN = Peroxy- acetyl nitrate
Figure. 1.5
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is a brownish-gray haze resulting from the reactions caused by solar ultraviolet radiations between hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere. The air pollutants such as ozone, nitric acid, organic compounds like peroxy- acetylnitrates or PAN ( CH3CO-OO-NO2) are trapped near the ground by temperature inversion experienced especially during winter months. These chemical substances can effect human health and cause damage to plants. The photochemical reactions are initiated by nitrogen oxides emitted by vehicles into atmosphere. A simple set of reactions leading to photochemical smog formation is as follows:
he above reactions form NO2 photolytic cycle. However, if only these reactions are involved then, NO2concentration in the atmosphere would remain constant. But, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that include unburned hydrocarbons and their volatile derivatives also react with NO and O2 to form NO2 . The reactions between HC and NO do not necessarily involve ozone and provide another route to form NO2 and thus, the concentration of ozone and NO2 in the urban air rises. The most reactive VOCs in atmosphere are olefins i.e., the hydrocarbons with C=C bond. The general reaction between hydrocarbons (RH) and NO may be written as
Figure1.6
The harmful constituents of photochemical smog are, NO 2, O3, PAN and aldehydes. The PAN and aldehydes cause eye irritation. NO2 and ozone are strong oxidants and cause damage to elastomeric/ rubber materials and plants.
Table 1.4
Photochemical Reactivity of Hydrocarbons (General Motor Scale)
Hydrocarbon C1-C4 paraffins AcetyleneBenzene C4 and higher paraffins Monoalkyl benzenes Ortho- andparadialkyl benzenes Cyclic paraffins Ethylene Meta- dialkyl benzenes Aldehydes
Relative Reactivity* 0 2 7
10
Internally bonded olefins Internally bonded olefins with substitution at double bondCycloolefins
30
100
*based on NO2 formation rate for the specific hydrocarbon relative to that for 2,3 dimethyl-2-benzene
Health Effects of Air Pollutants The effect of pollutants on human health depends on pollutant concentration in the ambient air and the duration to which the human beings are exposed. Adverse health effects of different pollutants on human health are given in Table 1.5 for short term and long term exposures. Carbon monoxide on inhalation is known to combine with haemoglobin at a rate 200 to 240 times faster than oxygen thus reducing oxygen supply to body tissues and results in CO intoxication. Nitrogen oxides get dissolved in mucous forming nitrous and nitric acids causing irritation of nose throat and respiratory tract. Long term exposure causes nitrogen oxides to combine with haemoglobin and destruction of red blood cells. Long term exposure resulting in more than 10% of haemoglobin to combine with nitrogen oxides causes bluish colouration of skin, lips fingers etc
Table 1.5
Adverse Health Effects of IC Engine Generated Air Pollutants
Pollutants
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Development of cyanosis especially at lips, Soreness, coughing, chest fingers and toes, adverse changes in cell discomfort, eye irritation structure of lung wall Difficulty in breathing, chest Impaired lung function, increased tightness, eye irritation susceptibility to respiratory function Similar to those of NO2 but at a Development of emphysema, pulmonary lower concentration edema Increased asthma attacks Reduced lung function when oxidants are present to Many constituents especially poly-organic matter are toxic and carcinogenic, contribute to silicosis, brown lung
Oxidants
Ozone
Table 1.6
Engine Emission Control A Historical Perspective
Year
1952
1974
Exhaust catalytic converters for oxidation of carbon monoxide (CO) and HC were needed in the US for meeting emission targets. Phasing-out of tetra ethyl lead (TEL), the antiknock additive from gasoline begins to ensure acceptable life of the catalytic converters Three-way catalytic converters and closed-loop feedback air-fuel ratio control for simultaneous conversion of CO, HC and NOx introduced on production cars Euro 1 emission standards needing catalytic emission control on gasoline vehicles implemented in Europe Catalytic emission control for engines under lean mixture operation introduced US Tier -1 standards needing reduction in CO by nearly 96%, HC by 97.5% and NOx by 90% Widespread use of diesel particulate filters and lean de-NOx catalyst systems on heavy duty vehicles US Tier -2 standards needing reduction in CO by nearly 98 %, HC by 99% and NOx by 95%
1981