Ancient Anomalies

Deducing the Mysteries of Prehistory

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Mon, 12 Mar 2012 23:32:37 UTC

Contents
Articles
Strange Evolution
Human Recent African origin of modern humans Homo erectus soloensis Homo floresiensis Mitochondrial DNA Lowest common ancestor Most recent common ancestor Population bottleneck Toba catastrophe theory Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions 1 1 25 36 38 53 59 61 67 71 83 99 99 103 107 110 123 134 144 150 163 168 168 172 180 189 193 193 198 216

The First Language

Proto-Human language Mythical origins of language Language of the birds Linguistic relativity Pirah language Neurolinguistics Sociolinguistics List of language families Linguistic anthropology

Known history
Big History Prehistory Early human migrations Black Sea deluge theory

Isolated from the rest of us until about now

Andamanese people Tasmanian Aborigines

Unexplained Archaeology

Pumapunku Bosnian pyramids Hill of Tara Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Out-of-place artifact Ancient astronauts List of largest monoliths in the world

216 220 225 229 243 247 260 272 272 278 278 290 311 314 319 323 323 332

Unexplained in Modernity
Maury Island incident

Interesting hints from the fogs of myth

Atlantis Location hypotheses of Atlantis Kumari Kandam Mu Vimana

Interesting Explorers
Charles Fort Edgar Cayce

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 339 347

Article Licenses
License 352

Strange Evolution
Human
Human[1]

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2] Scientific classification Kingdom: Phylum: Class: Order: Family: Tribe: Genus: Species: Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae Hominini Homo H. sapiens Binomial name Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies

Human

2 Homo sapiens idaltu Homo sapiens sapiens

Range of Homo sapiens (green)

Synonyms Humans (known taxonomically as Homo sapiens,[3][4] Latin for "wise man" or "knowing man")[5] are the only living species in the Homo genus. Anatomically modern humans originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago, reaching full behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago.[6] Humans have a highly developed brain and are capable of abstract reasoning, language, introspection, and problem solving. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees the hands for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other living species on Earth. Other higher-level thought processes of humans, such as self-awareness, rationality, and sapience,[7][8][9] are considered to be defining features of what constitutes a "person".[10][11] Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and organization. Humans create complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families and kinship networks, to nations. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human society. With individuals widespread in every continent except Antarctica, humans are a cosmopolitan species. As of November 2011, the human population was estimated by the United Nations Population Division to be about 7billion,[12] and by the United States Census Bureau to be about 6.97billion.[13] Humans are noted for their desire to understand and influence their environment, seeking to explain and manipulate phenomena through science, philosophy, mythology, and religion. This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills, which are passed down culturally; humans are the only species known to build fires, cook their food, clothe themselves, and create and use numerous other technologies and arts. The study of humans is the scientific discipline of anthropology.

Etymology
Further information: Man (word)andList of alternative names for the human species The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hmnus, the adjective form of hom "man". The word's use as a noun (with a plural: humans) dates to the 16th century.[14] The native English term man is now often reserved for male adults, but the term mankind is occasionally used to refer to the species generally in Modern English. This use is considered by some to be obsolete.[15] The word is from Proto-Germanic *mannaz, from a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *man-, a cognate to Sanskrit manu-. The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin hom "man", ultimately "earthly being" (Old Latin hem, a cognate to Old English guma "man", from PIE *demon-, meaning 'earth' or 'ground').[16]

Human

History
Evolution
Further information: Anthropology,Homo (genus),andTimeline of human evolution Scientific study of human evolution is concerned, primarily, with the development of the genus Homo, but usually involves studying other hominids and hominines as well, such as Australopithecus. "Modern humans" are defined as the Homo sapiens species, of which the only extant subspecies is known as Homo sapiens sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu (roughly translated as "elder wise human"), the other known subspecies, is now extinct.[17] Homo neanderthalensis, which became extinct 30,000 years ago, has sometimes been classified as a subspecies, "Homo sapiens neanderthalensis"; genetic studies now suggest that the functional DNA of modern humans and Neanderthals diverged 500,000 years ago.[18] More recent genetics suggest that modern humans mated with "at least two groups" of ancient humans: Neanderthals and Denisovans.[19] Nonetheless, the discovered specimens of the Homo rhodesiensis species have been classified by some as a subspecies, but this classification is not widely accepted.

Plesiadapis

Anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record in Africa about 195,000 years ago, and studies of molecular biology give evidence that the approximate time of divergence from the common ancestor of all modern human populations was 200,000 years ago.[20][21][22][23][24] The broad study of African genetic diversity headed by Dr. Sarah Tishkoff found the San people to express the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters". The research also located the origin of modern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.[25] The evolutionary history of primates can be traced back 65 million years. Primates are one of the oldest of all surviving placental mammal groups. The oldest known primate-like mammal species (those of the genus Plesiadapis) come from North America, but inhabited Eurasia and Africa on a wide scale during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene. Molecular evidence suggests that the last common ancestor between humans and the remaining great apes diverged 48 million years ago. The orangutans were the first group to split from the line leading to the humans, then gorillas followed by chimpanzees (genus Pan). The functional portion of human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single-nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). Some studies put that as low as 94%. Therefore, the closest living relatives of humans are gorillas and chimpanzees, as they share a relatively recent common ancestor.[26] Humans are probably most closely related to two chimpanzee species: the common chimpanzee and the bonobo.[26] Full genome sequencing has resulted in the conclusion that "after 6.5 [million] years of separate evolution, the differences between chimpanzee and human are ten times greater than those between two unrelated people and ten times less than those between rats and mice". Current estimates of suggested concurrence between functional human

Craniums 1. Gorilla 2. Australopithecus 3. Homo erectus 4. Neanderthal (La Chapelle aux Saints) 5. Steinheim Skull 6. Euhominid

Human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%.[27][28][29][30] Early estimates indicated that the human lineage may have diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from that of gorillas about eight million years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in Chad in 2001, classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, is approximately seven million years old, and may be evidence of an earlier divergence.[31] Human evolution is characterized by a number of important changesmorphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioralthat have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The first major morphological change was the evolution of a bipedal locomotor adaptation from an arboreal or semi-arboreal one,[32] with all its attendant adaptations (a valgus knee, low intermembral index (long legs relative to the arms), reduced upper-body strength). The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates typically unknown operator: u','unknown operator: u','unknown operator: u',' (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u','cuin) in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes (heterochrony), and allows for extended periods of social learning and language acquisition in juvenile humans. Physical anthropologists argue that the differences between the structure of human brains and those of other apes are even more significant than their differences in size.[33][34] Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip,[35] a reduced masticatory system, a reduction of the canine tooth, and the descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible. An important physiological change in humans was the evolution of hidden estrus, or concealed ovulation, which may have coincided with the evolution of important behavioral changes, such as pair bonding. Another significant behavioral change was the development of material culture, with human-made objects becoming increasingly common and diversified over time. The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.[36][37] The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.[38]

The hominoids are descendants of a common ancestor.

Human

Paleolithic
Further information: Recent African Origin,Archaic Homo sapiens,Upper Paleolithic,andEarly human migrations Anatomically modern humans evolved from archaic Homo sapiens in Africa in the Middle Paleolithic, about 200,000 years ago. By the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period (50,000 BP [Before Present]), full behavioral modernity, including language, music and other cultural universals had developed. The out of Africa migration is estimated to have occurred about 70,000 years BP. Modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominids: they inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years BP, and the Americas at least 14,500 years BP.[39] A popular theory is that they displaced Homo neanderthalensis and other species descended from Homo erectus[40] (which had inhabited Eurasia as early as 2 million years ago) through more successful reproduction and competition for resources.[41] The exact manner or extent of the coexistence and interaction of these species is unknown and continues to be a controversial subject.[42] Evidence from archaeogenetics accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to the "out-of-Africa" scenario, and has marginalized the competing multiregional hypothesis, which proposed that modern humans evolved, at least in part, from independent hominid populations.[43] Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah propose that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species.[44] They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene, the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs no more than 10,000, and possibly as few as 1,000 resulting in a very small residual gene pool.[45] Various reasons for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one being the Toba catastrophe theory.[46]

Artistic expression appeared in the Upper Paleolithic: The Venus of Doln Vstonice figurine, one of the earliest known depictions of the human body, dates to approximately 29,00025,000 BP (Gravettian).

Transition to civilization
Further information: History of the world Until c.10,000 years ago, most humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They generally lived in small nomadic groups known as band societies. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture encouraged trade and cooperation, and led to complex society. Because of the significance of this date for human society, it is the epoch of the Holocene calendar or Human Era.
The rise of agriculture, and domestication of animals, led to stable human settlements.

Human

About 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt's Nile Valley and the Indus Valleys. Military forces were formed for protection, and government bureaucracies for administration. States cooperated and competed for resources, in some cases waging wars. Around 2,0003,000 years ago, some states, such as Persia, India, The path followed by humans in the course of history China, Rome, and Greece, developed through conquest into the first expansive empires. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in West Asia, and Hinduism, a religious tradition that originated in South Asia, also rose to prominence at this time. The late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In China, an advanced and urbanized society promoted innovations and sciences, such as printing and seed drilling. In India, major advancements were made in mathematics, philosophy, religion and metallurgy. The Islamic Golden Age saw major scientific advancements in Muslim empires. In Europe, the rediscovery of classical learning and inventions such as the printing press led to the Renaissance in the 14th and 15th centuries. Over the next 500years, exploration and colonialism brought great parts of the world under European control, leading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century and the Industrial Revolution in the 18th19th centuries promoted major innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity; and government, such as representative democracy and Communism. With the advent of the Information Age at the end of the 20th century, modern humans live in a world that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected. As of 2010, almost 2billion humans are able to communicate with each other via the Internet,[47] and 3.3 billion by mobile phone subscriptions.[48] Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth of science, art, discussion, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes and the development and use of weapons of mass destruction. Human civilization has led to environmental destruction and pollution significantly contributing to the ongoing mass extinction of other forms of life called the holocene extinction event,[49] that may be further accelerated by global warming in the future.[50]

Human

Habitat and population

Further information: Human migration,Demography,andWorld population Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources used for subsistence, such as populations of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livestock. But humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of technology, through irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, manufacturing goods, deforestation and desertification. Deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of increasing material wealth, increasing thermal comfort, improving the amount of food available, improving aesthetics, or improving ease of access to resources or other human settlements. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.

Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to virtually all climates. Within the last century, humans have explored Antarctica, the ocean depths, and outer space, although large-scale colonization of these environments is not yet feasible. With a population of over six billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%). Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time.[51] Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the Moon. As of March 2012, no other celestial body has been visited by humans, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000.[52] However, other celestial bodies have been visited by human-made objects. Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion to over six billion.[53] In 2004, some 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in urban areas, and this percentage is expected to continue to rise throughout the 21st century. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's population will live in urban areas by the end of the year.[54] Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime,[55] especially in inner city and suburban slums. Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. As humans are rarely preyed upon, they have been described as superpredators.[56] Currently, through land development, combustion of fossil fuels, and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global climate change.[57] If this continues at its current rate it is predicted that it will wipe out half of all species over the next century.[58][59]

Humans often live in family-based social structures and create artificial shelter.

Human

Biology
Anatomy
Further information: Human physical appearanceandAnatomically modern humans Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet and exercise. The average height of an adult human is about 1.5 to 1.8m (5 to 6feet) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place and depending on ethnic origin.[60] The average mass of an adult human is 5464kg (120140lbs) for females and 7683kg (168183lbs) for males.[61] Weight can also vary greatly (e.g. obesity). Unlike most other primates, humans are capable of fully bipedal locomotion, thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs.

Basic anatomical features of female and male humans. These models have had body hair and male facial hair removed and head hair trimmed.

Although humans appear hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair follicles on his or her body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.[62] The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin hues can range from dark brown to pale pink. Human hair ranges from white to brown to red to most commonly black.[63] This depends on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a protection against ultraviolet solar radiation. However, more recently it has been argued that particular skin colors are an adaptation to balance folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation, and vitamin D, which requires sunlight to form.[64] The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (sun

Vitruvian Man, Leonardo da Vinci's image is often used as an implied symbol of the essential symmetry of the human body, and by extension, of the universe as a whole.

Human tanning) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.[65][66] Humans tend to be physically weaker than other similarly sized primates, with young, conditioned male humans having been shown to be unable to match the strength of female orangutans, which are at least three times stronger.[67] The construction of the human pelvis differs from other primates, as do the toes. As a result, humans are slower for short distances than most other animals, but are among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom.[68] Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands also help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances. For this reason persistence hunting was most likely a very successful strategy for early humans in this method, prey is chased until it is literally exhausted. This may have also helped the early human Cro-Magnon population out-compete the Neanderthal population for food. The otherwise physically stronger Neanderthal would have much greater difficulty hunting in this way, and much more likely hunted larger game in close quarters. A trade-off for these advantages of the modern human pelvis is that childbirth is more difficult and dangerous. The construction of modern human shoulders enable throwing weapons, which also were much more difficult or even impossible for Neanderthal competitors to use effectively.[69]

Constituents of the human body in a person weighing 60kg[70]

Constituent Weight Percentage of atoms Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Other 38.8kg 10.9kg 6.0kg 1.9kg 2.4kg 25.5% 9.5% 63.0% 1.4% 0.6%

The dental formula of Humans is the following:

. Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much

smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their wisdom teeth, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.[71]

Physiology
Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically tied and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

Genetics
Humans are a eukaryotic species. Each diploid cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. By present estimates, humans have approximately 22,000 genes.[72] Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. The X chromosome carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that recessive diseases associated with X-linked genes, such as hemophilia, affect men more often than women.

Human

10

Life cycle
The zygote divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo, which over a period of thirty-eight weeks (9 months) of gestation becomes a fetus. After this span of time, the fully grown fetus is birthed from the woman's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend various levels of personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus. Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes lead to the A 10mm human embryo at 5 weeks death of the mother, or the child.[73] This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively narrow pelvis (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection).[74][75] The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.[76] In developed countries, infants are typically 34kg (69pounds) in weight and 5060cm (2024inches) in height at birth.[77] However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions.[78] Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 12 to 15years of age. Females continue to develop physically until around the age of 18, whereas male development continues until around age 21. The human life span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages, however, have varied across cultures and time periods. Compared to other primates, humans experience an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence, where the body grows 25% in size. Chimpanzees, for example, grow only 14%, with no pronounced spurt.[79] The presence of the growth spurt is probably necessary to keep children physically small until they are psychologically mature. Humans are one of the few species in which females undergo menopause. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring and/or their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age.[80][81] There are significant differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is generally aging, with the median age around 40years. In the developing world the median age is between 15 and 20years. Life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong is 84.8years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in Swaziland, primarily because of AIDS, it is 31.3years for both sexes.[82] While one in five Europeans is 60years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60years of age or older.[83] The number of centenarians (humans of age 100years or older) in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002.[84] At least one person, Jeanne Calment, is known to have reached the age of 122years;[85] higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.

Human

11

A selection of different humans at various stages of the human life cycle

Girl (before puberty)

Woman of reproductive age

Older woman (after menopause)

Boy (before puberty)

Adult man

Elderly man

Race and ethnicity

Humans often categorize themselves in terms of race or ethnicity, sometimes on the basis of differences in appearance. Human racial categories have been based on both ancestry and visible traits, especially facial features, skull shape, skin color and hair texture. Most current genetic and archaeological evidence supports a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa[86] with first migrations placed at 60,000 years ago. Current genetic studies have demonstrated that humans on the African continent are most genetically diverse.[87] However, compared to the other great apes, A collection of head shots showing various races human gene sequences are remarkably homogeneous.[88][89][90][91] The predominance of genetic variation occurs within racial groups, with only 5 to 15% of total variation occurring between groups.[88] Thus the scientific concept of variation in the human genome is largely incongruent with the cultural concept of ethnicity or race. Ethnic groups are defined by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, national or regional ties. Self-identification with an ethnic group is usually based on kinship and descent. Race and ethnicity are among major factors in social identity giving rise to various forms of identity politics, for example racism. There is no scientific consensus of a list of the human races, and few anthropologists endorse the notion of human "race".[92] For example, a color terminology for race includes the following in a classification of human races: Black

Human (Sub-Saharan Africa), Red (Native Americans), Yellow (East Asians), White (Europeans) and Brown (South Asians). Referring to natural species, in general, the term "race" is obsolete, particularly if a species is uniformly distributed on a territory. In its modern scientific connotation, the term is not applicable to a species as genetically homogeneous as the human one, as stated in the declaration on race (UNESCO 1950).[93] Genetic studies have substantiated the absence of clear biological borders, thus the term "race" is rarely used in scientific terminology, both in biological anthropology and in human genetics.[94] What in the past had been defined as "races"whites, blacks, or Asiansare now defined as "ethnic groups" or "populations", in correlation with the field (sociology, anthropology, genetics) in which they are considered.[95]

12

Diet
Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material.[96][97] Varying with available food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups have adopted a range of diets, from purely vegetarian to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources.[98] The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science. Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with wild game, which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed.[99] It has been proposed that members of H. sapiens have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of their divergence from Homo rhodesiensis (which itself had previously speciated from Homo erectus).[100] Around ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture,[101] which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of dairy farming providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults.[102][103] Agriculture led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture. In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to hunger.[104] Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease.[105] However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese,[106] while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic".[107] Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by a combination of an energy-dense high fat diet and insufficient exercise.[106]

Sleep
Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies; this sleep deprivation can have negative effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.[108]

Human

13

Psychology
Further information: Human brainandMind The human brain, the focal point of the central nervous system in humans, controls the peripheral nervous system. In addition to controlling "lower", involuntary, or primarily autonomic activities such as respiration and digestion, it is also the locus of "higher" order functioning such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction.[109] These cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology. Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and using simple toolsmostly through instinct and mimicryhuman technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time. Although humans are vastly more advanced than many species in cognitive abilities, most of these abilities are known in primitive form among other species. Modern anthropology has tended to bear out Darwin's proposition that "the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind".[110]

Consciousness and thought

Humans are one of only several species known to pass the mirror testwhich tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itselfalong with all the great apes (gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos), bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants, European Magpies, and killer whales.[111] Most human children will pass the mirror test at 18 months old.[112] However, the usefulness of this test as a true test of consciousness has been disputed, and this may be a matter of degree rather than a sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks.[113] The human brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective views of existence and the passage of time. Humans are variously said to possess consciousness, self-awareness, and a mind, which correspond roughly to the mental processes of thought. These are said to possess qualities such as self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. The philosopher of cognitive science Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative center called the "mind", but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of "software" running in parallel.[114] Psychologist B.F. Skinner argued that the mind is an explanatory fiction that diverts attention from environmental causes of behavior,[115] and that what are commonly seen as mental processes may be better conceived of as forms of covert verbal behavior.[116][117] Humans study the more physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system, in the field of neurology, the more behavioral in the field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely defined area between in the field of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience. The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes' underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas as well. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological

Human theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience.[118] Phenomenal consciousness is the state of being conscious, such as when they say "I am conscious." Access consciousness is being conscious of something in relation to abstract concepts, such as when one says "I am conscious of these words." Various forms of access consciousness include awareness, self-awareness, conscience, stream of consciousness, Husserl's phenomenology, and intentionality. The concept of phenomenal consciousness, in modern history, according to some, is closely related to the concept of qualia. Social psychology links sociology with psychology in their shared study of the nature and causes of human social interaction, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. The behavior and mental processes, both human and non-human, can be described through animal cognition, ethology, evolutionary psychology, and comparative psychology as well. Human ecology is an academic discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with both their natural environment and the human social environment.

14

Motivation and emotion

Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate actions of humans. Motivation is based on emotionspecifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because his brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics, motivation is often seen to be based on incentives; these may be financial, moral, or coercive. Religions generally posit divine or demonic influences. Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some people might define it as the best condition that a human can havea condition of mental and physical health. Others define it as freedom from want and distress; consciousness of the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society. Emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as love, admiration, or joy, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There is often a distinction made between refined emotions that are socially learned and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate. Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worthy of note, particularly in cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some Sufi teachers felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy. In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered a complex neural trait innate in a variety of domesticated and non-domesticated mammals. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. However, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.

Human

15

Society and culture

Human society statistics World population Population density Largest agglomerations 7billion 12.7 per km (4.9mi) by total area 43.6 per km (16.8mi) by land area Beijing, Bogot, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Delhi, Dhaka, Guangzhou, Istanbul, Jakarta, Karachi, Kinshasa, Kolkata, Lagos, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Mexico City, Moscow, Mumbai, New York City, Osaka, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, So Paulo, Seoul, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Tehran, Tianjin, Tokyo, Wuhan Mandarin Chinese, English, Spanish, Arabic, Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, German, Javanese, Punjabi, Telugu, Vietnamese, French, Marathi, Turkish, Korean, Tamil, Italian, Urdu, Indonesian Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Judaism, Baha'i

Most widely spoken [119] languages Most popular [120] religions GDP (nominal) GDP (PPP)

$36,356,240 million USD ($5,797 USD per capita) $51,656,251 million IND ($8,236 per capita)

Humans are social beings. In comparisons with animalia, humans are regarded like the primates for their social qualities. But beyond any other creature, humans are adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and organization, and as such have created complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups. Human groups range from families to nations. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human society. Culture is defined here as patterns of complex symbolic behavior, i.e. all behavior that is not innate but which has to be learned through social interaction with others; such as the use of distinctive material and symbolic systems, including language, ritual, social organization, traditions, beliefs and technology.

Sexuality and love

Human sexuality, besides ensuring biological reproduction, has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds, and hierarchies among individuals; and in a hedonistic sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. Sexual desire, or libido, is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions such as love, ecstasy and jealousy. The extreme importance of sexuality in the human species can be seen in a number of physical features, among them hidden ovulation, the evolution of external scrotum and penis suggesting sperm competition, the absence of an os penis, permanent secondary sexual characteristics, the forming of pair bonds based on sexual attraction as a common social structure and sexual ability in females outside of ovulationhuman females do not have a distinct or visible estrus. These adaptations indicate that the importance of sexuality in humans is on a par with that found in the Bonobo, and that the complex human sexual behavior has a long evolutionary history.[121] Human choices in acting on sexuality are commonly influenced by cultural norms, which vary widely. Restrictions are often determined by religious beliefs or social customs. The pioneering researcher Sigmund Freud believed that humans are born polymorphously perverse, which means that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. According to Freud, humans then pass through five stages of psychosexual development (and can fixate on any stage because of various traumas during the process). For Alfred Kinsey, another influential sex researcher, people can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation (with only small minorities fully heterosexual or homosexual). Recent studies of neurology and genetics suggest people may be born predisposed to various sexual

Human tendencies.[122][123]

16

Gender roles
The sexual division of humans into male and female has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of roles, norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power. Cultural differences by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.

Society, government, and politics

Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."[124]

The United Nations complex in New York City, which houses one of the largest political organizations in the world

Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups; this process often involves conflict as well as compromise. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. Examples of governments include monarchy, Communist state, military dictatorship, theocracy, and liberal democracy, the last of which is considered dominant today. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.

Trade and economics

Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods and services, and is a form of economics. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Because of specialization and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading their Buyers and sellers bargaining in a market labor for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. Economics is a social science which studies the production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on measurable variables, and is broadly divided into two main branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and macroeconomics,

Human which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply and demand for money, capital and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic value.

17

War
War is a state of widespread conflict between states or other large groups of humans, which is characterized by the use of lethal violence between combatants and/or upon civilians. (Humans also engage in lesser conflicts, such as brawls, riots, revolts, and melees. A revolution may or may not involve warfare.) It is estimated that during the 20th century between 167 and 188 million humans died as a result of war.[125] A common perception of war is a series of military campaigns between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources, religion, or other issues. A war between internal elements of a state is a civil war. There have been a wide variety of rapidly advancing tactics throughout the history of war, ranging from conventional war to asymmetric warfare to total war and unconventional warfare. Techniques include hand to hand combat, the use of ranged weapons, Naval warfare, and, more recently, air support. Military intelligence has often played a key role in determining victory and defeat. Propaganda, which often includes information, slanted opinion and disinformation, plays a key role in maintaining unity within a warring group, and/or sowing discord among opponents. In modern warfare, soldiers and combat vehicles are used to control the land, warships the sea, and aircraft the sky. These fields have also overlapped in the forms of marines, paratroopers, naval aircraft carriers, and surface-to-air missiles, among others. Satellites in low Earth orbit have made outer space a factor in warfare as well as it is used for detailed intelligence gathering, however no known aggressive actions have been taken from space.

Material culture and technology

Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5million years ago.[126] The controlled use of fire began around 1.5million years ago. Since then, humans have made major advances, developing complex technology to create tools to aid their lives and allowing for other advancements in culture. Major leaps in technology include the discovery of agriculture what is known as the Neolithic Revolution, and the invention of automated machines in the Industrial Revolution. Archaeology attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the artifacts they produced. Early humans left stone tools, pottery, and jewelry that are particular to various regions and times.

An archaic Acheulean stone tool

Language
The capacity humans have to transfer concepts, ideas and notions through speech (and recently, writing) is unrivaled in known species. Unlike the closed call systems of other primates in which sounds are unique and mutually exclusive, human language is openan infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of sounds and words. Human language has the quality of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring, but elsewhere or at a different time.[71] Basic displacement may occur in other species, but is relatively elaborated in humans, allowing symbols and language to refer to abstract or even purely imaginary states, and underpinning the complex symbolic culture of the species. The faculty of speech is a defining feature of humanity, possibly predating phylogenetic separation of the modern population. Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. The invention of writing systems at least five thousand years ago allowed the preservation of

Human language on material objects, and was a major step in cultural evolution. The science of linguistics describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are considered extinct.[127]

18

Spirituality and religion

Religion is generally defined as a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. Some religions also have a moral code. The evolution and the history of the first religions have recently become areas of active scientific investigation.[128][129][130] However, in the course of its development, religion has taken on many forms that Religion and spirituality are important aspects of vary by culture and individual perspective. Some of the chief questions human cultures. and issues religions are concerned with include life after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife), the origin of life, the nature of the universe (religious cosmology) and its ultimate fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral. A common source for answers to these questions are beliefs in transcendent divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are theistic. Spirituality, belief or involvement in matters of the soul or spirit, is one of the many different approaches humans take in trying to answer fundamental questions about humankind's place in the universe, the meaning of life, and the ideal way to live one's life. Though these topics have also been addressed by philosophy, and to some extent by science, spirituality is unique in that it focuses on mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma and God. Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure,[131] a majority of humans professes some variety of religious or spiritual belief, although some are irreligious. Other humans have no religious beliefs and are atheists, scientific skeptics, agnostics or simply non-religious. Humanism is a philosophy which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to humans; it is usually non-religious. Additionally, although most religions and spiritual beliefs are clearly distinct from science on both a philosophical and methodological level, the two are not generally considered mutually exclusive; a majority of humans hold a mix of both scientific and religious views. The distinction between philosophy and religion, on the other hand, is at times less clear, and the two are linked in such fields as the philosophy of religion and theology.

Philosophy and self-reflection

Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of reality, reasoning and values. Major fields of philosophy include logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics). Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is used to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.

Statue of Confucius on Chongming Island in Shanghai

Human

19

Science and mathematics

Scientific approach and mathematics have been unique to humans. Mathematics is connected to language, and it is argued that this special genetic trait of humans, linked to language and abstract thought is responsible for the mathematical ability. Closely related is humans' ability to model the world and use science. Although scientific revolution is relatively recent, humans have attempted to explain their environment since the ancient times.

Art, music, and literature

Art is one of the most unusual aspects of human behavior and a cultural universal, and humans have been producing artistic works at least since the days of Cro Magnon. As a form of cultural expression by humans, art may be defined by the pursuit of diversity and the usage of narratives of liberation and exploration (i.e. art history, art criticism, and art theory) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. In the modern use of the word, art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works that, from concept to creation, adhere to the "creative impulse" of human beings. Art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation.

Allegory of Music (ca. 1594), a painting of a woman writing sheet music by Lorenzo Lippi

Music is a natural intuitive phenomenon based on the three distinct and interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Listening to music is perhaps the most common and universal form of entertainment for humans, while learning and understanding it are popular disciplines. There are a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics. Literature, the body of writtenand possibly oralworks, especially creative ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and non-fiction. Literature includes such genres as epic, legend, myth, ballad, and folklore.

References
[1] Groves, C. (2005). Wilson, D. E., & Reeder, D. M, eds. ed. Mammal Species of the World (http:/ / www. bucknell. edu/ msw3/ browse. asp?id=12100795) (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. OCLC62265494. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. . [2] Global Mammal Assessment Team (2008). Homo sapiens (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ apps/ redlist/ details/ 136584/ 0). In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 03 March 2010. [3] Goodman M, Tagle D, Fitch D, Bailey W, Czelusniak J, Koop B, Benson P, Slightom J (1990). "Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids". J Mol Evol 30 (3): 260266. doi:10.1007/BF02099995. PMID2109087. [4] "Hominidae Classification" (http:/ / animaldiversity. ummz. umich. edu/ site/ accounts/ classification/ Hominidae. html). Animal Diversity Web @ UMich. . Retrieved 2006-09-25. [5] hmo (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0059:entry=homo), spens (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0059:entry=sapiens), spo (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0059:entry=sapio). Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project. [6] "Human Evolution by The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program" (http:/ / www. mnh. si. edu/ anthro/ humanorigins/ ha/ sap. htm). Human Origins Initiative. Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2010-08-30. [7] Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues By Alasdair MacIntyre pp. 60, "But this [language] is insufficient for human rationality, What is needed in addition is the ability to construct sentences that contain as constituents either the sentences use to express the judgment about which the agent is reflecting, or references to those sentences." [8] John McDowell, Mind and World, 1994. p.115, Harvard University Press, (quoted in Dependent Rational Animals, by Alasdair MacIntyre): "In mere animals, sentience is in the service of a mode of life that is structured exclusively by immediate biological imperatives" [..] "merely animal life is shaped by goals whose control of the animal's behavior at a given moment is an immediate outcome of biological forces" [9] The Really Hard Problem:Meaning in a Material World, Owen Flanagan, MIT Press

Human
[10] Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues By Alasdair MacIntyre pp. 60, "Those who have wanted to draw a single sharp line between human and nonhuman animals have commonly laid emphasis upon the presence or absence of language as such, the ability to use and to respond to strings of syntactically ordered and semantically significant expressions whose utterance constitutes speech acts. But this is insufficient for human rationality. What is needed in addition.." [11] Nature vs. Nurture: The Miracle of Language (http:/ / www. duke. edu/ ~pk10/ language/ psych. htm), by Malia Knezek. "What about the fact that other animals do not have similar language capabilities? [..] This obviously involves some innate difference between humans and other animals.. [..] ..other animals do not use any other form of language (i.e. sign language) even though they have the physiological capabilities." citing, Andy Clark. Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again. The MIT Press, 1997. 208-209). [12] Roberts, Sam (31 October 2011). "U.N. Reports 7 Billion Humans, but Others Dont Count on It" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2011/ 11/ 01/ world/ united-nations-reports-7-billion-humans-but-others-dont-count-on-it. html?_r=1). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-11-07. [13] "World Population Clock" (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ popclockworld. html). Census.gov. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. . Retrieved 2011-11-02. [14] OED, s.v. "human". [15] The OED considers obsolete the sense "a designation applied equally to particular individuals of either sex", citing a 1597 source as the most recent (The Lord had but one paire of men in Paradise.) while it continues to endorse the sense "as a general or indefinite designation" as current in English. [16] Porkorny (1959) s.v. "g'hem" pp. 414416; "Homo." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 23 Sep. 2008. "Homo" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ Homo). Dictionary.com. . [17] Human evolution: the fossil evidence in 3D (http:/ / www. anth. ucsb. edu/ projects/ human/ #), by Philip L. Walker and Edward H. Hagen, Dept. of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved April 5, 2005. [18] Green, Richard E.; Krause, Johannes; Ptak, Susan E.; Briggs, Adrian W.; Ronan, Michael T.; Simons, Jan F.; Du, Lei; Egholm, Michael; Rothberg, Jonathan M.; Paunovic, Maja; Pbo, Svante (2006). "Analysis of one million base pairs of Neanderthal DNA". Nature: 16, 330336. doi:10.1038/nature05336. [19] Mitchell, Alanna (January 30, 2012). "DNA Turning Human Story Into a Tell-All" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 01/ 31/ science/ gains-in-dna-are-speeding-research-into-human-origins. html). NYTimes. . Retrieved 2012-02-13. [20] "Press Release 05-024: New Clues Add 40,000 Years to Age of Human Species" (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ news/ news_summ. jsp?cntn_id=102968). US National Science Foundation (NSF). January 13, 2006. . Retrieved 2012-02-13. [21] "Age of ancient humans reassessed" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 4269299. stm). BBC News. February 16, 2005. . Retrieved 2012-02-13. [22] "The Oldest Homo Sapiens: Fossils Push Human Emergence Back To 195,000 Years Ago" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2005/ 02/ 050223122209. htm). ScienceDaily. February 23, 2005. . Retrieved 2012-02-13. [23] Alemseged, Z.; Coppens, Y.; Geraads, D. (2002). "Hominid cranium from Homo: Description and taxonomy of Homo-323-1976-896". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 117 (2): 103112. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10032. PMID11815945. [24] Stoneking, Mark; Soodyall, Himla (1996). "Human evolution and the mitochondrial genome". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 6 (6): 731736. doi:10.1016/S0959-437X(96)80028-1. [25] Gill, Victoria (May 1, 2009). "Africa's genetic secrets unlocked" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8027269. stm). BBC News. .; the results were published in the online edition of the journal Science. [26] Wood, Bernard; Richmond, Brian G. (2000). "Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology". Journal of Anatomy 197 (1): 1960. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x. PMC1468107. PMID10999270. [27] de Waal, Frans (1997). Bonobo. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-20535-9. [28] Britten, Roy J. (2002). "Divergence between samples of chimpanzee and human DNA sequences is 5%, counting indels" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 99/ 21/ 13633). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99 (21): 1363313635. doi:10.1073/pnas.172510699. PMC129726. PMID12368483. . [29] Wildman, D.; Uddin, M.; Liu, G.; Grossman, L.; Goodman, M. (2003). "Implications of natural selection in shaping 99.4% nonsynonymous DNA identity between humans and chimpanzees: enlarging genus Homo" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 100/ 12/ 7181). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100 (12): 71817188. doi:10.1073/pnas.1232172100. PMC165850. PMID12766228. . [30] Ruvolo, Maryellen (1997). "Molecular phylogeny of the hominoids: inferences from multiple independent DNA sequence data sets" (http:/ / mbe. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 14/ 3/ 248). Molecular Biology and Evolution 14 (3): 248265. PMID9066793. . [31] Brunet, M.; Guy, F.; Pilbeam, D.; Mackaye, H.; Likius, A.; Ahounta, D.; Beauvilain, A.; Blondel, C.; Bocherens, H.; Boisserie, J.; De Bonis, L.; Coppens, Y.; Dejax, J.; Denys, C.; Duringer, P.; Eisenmann, V.; Fanone, G.; Fronty, P.; Geraads, D.; Lehmann, T.; Lihoreau, F.; Louchart, A.; Mahamat, A.; Merceron, G.; Mouchelin, G.; Otero, O.; Pelaez Campomanes, P.; Ponce De Leon, M.; Rage, J.; Sapanet, M.; Schuster, M.; Sudre, J.; Tassy, P.; Valentin, X.; Vignaud, P.; Viriot, L.; Zazzo, A.; Zollikofer, C. (2002). "A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v418/ n6894/ full/ nature00879. html). Nature 418 (6894): 145151. doi:10.1038/nature00879. PMID12110880. . [32] Vanata1 V.; Vanatov, M.A. (1987). "Major features in the evolution of early hominoid locomotion". Human Evolution 2 (6): 517537. doi:10.1007/BF02437426. [33] Park, Min S.; Nguyen, Andrew D.; Aryan, Henry E.; U, Hoi Sang; Levy, Michael L.; Semendeferi, Katerina (2007). "Evolution of the human brain: changing brain size and the fossil record". Neurosurgery 60 (3): 555562. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000249284.54137.32. PMID17327801.

20

Human
[34] Bruner, Emiliano (2007). "Cranial shape and size variation in human evolution: structural and functional perspectives" (http:/ / www. emilianobruner. it/ pdf/ Bruner2007_CNS. pdf) (PDF). Child's Nervous System 23 (12): 13571365. PMID17680251. . [35] Brues, Alice M.; Snow, Clyde C. (1965). "Physical Anthropology" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9WemAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA1). Biennial Review of Anthropology 4: 139. . [36] Boyd, Robert; Silk, Joan B. (2003). How Humans Evolved. New York, New York: Norton. ISBN0-393-97854-0. [37] Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1963). "Anthropology and the natural sciencesthe problem of human evolution". Current Anthropology 4 (2): 138148. JSTOR2739837. [38] Wade, Nicholas (March 7, 2007). "Still Evolving, Human Genes Tell New Story" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 03/ 07/ science/ 07evolve. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2012-02-13. [39] Wolman, David (April 3, 2008). Fossil Feces Is Earliest Evidence of N. America Humans (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2008/ 04/ 080403-first-americans. html). news.nationalgeographic.com. . [40] Dr. D.R.Johnson. "Human Evolution : Lower and Middle Pleistocene - Homo erectus and Homo sapiens : Lecture 1 of 6". Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds. [41] McKie, Robin (May 17, 2009). "How Neanderthals met a grisly fate: devoured by humans" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2009/ may/ 17/ neanderthals-cannibalism-anthropological-sciences-journal). The Observer (London). . Retrieved 2012-02-14. [42] Wood, Bernard A. (2009). "Where does the genus Homo begin, and how would we know?" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ITp_RnsPfzQC& pg=PA17). In Grine, Frederick E.; Fleagle, John G.; Leakey, Richard E. (eds). The First Humans: Origin and Early Evolution of the Genus Homo. London, UK: Springer. pp.1727. ISBN978-1-4020-9979-3. . [43] Eswaran, Vinayak; Harpending, Henry; Rogers, Alan R. (July 2005). "Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans" (http:/ / harpending. humanevo. utah. edu/ Documents/ eswaran et al 2005 genomics refutes exclusively african origin jhe. pdf) (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution 49 (1): 118. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.02.006. PMID15878780. . [44] Jorde LB, Rogers AR, Bamshad M, Watkins WS, Krakowiak P, Sung S, Kere J, Harpending HC. (1997). "Microsatellite diversity and the demographic history of modern humans" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 94/ 7/ 3100. full. pdf) (PDF). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94 (7): 31003. PMID9096352. . [45] Harpending HC, Batzer MA, Gurven M, Jorde LB, Rogers AR, Sherry ST. (1998). "Genetic traces of ancient demography" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 95/ 4/ 1961. full. pdf) (PDF). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95 (4): 19617. PMID9465125. . [46] "Supervolcanoes" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ horizon/ 1999/ supervolcanoes_script. shtml). BBC2. March 2004. . Retrieved 2012-02-13. [47] "Internet Usage Statistics - The Internet Big Picture" (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats. htm). internetworldstats.com/. . Retrieved 19 November 2010. [48] "Reuters homepage" (http:/ / investing. reuters. co. uk/ news/ articleinvesting. aspx?type=media& storyID=nL29172095). Reuters. . Retrieved 19 November 2010. [49] Pimm S, Raven P, Peterson A, Sekercioglu CH, Ehrlich PR (2006). "Human impacts on the rates of recent, present, and future bird extinctions". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (29): 109416. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604181103. PMC1544153. PMID16829570. *Barnosky AD, Koch PL, Feranec RS, Wing SL, Shabel AB (2004). "Assessing the causes of late Pleistocene extinctions on the continents". Science 306 (5693): 705. doi:10.1126/science.1101476. PMID15459379. [50] Lewis OT (2006). "Climate change, species-area curves and the extinction crisis" (http:/ / www. journals. royalsoc. ac. uk/ content/ 711761513317h856/ fulltext. pdf) (PDF). Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 361 (1465): 16371. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1712. PMC1831839. PMID16553315. . [51] Nancy Atkinson (2009-03-26). "Soyuz Rockets to Space; 13 Humans Now in Orbit" (http:/ / www. universetoday. com/ 27924/ soyuz-rockets-to-space-13-humans-now-in-orbit/ ). Universetoday.com. . Retrieved 2011-12-10. [52] Kraft, Rachel (December 11, 2010). "JSC celebrates ten years of continuous human presence aboard the International Space Station" (http:/ / www. jsc. nasa. gov/ jscfeatures/ articles/ 000000945. html). JSC Features. Johnson Space Center. . [53] "World's population reaches six billion" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 411162. stm). BBC News. August 5, 1999. . Retrieved February 5, 2008. [54] Whitehouse, David (May 19, 2005). "Half of humanity set to go urban" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4561183. stm). BBC News. . [55] Urban, Suburban, and Rural Victimization, 199398 (http:/ / www. ojp. usdoj. gov/ bjs/ abstract/ usrv98. htm) U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,. Accessed 29 Oct 2006 [56] Scientific American (1998). Evolution and General Intelligence: Three hypotheses on the evolution of general intelligence (http:/ / www. csulb. edu/ ~kmacd/ 346IQ. html). [57] "Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis" (http:/ / www. grida. no/ climate/ ipcc_tar/ wg1/ 007. htm). grida.no/. . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [58] American Association for the Advancement of Science. Foreword (http:/ / atlas. aaas. org/ index. php?sub=foreword). AAAS Atlas of Population & Environment. [59] Wilson, E.O. (2002). in The Future of Life. [60] de Beer H (2004). "Observations on the history of Dutch physical stature from the late-Middle Ages to the present". Econ Hum Biol 2 (1): 4555. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2003.11.001. PMID15463992. [61] "Human weight" (http:/ / www. articleworld. org/ index. php/ Human_weight). Articleworld.org. . Retrieved 2011-12-10.

21

Human
[62] Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Way by Nicholas Wade, New York Times, August 19, 2003. [63] Rogers, Alan R., Iltis, David & Wooding, Stephen (2004). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair". Current Anthropology 45 (1): 105108. doi:10.1086/381006. [64] Jablonski, N.G. & Chaplin, G. (2000). The evolution of human skin coloration (http:/ / www. bgsu. edu/ departments/ chem/ faculty/ leontis/ chem447/ PDF_files/ Jablonski_skin_color_2000. pdf) (pdf), 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57106. [65] Harding RM, Healy E, Ray AJ et al (April 2000). "Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 66 (4): 135161. doi:10.1086/302863. PMC1288200. PMID10733465. [66] Robin, Ashley (1991). Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [67] Schwartz, Jeffrey (1987). The Red Ape: Orangutans and Human Origins. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press. p.286. ISBN0813340640. [68] Parker-Pope, Tara (October 27, 2009). "The Human Body Is Built for Distance" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 10/ 27/ health/ 27well. html). The New York Times. . [69] "Were Neanderthals stoned to death by modern humans?" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn16091-were-neanderthals-stoned-to-death-by-modern-humans. html). New Scientist. 20 November 2008. . Retrieved 2011-12-10. [70] Burton, George (2000). Chemical Storylines (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zvbV4M0-YdEC& pg=PA3) (2 ed.). Oxford, UK: Heinemann. p.3. ISBN9780435631192. . [71] Collins, Desmond (1976). The Human Revolution: From Ape to Artist. p.208. [72] Pertea, Mihaela; Salzberg, Steven L. (2010). "Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes". Genome Biology 11 (5): 206. doi:10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206. PMC2898077. [73] According to the July 2, 2007 Newsweek magazine, a woman dies in childbirth every minute, most often due to uncontrolled bleeding and infection, with the world's poorest women most vulnerable. The lifetime risk is 1 in 16 in sub-Saharan Africa, compared to 1 in 2,800 in developed countries. [74] LaVelle, M. (1995). "Natural selection and developmental sexual variation in the human pelvis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 98 (1): 5972. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330980106. PMID8579191. [75] Correia, H.; Balseiro, S.; De Areia, M. (2005). "Sexual dimorphism in the human pelvis: testing a new hypothesis". Homo 56 (2): 153160. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2005.05.003. PMID16130838. [76] Rush, David (2000). "Nutrition and maternal mortality in the developing world" (http:/ / www. ajcn. org/ content/ 72/ 1/ 212S. full). American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72 (1 Suppl): 212S240S. PMID10871588. . [77] "Low Birthweight" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070513150431/ http:/ / www. childinfo. org/ areas/ birthweight/ ). Archived from the original (http:/ / childinfo. org/ areas/ birthweight/ ) on May 13, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-05-30. [78] Khor, G. (2003). "Update on the prevalence of malnutrition among children in Asia". Nepal Medical College Journal 5 (2): 113122. PMID15024783. [79] Leakey, Richard; Lewin, Roger (1993). Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes Us Human. New York, New York: Anchor Books. ISBN978-0-385-46792-6. [80] Diamond, Jared (1997). Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp.167170. ISBN0-465-03127-7. [81] Peccei, Jocelyn Scott (2001). "Menopause: adaptation or epiphenomenon?" (http:/ / www. biology. ed. ac. uk/ public/ conferences/ evolbiol2006/ papers/ Peccei. pdf) (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology 10 (2): 4757. doi:10.1002/evan.1013. . [82] "Human Development Report 2006," (http:/ / hdr. undp. org/ hdr2006/ ) United Nations Development Programme, pp. 363366, November 9, 2006 [83] The World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ ), U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved April 2, 2005. [84] U.N. Statistics on Population Ageing (http:/ / www. un. org/ ageing/ note5713. doc. htm), United Nations press release, February 28, 2002. Retrieved April 2, 2005. [85] Maier, Heiner (2010). Supercentenarians (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0Fjkhcn3oeIC& pg=PA288). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. p.288. ISBN978-3-642-11519-6. . [86] Liu, Hua; Prugnolle, Franck; Manina, Andrea; Balloux, Franois (2006). "A geographically explicit genetic model of worldwide human-settlement history". The American Journal of Human Genetics 79 (2): 230237. doi:10.1086/505436. PMC1559480. PMID16826514. [87] Jorde, L.; Watkins, W; Bamshad, M; Dixon, M; Ricker, C.; Seielstad, M.; Batzer, M. (2000). "The distribution of human genetic diversity: a comparison of mitochondrial, autosomal, and Y-chromosome data". American Journal of Human Genetics 66 (3): 979988. doi:10.1086/302825. PMC1288178. PMID10712212. [88] Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group (2005). "The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research". American Journal of Human Genetics 77 (4): 519532. doi:10.1086/491747. PMC1275602. PMID16175499. [89] Bamshad, Michael; Wooding, Stephen; Salisbury, Benjamin A.; Stephens, J. Clairborne (2004). "Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race". Nature Reviews Genetics 5 (8): 598609. doi:10.1038/nrg1401. PMID15266342. [90] Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Kidd, Kenneth K. (2004). "Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine". Nature Genetics 36 (11 Suppl): S2127. doi:10.1038/ng1438. PMID15507999. [91] Jorde, Lynn B.; Wooding, Stephen P. (2004). "Genetic variation, classification and 'race'". Nature Genetics 36 (11 Suppl): S2833. doi:10.1038/ng1435. PMID15508000.

22

Human
[92] Templeton, Alan R. (1998). "Human races: a genetic and evolutionary perspective" (http:/ / www. realfuture. org/ GIST/ Readings/ Templeton(1998). pdf) (PDF). American Anthropologist 100 (3): 632650. . [93] "The Race question; UNESCO and its programme; Vol.:3; 1950 - Publication 791" (http:/ / unesdoc. unesco. org/ images/ 0012/ 001282/ 128291eo. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-12-10. [94] Vogel, Friedrich; Motulsky, Arno G. (1997). Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Rbq0j5ZjhGgC& pg=PA610) (3rd ed.). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. pp.610611. ISBN978-3-540-60290-3. . [95] "American Anthropological Association Response to OMB Directive 15: Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting" (http:/ / www. aaanet. org/ gvt/ ombdraft. htm). American Anthropological Association. Sept 1997. . Retrieved 2012-02-12. [96] Haenel H (1989). "Phylogenesis and nutrition". Nahrung 33 (9): 86787. PMID2697806. [97] Cordain, Loren (2007). "Implications of Plio-pleistocene diets for modern humans". In Peter S. Ungar. Evolution of the human diet: the known, the unknown and the unknowable. pp.2645. ""Since the evolutionary split between hominins and pongids approximately 7 million years ago, the available evidence shows that all species of hominins ate an omnivorous diet composed of minimally processed, wild-plant, and animal foods." [98] American Dietetic, Association; Dietitians Of, Canada (2003). "Vegetarian Diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103 (6): 748765. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. PMID12778049. online copy available (http:/ / www. eatright. org/ cps/ rde/ xchg/ ada/ hs. xsl/ advocacy_933_ENU_HTML. htm) [99] Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A et al (February 2005). "Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81 (2): 34154. PMID15699220. [100] Ulijaszek SJ (November 2002). "Human eating behaviour in an evolutionary ecological context". Proc Nutr Soc 61 (4): 51726. doi:10.1079/PNS2002180. PMID12691181. [101] Earliest agriculture in the Americas (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 9707/ newsbriefs/ squash. html) Earliest cultivation of barley (http:/ / sciencenow. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 2007/ 213/ 2) Earliest cultivation of figs (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 5038116. stm) URLs retrieved February 19, 2007 [102] Krebs JR (September 2009). "The gourmet ape: evolution and human food preferences". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90 (3): 707S711S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462B. PMID19656837. [103] Holden C, Mace R (October 1997). "Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults". Hum. Biol. 69 (5): 60528. PMID9299882. [104] United Nations Information Service. Independent Expert On Effects Of Structural Adjustment, Special Rapporteur On Right To Food Present Reports: Commission Continues General Debate On Economic, Social And Cultural Rights (http:/ / www. fao. org/ righttofood/ kc/ downloads/ vl/ docs/ Rtf hearing 31 03 2004. doc). United Nations, March 29, 2004, p. 6. Around 36 million people died from hunger directly or indirectly every year.. [105] Murray C, Lopez A (1997). "Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk factors: Global Burden of Disease Study". Lancet 349 (9063): 143642. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)07495-8. PMID9164317. [106] Haslam DW, James WP (October 2005). "Obesity". Lancet 366 (9492): 1197209. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1. PMID16198769. [107] Catenacci VA, Hill JO, Wyatt HR (September 2009). "The obesity epidemic". Clin. Chest Med. 30 (3): 41544, vii. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2009.05.001. PMID19700042. [108] Grandner, Michael A.; Patel, Nirav P.; Gehrman, Philip R.; Perlis, Michael L.; Pack, Allan I. (2010). "Problems associated with short sleep: bridging the gap between laboratory and epidemiological studies". Sleep Medicine Reviews 14 (4): 23947. PMC2888649. PMID19896872. [109] 3-D Brain Anatomy (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ brain/ 3d/ index. html), The Secret Life of the Brain, Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved April 3, 2005. [110] Benthall, Jonathan (2007). "Animal liberation and rights". Anthropology Today 23 (2): 13. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x. [111] Leary, Mark R.; Tangney, June Price (2005). Handbook of Self and Identity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vafgWfgxUK8C& pg=PA577). New York, New York: Guilford Press. pp.576577. ISBN978-1-59385-237-5. . [112] Dr. Jack Palmer. "Consciousness and the Symbolic Universe" (http:/ / www. ulm. edu/ ~palmer/ ConsciousnessandtheSymbolicUniverse. htm). . Retrieved March 17, 2006. [113] Researchers home in on how brain handles abstract thought (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ newsoffice/ 2001/ abstract-0718. html) retrieved July 29, 2006 [114] Dennett, Daniel (1991). Consciousness Explained. Boston, Massachusetts: Little Brown. ISBN0-316-18065-3. [115] Skinner, B.F. About Behaviorism 1974, page 7475 [116] Skinner, B.F. About Behaviorism, Chapter 7: Thinking [117] A thesis against which Noam Chomsky advanced a considerable polemic. [118] Ned Block: On a Confusion about a Function of Consciousness in: The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1995. [119] "Statistical Summaries" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ ethno_docs/ distribution. asp?by=size). Ethnologue. . Retrieved 2011-12-10. [120] "CIA - The World Factbook" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ xx. html). Cia.gov. . Retrieved 2011-12-10. [121] Haviland, Wiliam A.; Prins, Harald E.L.; McBride, Bunny; Walrath, Dana (2010). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=yP6TrXRpPdMC& pg=PA82). Belmont, California: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. p.82.

23

Human
ISBN978-0-495-81082-7. . [122] Buss, David M. (2003). The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. Revised Edition. New York, New York: Basic Books. ISBN978-0-465-00802-5. [123] Thornhill, Randy; Palmer, Craig T. (2000). A Natural History of Rape. Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN978-0-262-70083-2. [124] Max Weber's definition of the modern state 1918 (http:/ / www. mdx. ac. uk/ www/ study/ xweb. htm), by Max Weber, 1918. Retrieved March 17, 2006. [125] Ferguson, Niall. "The Next War of the World." Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 2006 [126] Clark, J.D.; de Heinzelin, J.; Schick, K.D.; et al. (1994). "African Homo erectus: old radiometric ages and young Oldowan assemblages in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia". Science 264 (5167): 19071910. doi:10.1126/science.8009220. PMID8009220. [127] Comrie, Bernard; Polinsky, Maria; Matthews, Stephen (1996). The Atlas of Languages: The Origin and Development of Languages Throughout the World. New York, New York: Facts on File. pp.1315. ISBN978-0-816-03388-1. [128] "Evolutionary Religious Studies: A New Field of Scientific Inquiry" (http:/ / evolution. binghamton. edu/ religion/ ). . [129] Boyer, Pascal (2008). "Being human: Religion: bound to believe?". Nature 455 (7216): 10381039. doi:10.1038/4551038a. PMID18948934. [130] Emmons, Robert A.; Paloutzian, Raymond F. (2003). "The psychology of religion". Annual Review of Psychology 54 (1): 377402. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024. PMID12171998. [131] Hall, Daniel E.; Meador, Keith G.; Koenig, Harold G. (2008). "Measuring religiousness in health research: review and critique". Journal of Religion and Health 47 (2): 134163. doi:10.1007/s10943-008-9165-2. PMID19105008.

24

Further reading
Freeman, Scott; Jon C. Herron, Evolutionary Analysis (4th ed.) Pearson Education, Inc., 2007. ISBN 0-13-227584-8 pages 757761.

External links
MNSU (http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humanevolution/sapiens.html) Archaeology Info (http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/homosapiens.htm) Chororapithecus abyssinicus (http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=070824121653.65mgd37f) Possible human-orangutan split 20 million years ago. (Aug 26 2007) Homo sapiens (http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-sapiens) - The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 (http://www.eol.org/pages/327955) at the Encyclopedia of Life

Recent African origin of modern humans

25

Recent African origin of modern humans

In paleoanthropology, the recent African origin of modern humans, frequently dubbed the "Out of Africa" theory, is the most widely accepted model describing the origin and early dispersal of anatomically modern humans.[1] The theory is called the (Recent) Out-of-Africa model in the popular press, and academically the recent single-origin hypothesis (RSOH), Replacement Hypothesis, and Recent African Origin (RAO) model. The hypothesis that humans have a single origin (monogenesis) was published in Charles Darwin's Descent One model of human migration based on Mitochondrial DNA of Man (1871).[2] The concept was speculative until the 1980s, when it was corroborated by a study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence based on physical anthropology of archaic specimens. Genetic and fossil evidence is interpreted to show that archaic Homo sapiens evolved to anatomically modern humans solely in Africa, between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago,[3] that members of one branch of Homo sapiens left Africa by between 125,000 and 60,000 years ago, and that over time these humans replaced earlier human populations such as Neanderthals and Homo erectus.[4] The date of the earliest successful "out of Africa" migration (earliest migrants with living descendents) has generally been placed at 60,000 years ago as suggested by genetics, although attempts at migration out of the continent may have taken place as early as 125,000 years ago according to Arabian archaeology finds of tools in the region.[5] The recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa is the predominant position held within the scientific community.[6][7][8][9][10] There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several. A multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory,[11] which has gained support in recent years from genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence. A growing number of researchers also suspect that "long-neglected North Africa", was the original home of the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent.[12][13][14] The major competing hypothesis is the multiregional origin of modern humans, which envisions a wave of Homo sapiens migrating from Africa and interbreeding with local Homo erectus populations in multiple regions of the globe. Most multiregionalists still view Africa as a major wellspring of human genetic diversity, but allow a much greater role for hybridization.[15][16]

Recent African origin of modern humans

26

History of the theory

Further information: Timeline of human evolution With the development of anthropology in the early 19th century, scholars disagreed vigorously about different theories of human development. Those such as Johann Friedrich Blumenbach and James Cowles Pritchard held that since the creation, the various human races had developed as different varieties sharing descent from one people (monogenism). Their opponents, such as Louis Agassiz and Josiah C. Nott, argued for polygenism, or the separate development of human races as separate species or had developed as separate species through transmutation of species from apes, with no common ancestor. Charles Darwin was one of the first to propose common descent of living organisms, and among the first to suggest that all humans had in common ancestors who lived in Africa.[2] In the Descent of Man, he speculated that humans had descended from apes which still had small brains but walked upright, freeing their hands for uses which favoured intelligence. Further, he thought such apes were African:[17] In each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes Haeckel's Paleontological Tree of Vertebrates (c. closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two 1879). The evolutionary history of species has been species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat more described as a "tree", with many branches arising probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent from a single trunk. While Haeckel's tree is than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for somewhat outdated, it illustrates clearly the an ape nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of principles that more complex modern reconstructions can obscure. Lartet, which was closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale. Charles Darwin,Descent of Man[18] The prediction was insightful, because in 1871 there were hardly any human fossils of ancient hominids available. Almost fifty years later, Darwin's speculation was supported when anthropologists began finding numerous fossils of ancient small-brained hominids in several areas of Africa (list of hominina fossils). The debate in anthropology had swung in favour of monogenism by the mid-20th century. Isolated proponents of polygenism held forth in the mid-20th century, such as Carleton Coon, who hypothesized as late as 1962 that Homo sapiens arose five times from Homo erectus in five places.[19] The "Recent African origin" of modern humans means "single origin" (monogenism) and has been used in various contexts as an antonym to polygenism. In the 1980s Allan Wilson togather with Rebecca Cann and Mark Stoneking on the so-called "Mitochondrial Eve" hypothesis. In his efforts to identify informative genetic markers for tracking human evolutionary history, he started to focus on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genes that sit in the cell, but not in the nucleus, and are passed from mother to child. This DNA material is important because it mutates quickly, thus making it easy to plot changes over relatively short time spans. By comparing differences in the mtDNA Wilson believed it was possible to estimate the time, and the place, modern humans first evolved. With his discovery that human mtDNA is genetically much less diverse than chimpanzee mtDNA, he concluded that modern human races had diverged recently from a single population while older human species such as Neandertal and Homo erectus had become extinct. He and his team

Recent African origin of modern humans compared mtDNA in people of different racial backgrounds and concluded that all modern humans evolved from one 'lucky mother' in Africa about 150,000 years ago.[20] With the advent of archaeogenetics in the 1990s, scientists were able to date the "out of Africa" migration with some confidence. In 2000, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence of "Mungo Man 3" (LM3) of ancient Australia was published indicating that Mungo Man was an extinct subspecies that diverged before the most recent common ancestor of contemporary humans. The results, if correct, supports the multiregional origin of modern humans hypothesis.[21][22] This work was later questioned[23][24] and explained by W. James Peacock, leader of the team who sequenced Mungo man's ancient mtdna.[25] The question of whether there was inheritance of other typological (not de facto) Homo subspecies into the Homo sapiens genetic pool is debated.

27

Early Homo sapiens

Anatomically modern humans originated in Africa about 250,000 years ago. The trend in cranial expansion and the acheulean elaboration of stone tool technologies which occurred between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle Pleistocene (around 250,000 years ago) provide evidence for a transition from H. erectus to H. sapiens.[26] In the Recent African Origin (RAO) scenario, migration within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed H. erectus.

Anatomical comparison of the skulls of a modern human (left) and Homo neanderthalensis (right). [27]

Homo sapiens idaltu, found at site Middle Awash in Ethiopia, lived about 160,000 years ago. It is the oldest known anatomically modern human and classified as an extinct subspecies.[28] Fossils of early Homo sapiens were found in Qafzeh cave in Israel and have been dated to 80,000 to 100,000 years ago. However these humans seem to have either become extinct or retreated back to Africa 70,000 to 80,000 years ago, possibly replaced by south bound Neanderthals escaping the colder regions of ice age Europe.[29] Hua Liu & al. analyzing autosomal microsatellite markers dates to c. 56,0005,700 years ago mtDNA evidence. He interprets the paleontological fossil of early modern human from Qafzeh cave as an isolated early offshoot that retracted back to Africa.[30] All other fossils of fully modern humans outside Africa have been dated to more recent times. The oldest well dated fossils found outside Africa are from Lake Mungo, Australia, and have been dated to about 42,000 years ago.[31][32] The Tianyuan cave remains in Liujiang region China have a probable date range between 38,000 and 42,000 years ago. They are most similar in morphology to Minatogawa Man, modern humans dated between 17,000 and 19,000 years ago and found on Okinawa Island, Japan.[33][34] However, others have dated Liujang Man to 111,000 to 139,000 years before the present.[35] Beginning about 100,000 years ago evidence of more sophisticated technology and artwork begins to emerge and by 50,000 years ago fully modern behaviour becomes more prominent. Stone tools show regular patterns that are reproduced or duplicated with more precision while tools made of bone and antler appear for the first time.[36][37]

Recent African origin of modern humans

28

Genetic reconstruction
Further information: Most recent common ancestorandArchaeogenetics Two pieces of the human genome are quite useful in deciphering human history: mitochondrial DNA and the Y chromosome. These are the only two parts of the genome that are not shuffled about by the evolutionary mechanisms that generate diversity with each generation: instead, these elements are passed down intact. According to the hypothesis, all people alive today have inherited the same Mitochondria[38] from one woman who lived in Africa about 160,000 years ago[39][40] she has been named Mitochondrial Eve. All men today have inherited their Y chromosomes from a man who lived 140,000 years ago, probably in Africa. He has been named Y-chromosomal Adam. It is now believed that more men participated in the out of Africa exodus of early humans than women based on comparing non-sex-specific chromosomes with sex-specific ones.[41]

Mitochondrial DNA
Further information: Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup The first lineage to branch off from Mitochondrial Eve is L0. This haplogroup is found in high proportions among the San of Southern Africa, the Sandawe of East Africa. It is also found among the Mbuti people.[42][43] These groups branched off early in human history and have remained relatively genetically isolated since then. Haplogroups L1, L2 and L3 are descendents of L1-6 and are largely confined to Africa. The macro haplogroups M and N, which are the lineages of the rest of the world outside Africa, descend from L3.

Y-chromosomal DNA
The mutations defining macro-haplogroup CT (all Y haplogroups except A and B) predate the "Out of Africa" migration, its descendent macro-group DE being confined to Africa. The mutations that distinguish Haplogroup C from all other descendants of CR have occurred some 60,000 years ago, shortly after the first Out of Africa migration.

Map of early diversification of modern humans according to mitochondrial population genetics (see: Haplogroup L).

Haplogroup F originated some 45,000 years ago, either in North Africa (in which case it would point to a second wave of out-of-Africa migration) or in South Asia. More than 90% of males not native to Africa are descended in direct male line from the first bearer of haplogroup F.

Genomic analysis
Although mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA are particularly useful in deciphering human history, data on the genomes of dozens of population groups have also been studied. In June 2009, an analysis of genome-wide SNP data from the International HapMap Project (Phase II) and CEPH Human Genome Diversity Panel samples was published.[44] Those samples were taken from 1138 unrelated individuals.[44] Before this analysis, population geneticists expected to find dramatic differences among ethnic groups, with derived alleles shared among such groups but uncommon or nonexistent in other groups.[45] Instead the study of 53 populations taken from the HapMap and CEPH data revealed that the population groups studied fell into just three genetic groups: Africans, Eurasians

Recent African origin of modern humans (which includes natives of Europe and the Middle East, and Southwest Asians east to present-day Pakistan), and East Asians, which includes natives of Asia, Japan, Southeast Asia, the Americas, and Oceania.[45] The study determined that most ethnic group differences can be attributed to genetic drift, with modern African populations having greater genetic diversity than the other two genetic groups, and modern Eurasians somewhat more than modern East Asians.[45] The study suggested that natural selection may shape the human genome much more slowly than previously thought, with factors such as migration within and among continents more heavily influencing the distribution of genetic variations.[46]

29

Movement out of Africa

By some 70 millennia ago, a part of the bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup L3 migrated from East Africa into the Near East. The date of this first wave of "out of Africa" migration has been called into question in 2011, based on the discovery of stone tools in the United Arab Emirates, indicating the presence of modern humans between 100,000 and 125,000 years ago.[47] Some scientists believe that only a few people left Africa in a single migration that went on to populate the rest of the world,[48] based in the fact that only descents of L3 are found outside Africa. From that settlement, some others point to the possibility of several waves of expansion. For example, Wells says that the early travelers followed the southern coastline of Asia, crossed about 250 kilometers [155 miles] of sea, and colonized Australia by around 50,000 years ago. The Aborigines of Australia, Wells says, are the descendants of the first wave of migrations.[49]

Red Sea crossing

It has been estimated that from a population of 2,000 to 5,000 individuals in Africa,[50] only a small group, possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people, crossed the Red Sea.[51] Of all the lineages present in Africa only the female descendants of one lineage, mtDNA haplogroup L3, are found outside Africa. Had there been several migrations one would expect descendants of more than one lineage to be found outside Africa. L3's female descendants, the M and N haplogroup lineages, are found in very low frequencies in Africa (although haplogroup M1 is very ancient and diversified in North and Northeast Africa) and appear to be recent arrivals. A possible explanation is that these mutations occurred in East Africa shortly before the exodus and by the founder effect became the dominant haplogroups after the exodus from Africa. Alternatively, the mutations may have arisen shortly after the exodus from Africa. Other scientists have proposed a Multiple Dispersal Model, in which there were two migrations out of Africa, one across the Red Sea travelling along the coastal regions to India (the Coastal Route), which would be represented by Haplogroup M. Another group of migrants with Haplogroup N followed the Nile from East Africa, heading northwards and crossing into Asia through the Sinai. This group then branched in several directions, some moving into Europe and others heading east into Asia. This hypothesis attempts to explain why Haplogroup N is predominant in Europe and why Haplogroup M is absent in Europe. Evidence of the coastal migration is hypothesized to have been destroyed by the rise in sea levels during the Holocene epoch.[11][52] Alternatively, a small European founder population that initially expressed both Haplogroup M and N could have lost Haplogroup M through random genetic drift resulting from a bottleneck (i.e. a founder effect). Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago sea levels were 70 meters lower (owing to glaciation) and the water was much narrower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell middens

Recent African origin of modern humans 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea,[53] indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing.

30

Subsequent expansion
From the Near East, these populations spread east to South Asia by 50,000 years ago, and on to Australia by 40,000 years ago, Homo sapiens for the first time colonizing territory never reached by Homo erectus. Europe was reached by Cro-Magnon some 40,000 years ago. East Asia (Korea, Japan) was reached by 30,000 years ago. It is disputed whether subsequent migration to North America took place around 30,000 years ago, or only considerably later, around 14,000 years ago.

The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around the coast of Arabia and Persia until reaching India, which appears to be the first major settling point. M is found in high frequencies along the southern coastal regions of Pakistan and India and it has the greatest diversity in India, indicating that it is here where the mutation may have occurred.[55] Sixty percent of the Indian population belong to Haplogroup M. The indigenous people of the Andaman Islands also belong to the M lineage. The Andamanese are thought to be offshoots of some of the earliest inhabitants in Asia because of their long isolation from mainland Asia. They are evidence of the coastal route of early settlers that extends from India along the coasts of Thailand and Indonesia all the way to Papua New Guinea. Since M is found in high frequencies in highlanders from New Guinea as well, and both the Andamanese and New Guineans have dark skin and Afro-textured hair, some scientists believe they are all part of the same wave of migrants who departed across the Red Sea ~60,000 years ago in the Great Coastal Migration. Notably, the findings of Harding et al. (2000, p.1355) show that, at least with regard to dark skin color, the haplotype background of Papua New Guineans at MC1R (one of a number of genes involved in melanin production) is identical to that of Africans (barring a single silent mutation). Thus, although these groups are distinct from Africans at other loci (due to drift, bottlenecks, etc.), it is evident that selection for the dark skin color trait likely continued (at least at MC1R) following the exodus. This would support the hypothesis that suggests that the original migrants from Africa resembled pre-exodus Africans (at least in skin color), and that the present day remnants of this ancient phenotype can be seen among contemporary Africans, Andamanese and New Guineans. Others suggest that their physical resemblance to Africans could be the result of convergent evolution.[56][57] From Arabia to India the proportion of haplogroup M increases eastwards: in eastern India, M outnumbers N by a ratio of 3:1. However, crossing over into East Asia, Haplogroup N reappears as the dominant lineage. M is predominant in South East Asia but amongst Indigenous Australians N reemerges as the more common lineage. This discontinuous distribution of Haplogroup N from Europe to Australia can be explained by founder effects and population bottlenecks.[58]

[54] Map of early human migrations 1. Homo sapiens 2. Neanderthals 3. Early Hominids

Recent African origin of modern humans

31

Competing hypotheses
The multiregional hypothesis, initially proposed by Milford Wolpoff, holds that the evolution of humans from H. erectus at the beginning of the Pleistocene 1.8 million years BP to the present day has been within a single, continuous worldwide population. Proponents of multiregional origin reject the assumption of an infertility barrier between ancient Eurasian and African populations of Homo. Multiregional proponents point to the fossil record and genetic evidence in chromosomal DNA. One study suggested that at least 5% of the human modern gene pool can be attributed to ancient admixture, which in Europe would be from the Neanderthals.[59] But the study also suggests that there may be other reasons why humans and Neanderthals share ancient genetic lineages.[60][61] The strong form of the theory has been further challenged by recent genetic discoveries regarding the non-Homo sapiens Denisova hominin, known from only one sample in Siberia. The sample was found to share 46% genetic affinities with modern Melanesians, but not with other extant groups, making hybridisation in Africa very unlikely in this case.[62] Other hypotheses see the emergence of Homo erectus outside Africa (in Eurasia)[63] and then returning to colonize that continent from which H. erectus's ancestors originated.[64][65][66]

References
[1] William A. Haviland; Harald E. L. Prins; Dana Walrath; Bunny McBride (24 February 2009). The Essence of Anthropology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AmvJ1XtnIQoC& pg=PA90). Cengage Learning. p.90. ISBN9780495599814. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [2] Peter Lafreniere (22 September 2010). Adaptive Origins: Evolution and Human Development (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3F-Ms0mWKVYC& pg=PA90). Taylor & Francis. p.90. ISBN9780805860122. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [3] Rene Hetherington; Robert G. B. Reid (2010). The Climate Connection: Climate Change and Modern Human Evolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AAja8FTPF6QC& pg=PA64). Cambridge University Press. p.64. ISBN9780521147231. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [4] Martin Meredith (10 May 2011). Born in Africa: The Quest for the Origins of Human Life (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WrR9OShae2wC& pg=PT148). PublicAffairs. p.148. ISBN9781586486631. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [5] , 331 (6016), 453-456 DOI: 10.1126/science.1199113 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1126/ science. 1199113) [6] Liu H, Prugnolle F, Manica A, Balloux F (August 2006). "A geographically explicit genetic model of worldwide human-settlement history". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 79 (2): 2307. doi:10.1086/505436. PMC1559480. PMID16826514. "Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where the near consensus on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history." [7] "Out of Africa Revisited 308 (5724): 921g Science" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ summary/ sci;308/ 5724/ 921g). Sciencemag.org. 2005-05-13. doi:10.1126/science.308.5724.921g. . Retrieved 2009-11-23. [8] Stringer C (June 2003). "Human evolution: Out of Ethiopia". Nature 423 (6941): 6923, 695. doi:10.1038/423692a. PMID12802315. [9] Johanson D. "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?" (http:/ / www. actionbioscience. org/ evolution/ johanson. html). ActionBioscience. American Institute of Biological Sciences. . [10] "Modern Humans Single Origin (Out of Africa) vs Multiregional" (http:/ / www. asa3. org/ ASA/ education/ origins/ migration. htm). . [11] Searching for traces of the Southern Dispersal (http:/ / www. human-evol. cam. ac. uk/ Projects/ sdispersal/ sdispersal. htm), by Dr. Marta Mirazn Lahr, et al. [12] Was North Africa the Launch Pad for Modern Human Migrations? (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 331/ 6013/ 20. summary) Michael Balter, science 7 January 2011: 331 (6013), 2023. [DOI:10.1126/science.331.6013.20] [13] A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa (http:/ / www. cell. com/ AJHG/ fulltext/ S0002-9297(11)00164-9#). Fulvio Cruciani, Beniamino Trombetta, Andrea Massaia, Giovanni Destro-Bisol, Daniele Sellitto, Rosaria Scozzari, The American Journal of Human Genetics 19 May 2011 [14] Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early Homo sapiens (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 104/ 15/ 6128. full), Tanya M. Smith, Paul Tafforeau, Donald J. Reid, Rainer Grn, Stephen Eggins, Mohamed Boutakiout, Jean-Jacques Hublin, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0700747104 PNAS April 10, 2007 vol. 104 no. 15 61286133 [15] Robert Jurmain; Lynn Kilgore; Wenda Trevathan (20 March 2008). Essentials of Physical Anthropology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TSaSPza9LMYC& pg=PA266). Cengage Learning. pp.266. ISBN9780495509394. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [16] . doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200005)112:1<129::AID-AJPA11>3.0.CO;2-K. PMID10766948. [17] Bowler 2003, p.213 [18] "The descent of man Chapter 6 On the Affinities and Genealogy of Man" (http:/ / darwin-online. org. uk/ content/ frameset?viewtype=text& itemID=F937. 1& pageseq=212). Darwin-online.org.uk. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [19] Jackson Jr., John P. (2001). "In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's The Origin of Races (http:/ / comm. colorado. edu/ jjackson/ research/ coon. pdf), University of Colorado

Recent African origin of modern humans

[20] Allan Wilson, REVOLUTIONARY EVOLUTIONIST (http:/ / www. nzedge. com/ heroes/ wilson. html) [21] Adcock GJ, Dennis ES, Easteal S, Huttley GA, Jermiin LS, Peacock WJ, Thorne A (January 2001). "Mitochondrial DNA sequences in ancient Australians: Implications for modern human origins". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (2): 53742. Bibcode2001PNAS...98..537A. doi:10.1073/pnas.98.2.537. PMC14622. PMID11209053. [22] Australia Challenges Out-of-Africa Theory (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Technology/ story?id=99257& page=1) ABC News January 9, 2003 [23] Cooper A, Rambaut A, Macaulay V, Willerslev E, Hansen AJ, Stringer C (June 2001). "Human origins and ancient human DNA". Science 292 (5522): 16556. doi:10.1126/science.292.5522.1655. PMID11388352. [24] Chamberlain, C; Chamberlain, AT; Riley, MS; Stringer, C; Collins, MJ (2003). "The thermal history of human fossils and the likelihood of successful DNA amplification" (http:/ / www. eva. mpg. de/ evolution/ staff/ c_smithpdf/ Smith_et_al_Therma_ageJHE03. pdf) (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution 45 (3): 20317. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00106-4. PMID14580590. . [25] Jon Schiller (1 April 2010). Human Evolution: Neanderthals & Homosapiens (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3Huo_r-w2WcC& pg=PA66). CreateSpace. p.66. ISBN978-1-4515-4608-8. . Retrieved 29 November 2011. [26] Eric Delson; Ian Tattersall; John A. Van Couvering (2000). Encyclopedia of human evolution and prehistory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=E8z9YZZiKHgC& pg=PA677). Taylor & Francis. p.677. ISBN9780815316961. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [27] White TD, Asfaw B, DeGusta D, Gilbert H, Richards GD, Suwa G, Howell FC (June 2003). "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature 423 (6941): 7427. doi:10.1038/nature01669. PMID12802332. [28] "160,000-year-old fossilized skulls uncovered in Ethiopia are oldest anatomically modern humans" (http:/ / www. berkeley. edu/ news/ media/ releases/ 2003/ 06/ 11_idaltu. shtml). University of California, Berkeley. 2003. . [29] Clive Finlayson (11 October 2009). The humans who went extinct: why Neanderthals died out and we survived (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EzBV3OPb5mAC& pg=PA68). Oxford University Press US. p.68. ISBN9780199239184. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [30] Liu H, Prugnolle F, Manica A, Balloux F (August 2006). "A geographically explicit genetic model of worldwide human-settlement history". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 79 (2): 2307. doi:10.1086/505436. PMC1559480. PMID16826514. [31] Bowler JM, Johnston H, Olley JM, Prescott JR, Roberts RG, Shawcross W, Spooner NA. (2003). "New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia". Nature 421 (6925): 83740. doi:10.1038/nature01383. PMID1259451. [32] Olleya JM, Roberts RG, Yoshida H and Bowler JM (2006). "Single-grain optical dating of grave-infill associated with human burials at Lake Mungo, Australia". Quaternary Science Reviews 25 (1920): 24692474. Bibcode2006QSRv...25.2469O. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.07.022. [33] Hu Y, Shang H, Tong H, Nehlich O, Liu W, Zhao C, Yu J, Wang C, Trinkaus E, Richards MP (July 2009). "Stable isotope dietary analysis of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 (27): 109714. Bibcode2009PNAS..10610971H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904826106. PMC2706269. PMID19581579. [34] Brown P (August 1992). "Recent human evolution in East Asia and Australasia". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 337 (1280): 23542. doi:10.1098/rstb.1992.0101. PMID1357698. [35] Shen G, Wang W, Wang Q, Zhao J, Collerson K, Zhou C, Tobias PV (December 2002). "U-Series dating of Liujiang hominid site in Guangxi, Southern China". J. Hum. Evol. 43 (6): 81729. doi:10.1006/jhev.2002.0601. PMID12473485. [36] "Ancestral tools" (http:/ / www. handprint. com/ LS/ ANC/ stones. html). Handprint.com. 1999-08-01. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [37] "Middle to upper paleolithic transition" (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~rquinlan/ mptoup. htm). Wsu.edu. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [38] Jones, Marie; John Savino (2007). Supervolcano: The Catastrophic Event That Changed the Course of Human History (Could Yellowstone be Next?) (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=tSIa0VQn1NQC& lpg=PA138& dq=all people alive today have inherited the same Mitochondria& pg=PA138#v=onepage& q& f=true). Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books. ISBN1-56414-953-6. . [39] Cann RL, Stoneking M, Wilson AC (1987). "Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution". Nature 325 (6099): 316. Bibcode1987Natur.325...31C. doi:10.1038/325031a0. PMID3025745. [40] Vigilant L, Stoneking M, Harpending H, Hawkes K, Wilson AC (September 1991). "African populations and the evolution of human mitochondrial DNA". Science 253 (5027): 15037. Bibcode1991Sci...253.1503V. doi:10.1126/science.1840702. PMID1840702. [41] Keinan A, Mullikin JC, Patterson N, Reich D (January 2009). "Accelerated genetic drift on chromosome X during the human dispersal out of Africa". Nat. Genet. 41 (1): 6670. doi:10.1038/ng.303. PMC2612098. PMID19098910. [42] Gonder MK, Mortensen HM, Reed FA, de Sousa A, Tishkoff SA (March 2007). "Whole-mtDNA genome sequence analysis of ancient African lineages". Mol. Biol. Evol. 24 (3): 75768. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl209. PMID17194802. [43] Chen YS, Olckers A, Schurr TG, Kogelnik AM, Huoponen K, Wallace DC (April 2000). "mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe-and their genetic relationships to other African populations". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 66 (4): 136283. doi:10.1086/302848. PMC1288201. PMID10739760. [44] Coop G, Pickrell JK, Novembre J, Kudaravalli S, Li J, Absher D, Myers RM, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Feldman MW, Pritchard JK (June 2009). Schierup, Mikkel H.. ed. "The role of geography in human adaptation". PLoS Genet. 5 (6): e1000500. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000500. PMC2685456. PMID19503611. [45] Brown, David (June 22, 2009). "Among Many Peoples, Little Genomic Variety" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2009/ 06/ 21/ AR2009062101726_pf. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2009-06-25. [46] "Geography And History Shape Genetic Differences In Humans" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 06/ 090605091157. htm). Science Daily. June 7, 2009. . Retrieved 2009-06-25. [47] "Humans may have left Africa earlier than thought" (http:/ / apnews. myway. com/ / article/ 20110127/ D9L0V1284. html). Apnews.myway.com. . Retrieved 2011-06-14.

32

Recent African origin of modern humans

[48] "Both Australian Aborigines and Europeans Rooted in Africa" (http:/ / news. softpedia. com/ news/ Both-Aborigines-and-Europeans-Rooted-in-Africa-54225. shtml). News.softpedia.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [49] Rincon, Paul (April 24, 2008). "Human line 'nearly split in two'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7358868. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2009-12-31. [50] Zhivotovsky, et al; Rosenberg, NA; Feldman, MW (2003). "Features of Evolution and Expansion of Modern Humans, Inferred from Genomewide Microsatellite Markers". American journal of human genetics 72 (5): 117186. doi:10.1086/375120. PMC1180270. PMID12690579. [51] Stix, Gary (2008). "The Migration History of Humans: DNA Study Traces Human Origins Across the Continents" (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=the-migration-history-of-humans). . Retrieved 2011-06-14. [52] "A single origin, several dispersal hypothesis" (http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ 1471-2156/ 2/ 13/ comments/ comments). Biomedcentral.com. 2004-10-29. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [53] Walter RC, Buffler RT, Bruggemann JH, Guillaume MM, Berhe SM, Negassi B, Libsekal Y, Cheng H, Edwards RL, von Cosel R, Nraudeau D, Gagnon M (May 2000). "Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial". Nature 405 (6782): 659. doi:10.1038/35011048. PMID10811218. [54] Literature: Gran Burenhult: Die ersten Menschen, Weltbild Verlag, 2000. ISBN 3-8289-0741-5 [55] Metspalu M, Kivisild T, Metspalu E, Parik J, Hudjashov G, Kaldma K, Serk P, Karmin M, Behar DM, Gilbert MT, Endicott P, Mastana S, Papiha SS, Skorecki K, Torroni A, Villems R (August 2004). "Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans". BMC Genet. 5: 26. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-5-26. PMC516768. PMID15339343. [56] "Evolution of Human Languages" (http:/ / ehl. santafe. edu/ ruhlen. htm). Ehl.santafe.edu. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [57] Endicott P, Gilbert MT, Stringer C, Lalueza-Fox C, Willerslev E, Hansen AJ, Cooper A (January 2003). "The genetic origins of the Andaman Islanders". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72 (1): 17884. doi:10.1086/345487. PMC378623. PMID12478481. [58] Ingman M, Gyllensten U (July 2003). "Mitochondrial genome variation and evolutionary history of Australian and New Guinean aborigines". Genome Res. 13 (7): 16006. doi:10.1101/gr.686603. PMC403733. PMID12840039. [59] Plagnol V, Wall JD (July 2006). "Possible ancestral structure in human populations". PLoS Genet. 2 (7): e105. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020105. PMC1523253. PMID16895447. "..strong evidence for ancient admixture in both a European and a West African population (p 107), with contributions to the modern gene pool of at least 5%. While Neanderthals form an obvious archaic source population candidate in Europe.." [60] Green RE, Krause J, Briggs AW, et al. (May 2010). "A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome". Science 328 (5979): 71022. Bibcode2010Sci...328..710G. doi:10.1126/science.1188021. PMID20448178. Lay summary (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8660940. stm)BBC News. [61] Blum MG, Jakobsson M (October 2010). "Deep divergences of human gene trees and models of human origins". Mol. Biol. Evol. 28 (2): 88998. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq265. PMID20930054. [62] Reich, David; Green, Richard E.; Kircher, Martin; Krause, Johannes; Patterson, Nick; Durand, Eric Y.; Viola, Bence; Briggs, Adrian W. et al. (2010), "Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia", Nature 468 (7327): 10531060, doi:10.1038/nature09710 [63] "Homo erectus" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 270386/ Homo-erectus). Encyclopaedia Britannica. [64] "How Man Began" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,980307-7,00. html). Time. [65] "Planet of the Apes" (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=planet-of-the-apes). Scientific American. [66] "Dispersal patterns of Eurasian hominoids: implications from Turkey" (http:/ / anthropology. utoronto. ca/ Faculty/ Begun/ DSA10 Begun. pdf). David R. Begun, Erksin Gle & Denis Geraads.

33

Further reading
Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (http://books.google.ca/books?id=e2b5B0po8fwC& lpg=PP1&dq=Evolution: The History of an Idea&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) (3rd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-23693-9. Darwin, Charles (1871). [[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (http://darwin-online.org.uk/ EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html)]] (1st ed.). London: John Murray. Retrieved 2009-09-05 Gibbons A (May 2001). "Human anthropology. Modern men trace ancestry to African migrants". Science 292 (5519): 10512. doi:10.1126/science.292.5519.1051b. PMID11352048. Underhill PA, Passarino G, Lin AA, Shen P, Mirazn Lahr M, Foley RA, Oefner PJ, Cavalli-Sforza LL (January 2001). "The phylogeography of Y chromosome binary haplotypes and the origins of modern human populations" (http://www.human-evol.cam.ac.uk/Members/Lahr/pubs/AHG-65-01.pdf). Ann. Hum. Genet. 65 (Pt 1): 4362. doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.2001.6510043.x. PMID11415522.

Recent African origin of modern humans Neanderthals 'mated with modern humans' (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/323657.stm), BBC News, 21 April 1999 New analysis shows three human migrations out of Africa Replacement theory 'demolished' (http://news-info. wustl.edu/tips/page/normal/6349.html), Washington University in St. Louis, 2 February 2006 Harding RM, Healy E, Ray AJ, Ellis NS, Flanagan N, Todd C, Dixon C, Sajantila A, Jackson IJ, Birch-Machin MA, Rees JL (April 2000). "Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 66 (4): 135161. doi:10.1086/302863. PMC1288200. PMID10733465. Long JC, Kittles RA (August 2003). "Human genetic diversity and the nonexistence of biological races" (http:// muse.jhu.edu/journals/human_biology/v075/75.4long.pdf). Hum. Biol. 75 (4): 44971. doi:10.1353/hub.2003.0058. PMID14655871. Risch, N., Burchard, E., Ziv, E. and Tang, H. (2002). "Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease". Genome Biology 3 (7): comment2007.2001 comment2007.2012. doi:10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007. PMC139378. PMID12184798. Tishkoff SA, Kidd KK (November 2004). "Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine". Nat. Genet. 36 (11 Suppl): S217. doi:10.1038/ng1438. PMID15507999. Cavalli-Sforza F, Cavalli-Sforza LL (1995). The great human diasporas: the history of diversity and evolution. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-201-44231-0. Crow TJ, ed. (2004). The Speciation of Modern Homo sapiens (Proceedings of the British Academy). London: British Academy. ISBN0-19-726311-9. Foley R (1995). Humans before humanity: an evolutionary perspective. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN0-631-20528-4. Olson S (2003). Mapping human history: genes, race, and our common origins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN0-618-35210-4. Oppenheimer, Stephen (2003). The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa. New York, NY: Carroll & Graf. ISBN0-7867-1192-2. McKie R, Stringer C (1997). African exodus: the origins of modern humanity. London: Pimlico. ISBN0-7126-7307-5. Sykes, Bryan (2004). The Seven Daughters of Eve: The Science That Reveals Our Genetic Ancestry. Corgi Adult. ISBN0-552-15218-8. Wade N (2006). Before the Dawn : Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors. Penguin Press HC, The. ISBN1-59420-079-3. Wells S (2004). Journey of Man: Genetic Odyssey. Random House. ISBN0-8129-7146-9. Wells, Spencer (2006). Deep ancestry: inside the Genographic Project. Washington, D.C: National Geographic. ISBN0-7922-6215-8. Manica A, Amos W, Balloux F, Hanihara T (July 2007). "The effect of ancient population bottlenecks on human phenotypic variation". Nature 448 (7151): 3468. Bibcode2007Natur.448..346M. doi:10.1038/nature05951. PMC1978547. PMID17637668. Lay summary (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/ 070718140829.htm)Science Daily. Scholz CA, Johnson TC, Cohen AS, King JW, Peck JA, Overpeck JT, Talbot MR, Brown ET, Kalindekafe L, Amoako PY, Lyons RP, Shanahan TM, Castaeda IS, Heil CW, Forman SL, McHargue LR, Beuning KR, Gomez J, Pierson J (October 2007). "East African megadroughts between 135 and 75 thousand years ago and bearing on early-modern human origins". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (42): 1641621. Bibcode2007PNAS..10416416S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703874104. PMC1964544. PMID17785420. Lay summary (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071008171121.htm)Science Daily. Cohen AS, Stone JR, Beuning KR, Park LE, Reinthal PN, Dettman D, Scholz CA, Johnson TC, King JW, Talbot MR, Brown ET, Ivory SJ (October 2007). "Ecological consequences of early Late Pleistocene megadroughts in tropical Africa". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (42): 164227. Bibcode2007PNAS..10416422C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703873104. PMC2034256. PMID17925446. Lay summary (http://www.sciencedaily.com/

34

Recent African origin of modern humans releases/2007/10/071008171121.htm)Science Daily. Smith L (2007-10-09). "Climate change led mankind out of Africa" (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/ world/africa/article2617296.ece). Times Online. Russell S (2008-02-22). "DNA studies trace human migration from Africa" (http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/ article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/02/22/MN5RV6L1C.DTL). San Francisco Chronicle. Serre D, Langaney A, Chech M, Teschler-Nicola M, Paunovic M, Mennecier P, Hofreiter M, Possnert G, Pbo S (March 2004). "No evidence of Neandertal mtDNA contribution to early modern humans". PLoS Biol. 2 (3): E57. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020057. PMC368159. PMID15024415. Stringer, Chris (2011). The Origin of Our Species. London: Allen Lane. ISBN978-1-846-14140-9.

35

External links
The Human Family Tree (http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/human-family-tree) by Spencer Wells National Geographic An mtDNA view of the peopling of the world by Homo sapiens (http://web.archive.org/web/ 20090602013211/http://www.cambridgedna.com/genealogy-dna-ancient-migrations-slideshow.php?) (archived version) National Geographic: Atlas of the Human Journey (https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/ atlas.html) Bradshaw Foundation: The Journey of Mankind (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/) Human Evolution. (2011). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/275670/human-evolution Documentaries DNA Mysteries The Search for Adam (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_nNNoT4Kbg&playnext=1& list=PLA55314D7BEFFDD62&index=16) by Spencer Wells National Geographic, 2008 The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9wS1za00mMM& feature=&p=A0D41D79D1CE0DBB&index=0&playnext=1) by Stephen Oppenheimer Discovery Channel, 2002 Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (movie) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OV6A8oGtPc4& feature=PlayList&p=26D4689DBF14F73D&index=0) by Spencer Wells PBS and National Geographic Channel, 2003

Homo erectus soloensis

36

Homo erectus soloensis

Homo erectus soloensis Temporal range: Pleistocene Conservation status Fossil Scientific classification Kingdom: Phylum: Class: Order: Family: Genus: Species: Subspecies: Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae Homo H. erectus H. e. soloensis

Trinomial name Homo erectus soloensis Oppenoorth, 1932 Homo erectus soloensis, known as Solo Man and formerly classified as Homo sapiens soloensis, is generally now regarded as a subspecies of the extinct hominin, Homo erectus. The only known specimens of this anomalous hominid were retrieved from sites along the Bengawan Solo River, on the Indonesian island of Java. The remains are also commonly referred to as Ngandong, after the village near where they were first recovered. Though its morphology was, for the most part, typical of Homo erectus, its culture was unusually advanced.[1] This poses many problems to current theories concerning the limitations of Homo erectus behavior in terms of innovation and language. Due to the tools found with the extinct hominid and many of its more gracile anatomical features, it was first classified as a subspecies (once called Javanthropus) of Homo sapiens and thought to be the ancestor of modern aboriginal Australians. However, more rigorous studies have concluded that this is not the case.[2] Analysis of 18 crania from Sangiran, Trinil, Sambungmacan, and Ngandong show chronological development from Bapang-AG to Ngandong period.[3] H. e. soloensis was re-dated in 2011 to between 550,000 and 143,000 years old.[4]

Notes
[1] Ngandong (http:/ / www. mnsu. edu/ emuseum/ archaeology/ sites/ asia/ ngandong. html) (Emuseum@Minnesota State University, Mankato) [2] Peter Brown: Recent human evolution in East Asia and Australasia. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Biological Sciences, Vol. 337, 235-242, 1992 [3] Kaifu, Y; Aziz, F; Indriati, E; Jacob, T; Kurniawan, I; Baba, H (Oct 2008). "Cranial morphology of Javanese Homo erectus: new evidence for continuous evolution, specialization, and terminal extinction". Journal of human evolution 55 (4): 55180. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.002. ISSN0047-2484. PMID18635247. [4] http:/ / www. terradaily. com/ reports/ Finding_showing_human_ancestor_older_than_previously_thought_offers_new_insights_into_evolution_999. html

Homo erectus soloensis

37

External links
Finding_showing_human_ancestor_older_than_previously_thought (http://www.terradaily.com/reports/ Finding_showing_human_ancestor_older_than_previously_thought_offers_new_insights_into_evolution_999. html) Morphology of Solo man (http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/handle/2246/297) Anthropological papers of the AMNH Early Indonesia (http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Indones.html) content excerpted from Indonesia: A Country Study, William H. Frederick and Robert L. Worden , eds. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, 1992 Human species before and after the genetic bottleneck associated with Toba, including details on the Java finds (http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/originals/Weber-Toba/ch5_bottleneck/textr5.htm) O. Frank Huffman, John de Vos, Aart W. Berkhout, and Fachroel Aziz (2010) "Provenience Reassessment of the 1931-1933 Ngandong Homo erectus (Java), Confirmation of the Bone-Bed Origin Reported by the Discoverers." PaleoAnthropology 2010 (http://www.paleoanthro.org/journal/contents_dynamic.asp?volume=2010):1-60 Indriati E, Swisher CC III, Lepre C, Quinn RL, Suriyanto RA, et al. 2011 The Age of the 20 Meter Solo River Terrace, Java, Indonesia and the Survival of Homo erectus in Asia. PLoS ONE 6(6): e21562. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021562 (http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone. 0021562)

Homo floresiensis

38

Homo floresiensis
Homo floresiensis Temporal range: Late Pleistocene,

A cast of a Homo floresiensis skull, American Museum of Natural History

Scientific classification (disputed) Kingdom: Phylum: Class: Order: Family: Tribe: Genus: Species: Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae Hominini Homo H. floresiensis Binomial name Homo floresiensis Brown et al., 2004 Homo floresiensis ("Flores Man", nicknamed "hobbit" and "Flo") is a possible species, now extinct, in the genus Homo. The remains were discovered in 2003 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Partial skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete cranium (skull).[1][2] These remains have been the subject of intense research to determine whether they represent a species distinct from modern humans, and the progress of this scientific controversy has been closely followed by the news media at large. This hominin is remarkable for its small body and brain and for its survival until relatively recent times (possibly as recently as 12,000 years ago).[3] Recovered alongside the skeletal remains were stone tools from archaeological horizons ranging from 94,000 to 13,000 years ago. The discoverers (archaeologist Mike Morwood and colleagues) proposed that a variety of features, both primitive and derived, identify these individuals as belonging to a new species, H.floresiensis, within the taxonomic tribe of Hominini. Hominini currently comprises the extant species human (the only living member of the genus Homo), bonobo (genus Pan), and chimpanzee (genus Pan); their ancestors; and the extinct lineages of their common

Homo floresiensis ancestor.[1][3] The discoverers also proposed that H.floresiensis lived contemporaneously with modern humans (Homo sapiens) on Flores.[4] Doubts that the remains constitute a new species were soon voiced by the Indonesian anthropologist Teuku Jacob, who suggested that the skull of LB1 was a microcephalic modern human. Two studies by paleoneurologist Dean Falk and her colleagues (2005, 2007) rejected this possibility.[5][6][7] Falk et al. (2005) has been rejected by Martin et al. (2006) and Jacob et al. (2006) and defended by Morwood (2005) and Argue, Donlon et al. (2006). Two orthopedic researches published in 2007 both reported evidence to support species status for H.floresiensis. A study of three tokens of carpal (wrist) bones concluded there were similarities to the carpal bones of a chimpanzee or an early hominin such as Australopithecus and also differences from the bones of modern humans.[8][9] A study of the bones and joints of the arm, shoulder, and lower limbs also concluded that H.floresiensis was more similar to early humans and apes than modern humans.[10][11] In 2009, the publication of a cladistic analysis[12] and a study of comparative body measurements[13] provided further support for the hypothesis that H.floresiensis and Homo sapiens are separate species. Critics of the claim for species status continue to believe that these individuals are Homo sapiens possessing pathologies of anatomy and physiology. A second hypothesis in this category is that the individuals were born without a functioning thyroid, resulting in a type of endemic cretinism (myxoedematous, ME).[14]

39

Discovery
The specimens were discovered on the Indonesian island of Flores in 2003 by a joint Australian-Indonesian team of archaeologists looking for evidence of the original human migration of Homo sapiens from Asia to Australia.[1][3] They were not expecting to find a new species, and were surprised at the recovery of a nearly complete skeleton of a hominin they dubbed LB1 because it was unearthed inside the Liang Bua Cave. Subsequent excavations recovered seven additional skeletons, dating from 38,000 to 13,000 years ago.[2] An arm bone provisionally assigned to H.floresiensis is about 74,000 years old. The specimens are not fossilized and have been described as having "the consistency of wet blotting paper"; once exposed, the bones had to be left to dry before they could be dug up.[15][16]:86 Researchers hope to find preserved mitochondrial DNA to compare with samples from similarly unfossilized specimens of Homo neanderthalensis and H.sapiens.[15] Sophisticated stone implements of a size considered appropriate to the 1-meter-tall human are also widely present in the cave. The implements are at horizons from 95,000 to 13,000 years ago and are associated with (found in the same stratigraphic layer as) an elephant Flores Island in Indonesia, shown highlighted in red of the extinct genus Stegodon (which was widespread throughout Asia [2] during the Quaternary), presumably the prey of LB1. They also shared the island with giant rats, Komodo dragons, and even larger species of lizards.[17] Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[18] Homo floresiensis was unveiled on 28 October 2004, and was swiftly nicknamed the "Hobbit", after the main character of J. R. R. Tolkien's book The Hobbit, made popular by Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (20012003), and a proposed scientific name for the species was Homo hobbitus. It was initially placed in its own genus, Sundanthropus floresianus ("Sunda man from Flores"), but reviewers of the article felt that the cranium,

Cave on Flores Island where the specimens were discovered

Homo floresiensis despite its size, belonged in the genus Homo.[19]

40

Anatomy
The most important and obvious identifying features of H.floresiensis are its small body and small cranial capacity. Brown and Morwood also identified a number of additional, less obvious features that might distinguish LB1 from modern H.sapiens, including the form of the teeth, the absence of a chin, and the lesser angle in the head of the humerus (upper arm bone). Each of these putative distinguishing features has been heavily scrutinized by the scientific community, with different research groups reaching differing conclusions as to whether these features support the original designation of a new species,[20] or whether they identify LB1 as a severely pathological H.sapiens.[21] The discovery of additional partial skeletons[2] has verified the existence of some features found in LB1, such as the lack of a chin, but Jacob and other research teams argue that these features do not distinguish LB1 from local H.sapiens morphology.[21] Lyras et al. have asserted, based on 3D-morphometrics, that the skull of LB1 differs significantly from all H.sapiens skulls, including those of small-bodied individuals and microcephalics, and is similar to the skull of Homo erectus alone.[22]

Small bodies
The first set of remains to have been found, LB1, was chosen as the type specimen for the proposed species. LB1 is a fairly complete skeleton, including a nearly complete cranium (skull), determined to be that of a 30-year-old female. LB1 has been nicknamed the Little Lady of Flores or "Flo".[1] LB1's height has been estimated at about 1.06m (). The height of a second skeleton, LB8, has been estimated at 1.09m () based on measurements of its tibia.[2] These estimates are outside the range of normal modern human height and considerably shorter than the average adult height of even the smallest modern humans, such as the Mbenga and Mbuti (< 1.5m ()),[23] Twa, Semang (1.37m () for adult women) of the Malay Peninsula,[24] or the Andamanese (1.37m () for adult women).[25] By body mass, differences between modern pygmies and Homo floresiensis are even greater. LB1's body mass has been estimated at 25kg Reconstruction of the female's head (unknown operator: u'strong'lb). This is smaller than that of not only modern H.sapiens, but also H.erectus, which Brown and colleagues have suggested is the immediate ancestor of H.floresiensis. LB1 and LB8 are also somewhat smaller than the australopithecines from three million years ago, not previously thought to have expanded beyond Africa. Thus, LB1 and LB8 may be the shortest and smallest members of the extended human family discovered thus far. Aside from smaller body size, the specimens seem otherwise to resemble H.erectus, a species known to have been living in Southeast Asia at times coincident with earlier finds purported to be of H.floresiensis.[2] These observed similarities form the basis for the suggested phylogenetic relationship. Controversially, the same team has reported finding material evidence (stone tools) on Flores of a H.erectus occupation dating back 840,000 years ago, but not remains of H.erectus itself or transitional forms.[26] To explain the small stature of H.floresiensis, Brown et al. have suggested that in the limited food environment on Flores, H.erectus evolved a smaller body size via insular dwarfism,[1] a form of speciation which has been observed in other species on Flores also including several species of the proboscidean genus Stegodon. (A dwarf stegodont species of Flores, Stegodon sondaari, went extinct by about 850,000 years ago and was replaced by another species

Homo floresiensis of normal size, Stegodon florensis, which then also evolved into a dwarf form, Stegodon florensis insularis, which disappeared about 12,000 years ago.)[27][28] This hypothesis has been criticized by Teuku Jacob and colleagues[21] who argue that LB1 is similar to the midget humans who populate a Flores village, Rampasasa,[29] and who point out that size can vary substantially in pygmy populations. Contradictory evidence has emerged.[30]

41

Small brains
In addition to a small body size, H.floresiensis had a remarkably small brain. The brain of the holotype LB1 is estimated to have had a volume of 380cm3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cuin), placing it at the lower range of chimpanzees or the extinct australopithecines.[1][5] LB1's brain size is half that of its presumed immediate ancestor, H.erectus (980cm3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cuin)).[5] The brain to body mass ratio of LB1 lies between that of H.erectus and the great apes.[31] Insular dwarfism has been posited to explain the brain size reduction. Scientists at the Natural History Museum in London Top view of a cast of the LB1 skull have found that the reduction in brain size of extinct pygmy hippopotamuses in Madagascar compared with their living relatives is greater than the reduction in body size, and similar to the reduction in brain size of H.floresiensis compared with H.erectus.[32][33] An indicator of intelligence is the size of Brodmann's area 10, the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, an area of the brain associated with higher cognition. LB1's region 10 is about the same size as that of modern humans, despite the much smaller overall size of the brain.[5] Notwithstanding the small brain of H.floresiensis, the discoverers have associated it with advanced behaviors. Their cave shows evidence of the use of fire for cooking, and Stegodon bones associated with the hominins have cut marks.[2][3] The hominin specimens have also been associated with stone tools of the sophisticated Upper Paleolithic tradition typically associated with modern humans, who have nearly quadruple the brain volume (13101475 cm3 (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong' unknown operator: u'strong')) and 2.6times greater body mass. Some of these tools were apparently used in the necessarily cooperative hunting of Stegodon by these hominins.[2] This is an interesting paradox: there has been a gradual increase in brain volume as we progressed along the Human timeline of evolution (see Homininae), starting from about 600cm3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cuin) in Homo habilis up to 1500cm3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cuin) in Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. Thus, in general, there is a correlation between brain volume and intelligence. However, modern Homo sapiens have a brain volume slightly smaller (1400cm3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cuin)) than neanderthals, women have a brain volume slightly smaller than men and Homo floresiensis with a cranial capacity of about 380cm3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cuin), considered small for a chimpanzee) and about a third that of H.erectus, apparently used fire and made tools at least as sophisticated as those of their ancestor H.erectus. In this case, it seems that for intelligence, the structure of the brain is more important than its volume.

Homo floresiensis

42

Additional features
Additional features used to argue that the finds come from a population of previously unidentified hominids include the absence of a chin, the relatively low twist of the arm bones, and the thickness of the leg bones.[1][2][3] The presence of each of these features has been confirmed by independent investigators[21] but their significance has been disputed. The forearm and pectoral girdle of H.floresiensis have been examined by Larson et al. (2007).[10] Modern humans have the top of the bone twisted between 145 to 165 degrees to the plane of the elbow joint. For LB1, the twist was initially reported to be 110 degrees. Larson later revised this measurement to 120 degrees.[34] This could be an advantage when arm-swinging, but it complicates activities associated with modern people, such as tool-making. As for the pectoral girdle of H.floresiensis, they studied a broken clavicle of LB1 and a shoulder blade of LB6. The clavicle was relatively short, which in combination with the shape of the shoulder blade and the low twist of the arm bone resulted in the shoulder being moved slightly forward, as if it was shrugged. Thus H.floresiensis could bend the elbow in the way modern people do and Larson concluded that it was able to make tools.[10] Tocheri et al. (2007) examined three carpal bones believed to belong to LB1. The shapes of these bones were claimed to differ significantly from the bones of the modern human wrist and to resemble the wrist of great African apes or Australopithecus.[8] The feet of H.floresiensis were unusually flat and unusually long in relation with the rest of the body.[35] As a result, when walking, it would have to bend its knees further back than modern people do. This forced the gait to be high stepped and the creature was not able to walk very fast. The toes had an unusual shape and the big toe was very short.[36]

Recent survival
The species is thought to have survived on Flores at least until 12,000 years before present, making it the longest lasting non-modern human, surviving long past the Neanderthals (H.neanderthalensis), which became extinct about 24,000 years ago.[2] Because of a deep neighboring strait, Flores remained isolated during the Wisconsin glaciation (the most recent glacial period), despite the low sea levels that united Sundaland.[37][38] This has led the discoverers of H.floresiensis to conclude that the species, or its ancestors, could only have reached the isolated island by water transport, perhaps arriving in bamboo rafts around 100,000 years ago (or, if they are H.erectus, then about 1 million years ago). This idea of H.floresiensis using advanced technology and cooperation on a modern human level has prompted the discoverers to hypothesize that H.floresiensis almost certainly had language.[39] Local geology suggests that a volcanic eruption on Flores approximately 12,000 years ago was responsible for the demise of H.floresiensis, along with other local fauna, including the elephant Stegodon.[3] Gregory Forth hypothesized that H.floresiensis may have survived longer in other parts of Flores to become the source of the Ebu Gogo stories told among the Nage people of Flores. The Ebu Gogo are said to have been small, hairy, language-poor cave dwellers on the scale of this species.[40] Believed to be present at the time of the arrival of the first Portuguese ships during the 16th century, these creatures are claimed to have existed as recently as the late 19th century.[41] Gerd van den Bergh, a paleontologist working with the fossils, reported hearing of the Ebu Gogo a decade before the fossil discovery.[42] On the island of Sumatra, there are reports of a 11.5 m (3ft unknown operator: u'strong'in4ft unknown operator: u'strong'in) tall humanoid, the Orang Pendek which might be related to H.floresiensis.[43] Henry Gee, senior editor at Nature magazine, speculates that species like H.floresiensis might still exist in the unexplored tropical forest of Indonesia.[44]

Homo floresiensis

43

Scandal over specimen damage

In early December 2004, Teuku Jacob removed most of the remains from their repository, Jakarta's National Research Centre of Archaeology, with the permission of only one of the project team's directors and kept them for three months.[45][46][47][48] Some scientists expressed the fear that important scientific evidence would be sequestered by a small group of scientists who neither allowed access by other scientists nor published their own research. Jacob returned the remains on February 23, 2005 with portions severely damaged[49] and missing two leg bones[50] to the worldwide consternation of his peers. Reports noted the condition of the returned remains; "[including] long, deep cuts marking the lower edge of the Hobbit's jaw on both sides, said to be caused by a knife used to cut away the rubber mould"; "the chin of a second Hobbit jaw was snapped off and glued back together. Whoever was responsible misaligned the pieces and put them at an incorrect angle"; and, "The pelvis was smashed, destroying details that reveal body shape, gait and evolutionary history"[51] and causing the discovery team leader Morwood to remark "It's sickening, Jacob was greedy and acted totally irresponsibly".[49] Jacob, however, denied any wrongdoing. He stated that the damages occurred during transport from Yogyakarta back to Jakarta[51] despite the physical evidence to the contrary that the jawbone had been broken while making a mold of bones.[49][52] In 2005 Indonesian officials forbade access to the cave. Some news media, such as the BBC, expressed the opinion that the reason for the restriction was to protect Jacob, who was considered "Indonesia's king of palaeoanthropology", from being proven to be wrong. Scientists were allowed to return to the cave in 2007 shortly after the death of Jacob.[51]

Microcephaly hypothesis
Prior to Jacob's removal of the fossils, a CT scan was taken of the skull and a virtual endocast of the skull (i.e., a computer-generated model of the skull's interior) of H.floresiensis was produced and analyzed by Dean Falk et al. This team concluded that the brainpan was not that of a pygmy nor an individual with a malformed skull and brain.[5] In response, Weber et al. conducted a survey the same year comparing the computer model of LB1's skull with a sample of microcephalic human skulls, concluding that the skull size of LB1 falls in the middle of the size range of the human samples and is not inconsistent with microcephaly.[53][54] Next to dispute the finding of Falk et al. (2005) were Martin et al. (2006), who objected to the failure to compare the model of LB1's skull with a typical example of adult microcephaly. Martin and his coauthors concluded that the skull was probably microcephalic, arguing that the brain is far too small to be a separate dwarf species; if it were, the 400-cubic-centimeter brain would indicate a creature only one foot in height, one-third the size of the discovered skeleton.[55] Shortly thereafter, a group of scientists from Indonesia, Australia, and the United States came to the same conclusion by examining bone and skull structure (Jacob (2006)).[21]

Homo floresiensis

44

Brown and Morwood countered by claiming that the skeptics had drawn incorrect conclusions about bone and skull structure and mistakenly attributed the height of H.floresiensis to microcephaly.[56] Falk's team replied to the critics of their study (Falk et al. (2006)).[31] Morphologist Jungers examined the skull and concluded that the skeleton displays "no trace of disease". Argue, Donlon, et al. (2006) rejects microcephaly and concludes that the finds are indeed a new species.[20][57] Falk et al. (2007) offered further evidence that the claims of a A cast of LB1 (left) was compared to several microcephalic H.sapiens were not credible.[6] Virtual endocasts of an microcephalic skulls, amongst which is that of the microcephalic (right) used by Henneman in his additional nine microcephalic brains and ten normal human brains attempt to present LB1 as a microcephalic. Argue were examined, and it was found that the floresiensis skulls are similar (2006) and Lyras (2008) contend the opposite. in shape to normal human brains, yet have unique features which are consistent with what one would expect in a new species. The frontal and temporal lobes of the floresiensis brain were found to be highly developed, in strong contrast to the microcephalic brain, and advanced in ways different from modern human brains. This finding also answered past criticisms that the floresiensis brain was simply too small to be capable of the intelligence required for the members of H.floresiensis to create the tools found in their proximity. Falk et al. (2007) conclude that the onus is now upon the critics that continue to claim microcephaly to produce a brain of a microcephalic that bears resemblance to the floresiensis brain.[6] Falk's argument was supported by Lyras et al. (2008) in that 3D-morphometric features of the skulls of microcephalic H.sapiens indeed fall within the range of normal H.sapiens and that the LB1 skull falls well outside this range. This was interpreted as proving that LB1 cannot, on the basis of either brain or skull morphology, be classified as a microcephalic H.sapiens.[22] In 2009, a study by Jungers et al. presented a statistical analysis of skull shapes of healthy modern humans, microcephalic humans, and several ancient human species, as well as H.floresiensis. They showed that the three grouped separately, with H.floresiensis among the ancient humans, providing evidence that H.floresiensis is a separate species instead of a diseased modern human.[13]

Laron syndrome hypothesis

The anatomist Gary D.Richards introduced a new skeptical hypothesis in June 2006: that the skeletons from Flores might be the remains of people who suffered from Laron syndrome, a genetic disorder first reported in 1966. The next year, a team including Laron himself published a paper arguing that the morphological features of H.floresiensis are essentially indistinguishable from those of Laron syndrome.[58] The team said that to determine whether the H.floresiensis individuals had Laron syndrome would require testing their DNA for the presence of the defective genes, if samples of that DNA ever become available.[59] Critics of the hypothesis have however pointed out that despite the low stature, people suffering from Laron syndrome look nothing like the Homo floresiensis remains, particularly in the anatomy of the cranial vault.[60]

Endemic cretinism hypothesis

In 2008 Australian researchers Peter J. Obendorf, Charles E. Oxnard, and Ben J. Kefford suggested that LB1 and LB6 suffered from myxoedematous (ME) endemic cretinism resulting from congenital hypothyroidism and that they were part of an affected population of H.sapiens on the island.[14] This disease, caused by various environmental factors including iodine deficiency, is a form of dwarfism which can still be found among the local Indonesian population. Affected people, who were born without a functioning thyroid, have both small bodies and reduced brain

Homo floresiensis size but their mental retardation and motor disability is not as severe as with neurological endemic cretins. According to the authors of the study, the critical environment could have been present on Flores approximately 18,000 years ago, the period to which the LB fossils are dated. They wrote that various features found on the fossils, such as enlarged pituitary fossa,[14] unusually straight and untwisted tops of the upper arm bone and relatively thick limbs, are signs of this diagnosis. The double rooted lower premolar and primitive wrist morphology can be explained in this way as well. The oral stories about strange human-like creatures may also be a record of cretinism.[14] Falk challenged the premise of Oberndorf et al. Studying computer tomography scans of LB1's pituitary fossa, she came to the conclusion that it is not larger than usual. Peter Brown declared that the remains of the pituitary fossa were very poorly preserved and no meaningful measurement was possible.. In a paper delivered to the Australasian Society for Human Biology in 2009, Colin Groves and Catharine FitzGerald compared the Flores bones with those of ten people who had had cretinism, focusing on anatomical features which are typical of the disease. They found no overlap, and stated that they had put the claim to rest.[61][62] However, an article by Oxnard, Obendorf and Kefford rejects Groves and FitzGerald's argument and revives the cretinism hypothesis.[63] Oxnard and colleagues also criticise the cladistic analysis of Argue et al. (2009), stating that it is not logically possible for the analysis to conclude that the Liang Bua remains represent a separate species and not a pathology because the cladistics analysis assumes that they do not represent a pathology.[63] Brown (2012) compared skeletal and dental morphology in H. floresiensis with the clinical and osteological indicators of cretinism, and the traits that have been argued to be associated with ME cretinism in LB1 and LB6. He concludes that LB1 and LB6 Homo floresiensis are not modern human (Homo sapiens) cretins.[64]

45

Bone structure
The bone structure of H.floresiensis shoulders, arms[10] and wrists[8] have been described as very different from modern humans', much closer to the bone structure of chimpanzees or an early hominin. This adds support to the idea that H.floresiensis is a separate species of early human rather than a modern human with a physical disorder.[10] Susan G. Larson et al. analyzed the upper limb of LB1. They found that in LB1 the angle of humeral torsion is much less than in modern humans. This had been previously studied by Richards et al., who declared that it is a sign of modern pygmy populations, and T. Jacob et Cast of the entire LB1 specimen al., who pointed out that muscle attachments on the bone suggest LB1 had weak muscles which resulted in little development of humeral torsion. Larson et al. rejected Richards conclusion, arguing that the humeral torsion of pygmy populations is usually similar to that of peoples of average stature. They argued that Richards et al. cited a 1972 paper which had studied a sample of six female Eastern Central African pygmies and this sample was too small to represent the whole population. Larson et al. also failed to find signs of microcephaly on the studied bones.[10] Larson et al. also studied the relatively short clavicle and the unusual formation of the pectoral girdle. They compared their finding with the skeleton of Nariokotome Boy (variously classified as H.ergaster or H.erectus), and suggested that the pectoral girdle of H.floresiensis was a transitional stage in human shoulder evolution.[10] While some specialists, including paleoanthropologist Russell Ciochon of the University of Iowa, supported the conclusion, others, including Eric Delson of Lehman College, City University of New York, pointed out that the recent sample of H.floresiensis individuals is too small and that Larson's research was based just on one shoulder bone.[34]

Homo floresiensis Tocheri et al. (2007) (including Morwood, Larson, and Jungers), compared three carpal bones believed to belong to LB1 with carpal bones of modern humans, some earlier hominids and African apes. They concluded that the carpals from the Liang Bua cave resembled ape carpal bones and were significantly different from the bones of H.sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis or even Homo antecessor, and that they were comparable to carpal bones of Australopithecus. The carpal bones of H.floresiensis were found to lack features that evolved with ancestors of modern humans at least about 800,000 years ago. These features are already formed during embryogenesis and therefore Tocheri et al. argue that it is improbable that the shape of H.floresiensis wrist bones could be a result of a developmental disease.[8] This conclusion was challenged by Robert Martin, since Jacob's death the leading proponent of the microcephaly hypothesis, and Alan Thorne. Martin noted that no research has been done on wrists of microcephalic people.[9] Thorne maintained that the differences were small and that similar variation could occur with living modern humans. He also pointed out that the carpal bones had been found scattered in the cave and it was not certain that they all belonged to the same individual.[65] Project leader Morwood countered that there were also other features, such as the stature, body proportions, brain size, shoulder, pelvis, jaw, and teeth which suggested that H.floresiensis is a separate species that evolved in isolation on the island.[66][67]

46

DNA extraction
In around 2006, two teams attempted to extract DNA from a tooth discovered in 2003 - both teams were unsuccessful. It has been suggested that this happened because the dentine was targeted, whereas new research suggests that the cementum has higher concentrations of DNA. Also, the heat generated by the high speed of the drill bit may have denatured the DNA.[68]

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] Brown et al. 2004 Morwood, Brown et al. 2005 Morwood, Soejono et al. 2004 McKie, Robin (February 21, 2010). "How a hobbit is rewriting the history of the human race" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2010/ feb/ 21/ hobbit-rewriting-history-human-race). The Guardian. . Retrieved February 23, 2010. [5] Falk et al. 2005 [6] Falk et al. 2007 [7] FSU News 2007 [8] Tocheri et al. 2007 [9] New Scientist 2007-09-20 [10] Larson et al. 2007 ( preprint online (https:/ / netfiles. uiuc. edu/ ro/ www/ BiologicalAnthropologyJournalClub/ Larson et al. , 2007. pdf?uniq=vvve70)) [11] Guardian 2007-09-21 [12] Argue, Morwood et al. 2009 [13] Jungers and Baab 2009 [14] Obendorf et al. 2008 [15] Nature 2004 [16] Morwood and van Oosterzee 2007 [17] The Age 2004-10-27 [18] Smithsonian July 2008 [19] Aiello, Leslie C. (2010). "Five years of Homo floresiensis" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 624kLkGVQ). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142 (2): 167179. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21255. PMID20229502. Archived from the original (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ ajpa. 21255/ pdf) on 2011-09-29. . [20] Argue, Donlon et al. 2006 [21] Jacob et al. 2006 [22] Lyras et al. 2008 [23] Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Pygmy. [24] Fix 1995 [25] "Weber ch. 5" (http:/ / www. andaman. org/ BOOK/ chapter5/ text5. htm). Andaman.org. . Retrieved 2011-10-01.

Homo floresiensis
[26] Morwood et al., 1998 [27] Morwood and van Oosterzee 2007: 8, 169 [28] Van Den Bergh, G. D.; Rokhus Due Awe; Morwood, M. J.; Sutikna, T.; Jatmiko; Wahyu Saptomo, E. (May 2008). "The youngest Stegodon remains in Southeast Asia from the Late Pleistocene archaeological site Liang Bua, Flores, Indonesia" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S1040618207000377). Quaternary International 182 (1): 1648. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.02.001. . Retrieved 2011-11-27. [29] Elegant, Simon (2005-04-30). "Science: Bones of Contention" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,501050606-1066965,00. html). Time (Rampasasa). . Retrieved 16 January 2011. [30] Tran, Mark (7 May 2009). "Indonesian 'hobbits' were distinct human species, say researchers" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2009/ may/ 07/ hobbit-indonesia-primates-research). London: guardian.co.uk. . Retrieved 24 February 2010. [31] Falk et al. 2006 [32] Weston et al. 2009 [33] "Hippo's island life helps explain dwarf hobbit" (http:/ / www. nhm. ac. uk/ about-us/ news/ 2009/ may/ hippos-island-life-helps-explain-dwarf-hobbit29895. html). Natural History Museum. 2009-05-07. . Retrieved 2011-10-01. [34] "Science Magazine" (http:/ / www. clas. ufl. edu/ users/ krigbaum/ 4468/ Culotta_Flores_2006_Science. pdf) (PDF). 2006-05-19. . Retrieved 2011-10-01. [35] Jungers et al. 2008 [36] New Scientist 2008 [37] "Homo erectus the sailor seaman" (http:/ / patagoniamonsters. blogspot. com/ 2011/ 01/ homo-erectus-sailor-seaman. html). Patagoniamonsters.blogspot.com. 2011-01-18. . Retrieved 2011-10-01. [38] http:/ / www. greenstone. org/ greenstone3/ sites/ nzdl/ collect/ hdl/ archives/ HASH0181. dir/ 80197e01. gif [39] Science Daily 2004-10-28 [40] Forth 2005 [41] Telegraph 2004-11-02 [42] Sereno, M.I. (2005). "Language Origins Without the Semantic Urge" (http:/ / cogsci-online. ucsd. edu/ 3/ 3-1. pdf) (PDF). Cognitive Science Online 3.1: 112. . [43] Nature 2004-10-27 [44] "'Hobbit' joins human family tree" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 3948165. stm). BBC News. October 27, 2004. . [45] Morwood and van Oosterzee 2007: ch. 9 [46] New Zealand Herald 2004-11-30 [47] New Scientist 2004-12-11 [48] Times Online 2004-12-03 [49] Sydney Morning Herald 2005-03-05 [50] Scientist 2005-02-28 [51] BBC News 2007-01-25 [52] Morwood and van Oosterzee 2007: ch. 9, p. 230-231 [53] Weber et al. 2005-10-14 [54] Spiegel 2006-09-01 [55] Los Angeles Times 2006-05-20 [56] New York Times 2006-08-21 [57] USA Today 2006-07-16 [58] Hershkovitz et al. 2007 [59] Science News 2006 [60] Falk, D. & al. (2009): LB1's virtual endocast, microcephalyand hominin brain evolution. Journal of Human Evolution Nov. ed, pp 597-607 [61] Groves and Fitzgerald, 2010. [62] New Scientist, 26 June 2010, p. 17 [63] Oxnard, C.; Obendorf, P.J.; Kefford, B.B. (2010). "Post-cranial skeletons of hypothyroid cretins show a similar anatomical mosaic as Homo floresiensis". PLoS ONE 5 (9): e13018. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013018. [64] Brown, Peter. (2012).LB1 and LB6 Homo floresiensis are not modern human (Homo sapiens) cretins. "Journal of Human Evolution", 62:2, pp. 201-224. http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S0047248411002223 [65] ABC Science Online (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) 2007-09-21 [66] Hobbit origins pushed back Nature 464, 335 2010 (http:/ / www. nature. com/ doifinder/ 10. 1038/ 464335a) [67] Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago Nature 464, 748-752 2010 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature08844) [68] Cheryl Jones. "Researchers to drill for hobbit history : Nature News" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2011/ 110105/ full/ news. 2011. 702. html). Nature.com. . Retrieved 2011-10-01.

47

Homo floresiensis

48

References
ABC Science Online [Australian Broadcasting Corporation] (September 21, 2007). Wrist gives hobbit theory the flick (http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/2007/2038346.htm). 172. The Age. (October 28, 2008). Lost race of human 'hobbits' (http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/10/27/ 1098667841536.html). Agence France-Presse (November 6, 2004). Indonesian scientist says Flores hominid not new species (http:// www.mywire.com/a/AFP/Indonesian-scientist-says-Flores-hominid/642869?&pbl=273). (paid content) Argue, D.; Donlon, D., Groves, C. and Wright, R. (October 2006). "Homo floresiensis: Microcephalic, pygmoid, Australopithecus, or Homo?". Journal of Human Evolution 51 (4): 360374. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.04.013. PMID16919706. Argue, Debbie; Morwood, M.; Sutikna, T.; Jatmiko; Saptomo, W. (July 2009). "Homo floresiensis: A cladistic analysis" (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=GatewayURL&_method=citationSearch& _uoikey=B6WJS-4WTYXVS-1&_origin=SDEMFRHTML&_version=1& md5=c0effb68fc1ae59ac67dfe6ef7f0ade9). Journal of Human Evolution Online Only as of Aug 4, 09. (5): 623639. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.05.002. BBC. The Mystery of the Human Hobbit (Horizon 2005). BBC. BBC News (January 25, 2007). Hobbit cave digs set to restart (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/ 6294101.stm). Brown, P.; Sutikna, T., Morwood, M. J., Soejono, R. P., Jatmiko, Wayhu Saptomo, E. and Rokus Awe Due (October 27, 2004). "A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia". Nature 431 (7012): 10551061. Bibcode2004Natur.431.1055B. doi:10.1038/nature02999. PMID15514638. "Pygmy" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9062017). Encyclopdia Britannica. Falk, D.; Hildebolt, C., Smith, K., Morwood, M. J., Sutikna, T., Brown, P., Jatmiko, Wayhu Saptomo, E., Brunsden, B. and Prior, F. (April 8, 2005). "The Brain of LB1, Homo floresiensis". Science 308 (5719): 2425. Bibcode2005Sci...308..242F. doi:10.1126/science.1109727. PMID15749690. Falk, D.; Hildebolt, C.; Smith, K.; Morwood, M.J.; Sutikna, T.; Others, (February 2, 2007). "Brain shape in human microcephalics and Homo floresiensis" (http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/7/2513). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (7): 25138. Bibcode2007PNAS..104.2513F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0609185104. PMC1892980. PMID17277082. Falk, D.; Hildebolt, C., Smith, K., Morwood, M.J., Sutikna, T., Jatmiko, Wayhu Saptomo, E., Brunsden, B. and Prior, F. (May 19, 2006). "Response to Comment on "The Brain of LB1, Homo floresiensis"". Science 312 (5776): 999c. Bibcode2006Sci...312.....F. doi:10.1126/science.1124972. Fix, Alan G. (June 1995). "Malayan Paleosociology: Implications for Patterns of Genetic Variation among the Orang Asli". American Anthropologist, New Series 97 (2): 313323. doi:10.1525/aa.1995.97.2.02a00090. JSTOR681964.(subscription required) Forth, G. (2005). "Hominids, hairy hominoids and the science of humanity" (http://www3.interscience.wiley. com/journal/118652221/abstract). Anthropology Today 21 (3): 1317. doi:10.1111/j.0268-540X.2005.00353.x. FSU News (January 29, 2007). FSU anthropologist's brain analysis confirms ancient 'Hobbit' a separate species (http://www.fsu.edu/news/2007/01/29/brain.analysis/).(subscription required) Gee, Henry (October 27, 2004). "Flores, God and Cryptozoology: The discovery poses thorny questions about the uniqueness of Homo sapiens" (http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news.cfm?art=1329). Nature. doi:10.1038/news041025-2. Groves, C.; Fitzgerald, C. (2010). "Healthy hobbits or victims of Sauron". HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 61 (3): 211. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2010.01.019. Guardian (September 21, 2007). Yes, it's a Hobbit. The debate that has divided science is solved at last (sort of) (http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/sep/21/2).

Homo floresiensis Hershkovitz, I., Kornreich, L., Laron, Z. (2007). "Comparative skeletal features between Homo floresiensis and patients with primary growth hormone insensitivity (Laron Syndrome)". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 134 (2): 198208. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20655. PMID17596857. Jacob, T.; Indriati, E., Soejono, R. P., Hsu, K., Frayer, D. W., Eckhardt, R. B., Kuperavage, A. J., Thorne, A. and Henneberg, M. (September 5, 2006). "Pygmoid Australomelanesian Homo sapiens skeletal remains from Liang Bua, Flores: Population affinities and pathological abnormalities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, US 103 (36): 1342113426. Bibcode2006PNAS..10313421J. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605563103. PMC1552106. PMID16938848. Jungers, W; Baab, K. (December 2009). "The geometry of hobbits: Homo floresiensis and human evolution" (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122688405). Significance 6 (4).(subscription required) Jungers, William L.; Larson, S.G.; Harcourt-Smith, W.; Morwood, M.J.; Sutikna, T.; Due Awe, Rokhus; Djubiantono, T. (December 4, 2008). "Descriptions of the lower limb skeleton of Homo floresiensis" (http:// www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WJS-4V2PSNH-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1& _fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10& md5=f61fb21de0ea1cfea8e8a9a422d3d85d). Journal of Human Evolution 57 (5): 53854. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.014. PMID19062072. Larson, S.G., Jungers, W.L., Morwood, M.J., et al. (December 2007). " Homo floresiensis and the evolution of the hominin shoulder (https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/ro/www/BiologicalAnthropologyJournalClub/Larson et al., 2007.pdf?uniq=vvve70)". Journal of Human Evolution 53 (6): 71831. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.06.003. PMID17692894. Los Angeles Times (May 20, 2006). 'Hobbit' Bones Said to Be of Deformed Human. Lyras, G.A., Dermitzakis, D.M., Van Der Geer, A.A.E., Van der Geer, S.B., De Vos, J. (August 1, 2008). "The origin of Homo floresiensis and its relation to evolutionary processes under isolation" (http://www.jstage.jst. go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_0807280043/_article). Anthropological Science 117: 33. doi:10.1537/ase.080411. Martin, R. D.; MacLarnon, A. M., Phillips, J. L., Dussubieux, L., Williams, P. R. and Dobyns, W. B. (May 19, 2006). "Comment on "The Brain of LB1, Homo floresiensis"". Science 312 (5776): 999. Bibcode2006Sci...312.....M. doi:10.1126/science.1121144. PMID16709768. Morwood, M. J.; O'Sullivan, P. B., Aziz, F., Raza, A. (March 12, 1998). "Fission-track ages of stone tools and fossils on the east Indonesian island of Flores". Nature 392 (6672): 173176. doi:10.1038/32401. Morwood, M. J.; Soejono, R. P., Roberts, R. G., Sutikna, T., Turney, C. S. M., Westaway, K. E., Rink, W. J., Zhao, J.- X., van den Bergh, G. D., Rokus Awe Due, Hobbs, D. R., Moore, M. W., Bird, M. I. and Fifield, L. K. (October 27, 2004). "Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia". Nature 431 (7012): 10871091. Bibcode2004Natur.431.1087M. doi:10.1038/nature02956. PMID15510146. Morwood, M. J.; Brown, P., Jatmiko, Sutikna, T., Wahyu Saptomo, E., Westaway, K. E., Rokus Awe Due, Roberts, R. G., Maeda, T., Wasisto, S. and Djubiantono, T. (October 13, 2005). "Further evidence for small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia". Nature 437 (7061): 10121017. Bibcode2005Natur.437.1012M. doi:10.1038/nature04022. PMID16229067. Morwood, Mike; van Oosterzee, Penny (2007). A New Human: The Startling Discovery and Strange Story of the "Hobbits" of Flores, Indonesia. Smithsonian Books. ISBN0-06-089908-5. Nature (October 28, 2004). "Little lady of Flores forces rethink of human evolution". Nature 431 (7012): 1029. Bibcode2004Natur.431.1029D. doi:10.1038/4311029a. PMID15510116. New Scientist (December 11, 2004). Fight over access to 'hobbit' bones being-human (http://www. newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18424772.900). New Scientist (September 20, 2007). 'Hobbitt' wrist bones suggest a distinct species (http://www.newscientist. com/article/dn12667-hobbit-wrist-bones-suggests-a-distinct-species.html).

49

Homo floresiensis New Scientist (April 16, 2008). Flores 'hobbit' walked more like a clown than Frodo (http://www.newscientist. com/article/dn13692-flores-hobbit-walked-more-like-a-clown-than-frodo.html). 3. pp. 983984. The New York Times (August 21, 2006). Report Reignites Feud Over 'Little People' as Separate Species (http:// www.nytimes.com/2006/08/21/science/21cnd-tiny.html). New Zealand Herald (November 30, 2004). Hobbit woman' remains spark row among academics (http://www. nzherald.co.nz/index.cfm?c_id=82&ObjectID=8500998). Obendorf, P.J.; Oxnard, C.E.; Kefford, C.E. (June 7, 2008). "Are the small human-like fossils found on Flores human endemic cretins?" (http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/jl77276376781n87/). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B Biological Sciences (Online: Royal Society) 275 (1640): 12871296. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1488. PMC2602669. PMID18319214. Science (May 19, 2006). "How the Hobbit Shrugged: Tiny Hominid's Story Takes New Turn". Science 312 (5776): 983984. doi:10.1126/science.312.5776.983a. PMID16709753. Science Daily (October 28, 2004). Skeleton reveals lost world of 'Little people' (http://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2004/10/041028144857.htm).(subscription required) Science News (July 15, 2006). "Did small hominids have a genetic defect?" (http://www.thefreelibrary.com/ Did+small+hominids+have+a+genetic+defect?-a0149357363). ScienceNews 170 (3): 46. The Scientist (February 28, 2005). Flores hominid bones returned (http://www.biomedcentral.com/news/ 20050228/01/). Smithsonian (July 2008). The Great Human Migration (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/ human-migration.html). Spiegel (September 1, 2006). A Huge Fight over a Little Man (http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/ 0,1518,434604,00.html). Stringer, Chris (2011). The Origin of Our Species. London: Allen Lane. ISBN978-1-846-14140-9. Sydney Morning Herald (March 5, 2005). Hobbits triumph tempered by tragedy (http://www.smh.com.au/ news/Science/Hobbits-triumph-tempered-by-tragedy/2005/03/04/1109700677461.html). Telegraph (November 2, 2004). Villagers speak of the small, hairy Ebu Gogo (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ connected/main.jhtml?xml=/connected/2004/11/01/ecnhuman228.xml). TIME (April 30, 2005). Bones of contention. Times Online (December 3, 2004). Professor fuels row over Hobbit man fossils (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/ article/0,,3-1386423,00.html). London. Tocheri, M.W.; Orr, CM; Larson, SG; Sutikna, T; Jatmiko; Saptomo, EW; Due, RA; Djubiantono, T et al (September 21, 2007). "The Primitive Wrist of Homo floresiensis and Its Implications for Hominin Evolution". Science 317 (5845): 17435. Bibcode2007Sci...317.1743T. doi:10.1126/science.1147143. PMID17885135. USA Today (July 16, 2006). The hullabaloo about hobbits (http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/ vergano/2006-07-16-hobbit-argument_x.htm). Weber, George. "Lonely islands: The Andamanese (Ch. 5)" (http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter5/text5. htm). Andaman Association. Weber, J.; Czarnetzki, A., Pusch, C.M. (October 14, 2005). "Comment on "The Brain of LB1, Homo floresiensis"" (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/310/5746/236b). Science 310 (5746): 236. doi:10.1126/science.1114789. PMID16224005. Weston, E. M.; Lister, A. M. (May 7, 2009). "Insular dwarfism in hippos and a model for brain size reduction in Homo floresiensis". Nature 459 (7243): 858. Bibcode2009Natur.459...85W. doi:10.1038/nature07922. ISSN0028-0836. PMC2679980. PMID19424156.

50

Homo floresiensis

51

Further reading
Linda Goldenberg (2007). Little People and a Lost World: An Anthropological Mystery. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Twenty-First Century Books. p.112. ISBN978-0-8225-5983-2. OCLC62330789. Maciej Henneberg; John Schofield (2008). The Hobbit Trap:Money, Fame, Science and the Discovery of a 'New Species'. Kent Town: Wakefield Press. p.159. ISBN978-1-86254-791-9. Dean Falk (2011). The Fossil Chronicles: How Two Controversial Discoveries Changed Our View of Human Evolution. University of California Press. ISBN9780520266704. Trueman, J. W. H. (2010). "A new cladistic analysis of Homo floresiensis". Journal of Human Evolution 59 (2): 223226. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.01.013. PMID20494404. Brumm, A.; Jensen, G. M.; Van Den Bergh, G. D.; Morwood, M. J.; Kurniawan, I.; Aziz, F.; Storey, M. (2010). "Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago". Nature 464 (7289): 748752. Bibcode2010Natur.464..748B. doi:10.1038/nature08844. PMID20237472. Jungers, W. L.; Harcourt-Smith, W. E. H.; Wunderlich, R. E.; Tocheri, M. W.; Larson, S. G.; Sutikna, T.; Due, R. A.; Morwood, M. J. (2009). "The foot of Homo floresiensis". Nature 459 (7243): 8184. doi:10.1038/nature07989. PMID19424155. Gordon, A. D.; Nevell, L.; Wood, B. (2008). "The Homo floresiensis cranium (LB1): Size, scaling, and early Homo affinities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (12): 4650. doi:10.1073/pnas.0710041105. Vannucci, R. C.; Barron, T. F.; Holloway, R. L. (2011). "Craniometric ratios of microcephaly and LB1, Homo floresiensis, using MRI and endocasts". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (34): 14043. doi:10.1073/pnas.1105585108. Argue, D.; Morwood, M.; Sutikna, T.; Jatmiko; Saptomo, E. W. (2010). "A Reply to Trueman's "A new cladistic analysis of Homo floresiensis."". Journal of Human Evolution 59 (2): 227. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.05.004. Holliday, T. W.; Franciscus, R. G. (2009). "Body size and its consequences: Allometry and the lower limb length of Liang Bua 1 (Homo floresiensis)". Journal of Human Evolution 57 (3): 223228. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.04.007. PMID19674770. Lieberman, D. E. (2009). "Palaeoanthropology: Homo floresiensis from head to toe". Nature 459 (7243): 4142. doi:10.1038/459041a. PMID19424142. Montgomery, S. H.; Capellini, I.; Barton, R. A.; Mundy, N. I. (2010). "Reconstructing the ups and downs of primate brain evolution: Implications for adaptive hypotheses and Homo floresiensis". BMC Biology 8: 9. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-9. PMC2825212. PMID20105283. Larson, S. G.; Jungers, W. L.; Tocheri, M. W.; Orr, C. M.; Morwood, M. J.; Sutikna, T.; Awe, R. D.; Djubiantono, T. (2009). "Descriptions of the upper limb skeleton of Homo floresiensis". Journal of Human Evolution 57 (5): 555570. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.06.007. PMID19056103. Kaifu, Y.; Baba, H.; Sutikna, T.; Morwood, M. J.; Kubo, D.; Saptomo, E. W.; Jatmiko; Rokhus Due Awe, A. et al (2011). "Craniofacial morphology of Homo floresiensis: Description, taxonomic affinities, and evolutionary implication". Journal of Human Evolution 61 (6): 644682. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.08.008. PMID22036083. "What is the Hobbit?" (http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/ journal.pbio.0040440) A review of the state of debate regarding the status of H. Floresiensis, circa 2006, from the open access journal Public Library of Science, Biology

Homo floresiensis

52

External links
Hawks, John. Blog of a professor of anthropology who closely follows this topic. "Another diagnosis for a hobbit" (http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/flores/ hershkovitz_laron_syndrome_2007.html) (online). 3 July 2007. "The Liang Bua report" (http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/flores/hershkovitz_laron_syndrome_2007. html) (online). 10 August 2007. "The forelimb and hindlimb remains from Liang Bua cave" (http://johnhawks.net/weblog/fossils/flores/ jungers-larson-hindlimb-forelimb-2008.html) (online). 18 December 2008. Scientific American Interview with Professor Brown (http://www.sciam.com/article. cfm?id=digging-deeper-qa-with-pe) 10/27/2004 National Geographic News article on H. floresiensis (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/ 1027_041027_homo_floresiensis.html) Homo floresiensis (http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-floresiensis) - The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program "Were Homo floresiensis just a population of myxoedematous endemic cretin Homo sapiens?" (http:// anthropology.net/2008/03/05/ was-homo-floresiensis-a-population-of-myxoedematous-endemic-cretin-homo-sapiens/) (online). Anthropology.net. March 5, 2008. Blog commentary on the Obendorf paper. Washington University in St. Louis (http://erl.wustl.edu/research/imseg/hobbit.html) Virtual Endocasts of the "Hobbit" Electronic Radiology Laboratory Nova's Alien from Earth documentary website, complete program available through Watch Online feature (http:// www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hobbit/) Hobbits in the Haystack: Homo floresiensis and Human Evolutions Turkhana Basin Institute presentment at the Seventh Stony Brook Human Evolution Symposium (http://turkanabasin.org/humanevolution)

Mitochondrial DNA

53

Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA[2]) is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Most other DNA present in eukaryotic organisms is found in the cell nucleus. Mitochondrial DNA can be regarded as the smallest chromosome, and was the first significant part of the human genome to be sequenced. In most species, including humans, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother. The DNA sequence of mtDNA has been determined from a large number of organisms and individuals (including some organisms that are extinct), and the comparison of those DNA sequences represents a mainstay of phylogenetics, in that it allows biologists to elucidate the evolutionary relationships among species. It also permits an examination of the relatedness of populations, and so has become important in anthropology and field biology.
Human mitochondrial DNA.

Origin
Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA are thought to be of separate evolutionary origin, with the mtDNA being derived from the circular Electron microscopy reveals mitochondrial DNA in discrete foci. Bars: 200 nm. (A) Cytoplasmic genomes of the bacteria that were engulfed section after immunogold labelling with by the early ancestors of today's eukaryotic anti-DNA; gold particles marking mtDNA are cells. This theory is called the found near the mitochondrial membrane. (B) endosymbiotic theory. Each mitochondrion Whole mount view of cytoplasm after extraction with CSK buffer and immunogold labelling with is estimated to contain 2-10 mtDNA anti-DNA; mtDNA (marked by gold particles) copies.[3] In the cells of extant organisms, [1] resists extraction. From Iborra et al., 2004. the vast majority of the proteins present in the mitochondria (numbering approximately 1500 different types in mammals) are coded for by nuclear DNA, but the genes for some of them, if not most, are thought to have originally been of bacterial origin, having since been transferred to the eukaryotic nucleus during evolution.

Mitochondrial DNA

54

Mitochondrial inheritance
In most multicellular organisms, mtDNA is inherited from the mother (maternally inherited). Mechanisms for this include simple dilution (an egg contains 100,000 to 1,000,000 mtDNA molecules, whereas a sperm contains only 100 to 1000), degradation of sperm mtDNA in the fertilized egg, and, at least in a few organisms, failure of sperm mtDNA to enter the egg. Whatever the mechanism, this single parent (uniparental) pattern of mtDNA inheritance is found in most animals, most plants and in fungi as well.

Female inheritance
In sexual reproduction, mitochondria are normally inherited exclusively from the mother. The mitochondria in mammalian sperm are usually destroyed by the egg cell after fertilization. Also, most mitochondria are present at the base of the sperm's tail, which is used for propelling the sperm cells. Sometimes the tail is lost during fertilization. In 1999 it was reported that paternal sperm mitochondria (containing mtDNA) are marked with ubiquitin to select them for later destruction inside the embryo.[4] Some in vitro fertilization techniques, particularly injecting a sperm into an oocyte, may interfere with this. The fact that mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited enables researchers to trace maternal lineage far back in time. ( Y-chromosomal DNA, paternally inherited, is used in an analogous way to trace the agnate lineage.) This is accomplished in humans by sequencing one or more of the hypervariable control regions (HVR1 or HVR2) of the mitochondrial DNA, as with a genealogical DNA test. HVR1 consists of about 440 base pairs. These 440 base pairs are then compared to the control regions of other individuals (either specific people or subjects in a database) to determine maternal lineage. Most often, the comparison is made to the revised Cambridge Reference Sequence. Vil et al. have published studies tracing the matrilineal descent of domestic dogs to wolves.[5] The concept of the Mitochondrial Eve is based on the same type of analysis, attempting to discover the origin of humanity by tracking the lineage back in time. Because mtDNA is not highly conserved and has a rapid mutation rate, it is useful for studying the evolutionary relationships - phylogeny - of organisms. Biologists can determine and then compare mtDNA sequences among different species and use the comparisons to build an evolutionary tree for the species examined. Because mtDNA is transmitted from mother to child (both male and female), it can be a useful tool in genealogical research into a person's maternal line.

Male inheritance
It has been reported that mitochondria can occasionally be inherited from the father in some species such as mussels.[6][7] Paternally inherited mitochondria have additionally been reported in some insects such as fruit flies,[8] honeybees,[9] and periodical cicadas.[10] Evidence supports rare instances of male mitochondrial inheritance in some mammals as well. Specifically, documented occurrences exist for mice,[11][12] where the male-inherited mitochondria was subsequently rejected. It has also been found in sheep,[13] and in cloned cattle.[14] It has been found in a single case in a human male.[15] While many of these cases involve cloned embryos or subsequent rejection of the paternal mitochondria, others document in vivo inheritance and persistence under lab conditions.

Structure
In humans (and probably in metazoans in general), 100-10,000 separate copies of mtDNA are usually present per cell (egg and sperm cells are exceptions). In mammals, each double-stranded circular mtDNA molecule consists of 15,000-17,000 [16] base pairs. The two strands of mtDNA are differentiated by their nucleotide content with the guanine rich strand referred to as the heavy strand, and the cytosine rich strand referred to as the light strand. The heavy strand encodes 28 genes, and the light strand encodes 9 genes for a total of 37 genes. Of the 37 genes, 13 are

Mitochondrial DNA for proteins (polypeptides), 22 are for transfer RNA (tRNA) and two are for the small and large subunits of ribosomal RNA (rRNA). This pattern is also seen among most metazoans, although in some cases one or more of the 37 genes is absent and the mtDNA size range is greater. Even greater variation in mtDNA gene content and size exists among fungi and plants, although there appears to be a core subset of genes that are present in all eukaryotes (except for the few that have no mitochondria at all). Some plant species have enormous mtDNAs (as many as 2,500,000 base pairs per mtDNA molecule) but, surprisingly, even those huge mtDNAs contain the same number and kinds of genes as related plants with much smaller mtDNAs.[17] The genome of the mitochondrion of the cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is three entirely or largely autonomous circular chromosomes (lengths 1556, 84 and 45 kilobases).[18]

55

Replication
mtDNA is replicated by the DNA polymerase gamma complex which is composed of a 140 kDa catalytic DNA polymerase encoded by the POLG gene and a 55 kDa accessory subunit encoded by the POLG2 gene. During embryogenesis, replication of mtDNA is strictly down-regulated from the fertilized oocyte through the preimplantation embryo.[19] At the blastocyst stage, the onset of mtDNA replication is specific to the cells of the trophectoderm.[19] In contrast, the cells of the inner cell mass restrict mtDNA replication until they receive the signals to differentiate to specific cell types.[19]

Genes
Note: The gene content of mitochondrial DNA varies among species. Information in this section is specific to human mitochondrial DNA

Electron transport chain

The mitochondrial genome contains 13 protein-coding genes. Many of these genes encode proteins of the electron transport chain:
Category NADH dehydrogenase (complex I) Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase/Cytochrome b (complex III) cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) ATP synthase Genes MT-ND1, MT-ND2, MT-ND3, MT-ND4, MT-ND4L, MT-ND5, MT-ND6

MT-CYB

MT-CO1, MT-CO2, MT-CO3

MT-ATP6, MT-ATP8

rRNA
Mitochondrial rRNA is encoded by MT-RNR1 (12S) and MT-RNR2 (16S).

tRNA
The following genes encode tRNA:

Mitochondrial DNA

56

Amino Acid Alanine Arginine Asparagine Aspartic acid Cysteine Glutamic acid Glutamine Glycine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Proline Serine Threonine Tryptophan Tyrosine Valine

3-Letter 1-Letter Ala Arg Asn Asp Cys Glu Gln Gly His Ile Leu Lys Met Phe Pro Ser Thr Trp Tyr Val A R N D C E Q G H I L K M F P S T W Y V

MT DNA MT-TA MT-TR MT-TN MT-TD MT-TC MT-TE MT-TQ MT-TG MT-TH MT-TI MT-TL1, MT-TL2 MT-TK MT-TM MT-TF MT-TP MT-TS1, MT-TS2 MT-TT MT-TW MT-TY MT-TV

Mutations
Susceptibility
mtDNA is particularly susceptible to reactive oxygen species generated by the respiratory chain due to its proximity. Though mtDNA is packaged by proteins and harbors significant DNA repair capacity, these protective functions are less robust than those operating on nuclear DNA and therefore thought to contribute to enhanced susceptibility of mtDNA to oxidative damage. The outcome of mutation in mtDNA may be alteration in the coding instructions for some proteins,[20] which may have an effect on organism metabolism and/or fitness.

The involvement of mitochondrial DNA in several human diseases.

Mitochondrial DNA

57

Genetic illness
Further information: Mitochondrial disease Mutations of mitochondrial DNA can lead to a number of illnesses including exercise intolerance and Kearns-Sayre syndrome (KSS), which causes a person to lose full function of heart, eye, and muscle movements. Some evidence suggests that they might be major contributors to the aging process and age-associated pathologies.[21]

Use in Disease Diagnosis

Recently a mutation in mtDNA has been used to help diagnose prostate cancer in patients with negative prostate biopsy. [22][23]

Use in identification
In humans, mitochondrial DNA spans 16,569 DNA base pairs,[24] representing a fraction of the total DNA in cells. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is inherited from both parents and in which genes are rearranged in the process of recombination, there is usually no change in mtDNA from parent to offspring. Although mtDNA also recombines, it does so with copies of itself within the same mitochondrion. Because of this and because the mutation rate of animal mtDNA is higher than that of nuclear DNA,[25] mtDNA is a powerful tool for tracking ancestry through females (matrilineage) and has been used in this role to track the ancestry of many species back hundreds of generations. Human mtDNA can also be used to help identify individuals.[26] Forensic laboratories occasionally use mtDNA comparison to identify human remains, and especially to identify older unidentified skeletal remains. Although unlike nuclear DNA, mtDNA is not specific to one individual, it can be used in combination with other evidence (anthropological evidence, circumstantial evidence, and the like) to establish identification. mtDNA is also used to exclude possible matches between missing persons and unidentified remains.[27] Many researchers believe that mtDNA is better suited to identification of older skeletal remains than nuclear DNA because the greater number of copies of mtDNA per cell increases the chance of obtaining a useful sample, and because a match with a living relative is possible even if numerous maternal generations separate the two. American outlaw Jesse James's remains were identified using a comparison between mtDNA extracted from his remains and the mtDNA of the son of the female-line great-granddaughter of his sister.[28] Similarly, the remains of Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse), last Empress of Russia, and her children were identified by comparison of their mitochondrial DNA with that of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, whose maternal grandmother was Alexandras sister Victoria of Hesse.[29] Similarly to identify Emperor Nicholas II remains his mitochondrial DNA was compared with that of James Carnegie, 3rd Duke of Fife, whose maternal great-grandmother Alexandra of Denmark (Queen Alexandra) was sister of Nicholas II mother Dagmar of Denmark (Empress Maria Feodorovna).[30] The low effective population size and rapid mutation rate (in animals) makes mtDNA useful for assessing genetic relationships of individuals or groups within a species and also for identifying and quantifying the phylogeny (evolutionary relationships; see phylogenetics) among different species, provided they are not too distantly related. To do this, biologists determine and then compare the mtDNA sequences from different individuals or species. Data from the comparisons is used to construct a network of relationships among the sequences, which provides an estimate of the relationships among the individuals or species from which the mtDNAs were taken. This approach has limits that are imposed by the rate of mtDNA sequence change. In animals, the high mutation rate makes mtDNA most useful for comparisons of individuals within species and for comparisons of species that are closely or moderately-closely related, among which the number of sequence differences can be easily counted. As the species become more distantly related, the number of sequence differences becomes very large; changes begin to accumulate on changes until an accurate count becomes impossible.

Mitochondrial DNA

58

History
Mitochondrial DNA was discovered in the 1960s by Margit M. K. Nass and Sylvan Nass by electron microscopy as DNase-sensitive thread inside mitochondria,[31] and by Ellen Haslbrunner, Hans Tuppy and Gottfried Schatz by biochemical assays on highly purified mitochondrial fractions.[32]

References
[1] Iborra FJ, Kimura H, Cook PR (2004). "The functional organization of mitochondrial genomes in human cells" (http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ 1741-7007/ 2/ 9). BMC Biol. 2: 9. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-2-9. PMC425603. PMID15157274. . [2] Sykes, B (10 September 2003). "Mitochondrial DNA and human history" (http:/ / genome. wellcome. ac. uk/ doc_WTD020876. html). The Human Genome. Wellcome Trust. . Retrieved 5 February 2012. [3] Wiesner RJ, Ruegg JC, Morano I (1992). "Counting target molecules by exponential polymerase chain reaction, copy number of mitochondrial DNA in rat tissues". Biochim Biophys Acta. 183 (2): 553559. doi:10.1016/0006-291X(92)90517-O. PMID1550563. [4] Sutovsky, P., et al. (Nov. 25, 1999). "Ubiquitin tag for sperm mitochondria". Nature 402 (6760): 371372. doi:10.1038/46466. PMID10586873. Discussed in (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071219174548/ http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ 20000101/ fob3. asp). [5] Vil C, Savolainen P, Maldonado JE, and Amorin IR (13 June 1997). "Multiple and Ancient Origins of the Domestic Dog". Science 276 (5319): 16871689. doi:10.1126/science.276.5319.1687. ISSN0036-8075. PMID9180076. [6] Hoeh WR, Blakley KH, Brown WM (1991). "Heteroplasmy suggests limited biparental inheritance of Mytilus mitochondrial DNA". Science 251 (5000): 14881490. doi:10.1126/science.1672472. PMID1672472. [7] Penman, Danny (23 August 2002). "Mitochondria can be inherited from both parents" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn2716). NewScientist.com. . Retrieved 2008-02-05. [8] Kondo R, Matsuura ET, Chigusa SI (1992). "Further observation of paternal transmission of Drosophila mitochondrial DNA by PCR selective amplification method,". Genet. Res. 59 (2): 814. doi:10.1017/S0016672300030287. PMID1628820. [9] Meusel MS, Moritz RF (1993). "Transfer of paternal mitochondrial DNA during fertilization of honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) eggs". Curr. Genet. 24 (6): 53943. doi:10.1007/BF00351719. PMID8299176. [10] Fontaine, KM, Cooley, JR, Simon, C (2007). Crusio, Wim. ed. "Evidence for Paternal Leakage in Hybrid Periodical Cicadas (Hemiptera: Magicicada spp.)". PLoS One. 9 (9): e892. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000892. PMC1963320. PMID17849021. [11] Gyllensten U, Wharton D, Josefsson A, Wilson AC (1991). "Paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in mice". Nature 352 (6332): 2557. doi:10.1038/352255a0. PMID1857422. [12] Shitara H, Hayashi JI, Takahama S, Kaneda H, Yonekawa H (1998). "Maternal inheritance of mouse mtDNA in interspecific hybrids: segregation of the leaked paternal mtDNA followed by the prevention of subsequent paternal leakage". Genetics 148 (2): 8517. PMC1459812. PMID9504930. [13] Zhao X, Li N, Guo W, et al. (2004). "Further evidence for paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in the sheep (Ovis aries)". Heredity 93 (4): 399403. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800516. PMID15266295. [14] Steinborn R, Zakhartchenko V, Jelyazkov J, et al. (1998). "Composition of parental mitochondrial DNA in cloned bovine embryos". FEBS Lett. 426 (3): 3526. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(98)00350-0. PMID9600265. [15] Schwartz M, Vissing J (2002). "Paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA". N. Engl. J. Med. 347 (8): 57680. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa020350. PMID12192017. [16] http:/ / www. ramsdale. org/ genetic. htm [17] Ward BL, Anderson RS, Bendich AJ (September 1981). "The mitochondrial genome is large and variable in a family of plants (cucurbitaceae)" (http:/ / linkinghub. elsevier. com/ retrieve/ pii/ 0092-8674(81)90187-2). Cell 25 (3): 793803. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(81)90187-2. PMID6269758. . Retrieved 2010-08-09. [18] Alverson AJ, Rice DW, Dickinson S, Barry K, Palmer JD (2011) Origins and Recombination of the Bacterial-Sized Multichromosomal Mitochondrial Genome of Cucumber. Plant Cell [19] John JC, Facucho-Oliveira J, Jiang Y, Kelly R, Salah R (March 2010). "Mitochondrial DNA transmission, replication and inheritance: a journey from the gamete through the embryo and into offspring and embryonic stem cells". Hum Reprod Update 16 (5): 488509. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmq002. PMID20231166. [20] C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Mutation. ed. E.Monosson and C.J.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Mutation?topic=49496) [21] Alexeyev, Mikhail F.; LeDoux, Susan P.; Wilson, Glenn L. (July 2004). "Mitochondrial DNA and aging" (http:/ / www. clinsci. org/ cs/ 107/ 0355/ 1070355. pdf). Clinical Science 107 (4): 355364. doi:10.1042/CS20040148. PMID15279618. . [22] Reguly B, Jakupciak JP, Parr RL. (2010). "3.4 kb mitochondrial genome deletion serves as a surrogate predictive biomarker for prostate cancer in histopathologically benign biopsy cores". Canadian Urological Association journal = Journal de l'Association des urologues du Canada 4 (5): E11822. PMC2950771. PMID20944788. [23] Robinson K, Creed J, Reguly B, Powell C, Wittock R, Klein D, Maggrah A, Klotz L, Parr RL, Dakubo GD. Accurate prediction of repeat prostate biopsy outcomes by a mitochondrial DNA deletion assay. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2010 Jun;13(2):126-31. Epub 2010 Jan 19. PubMed (2010). "Accurate prediction of repeat prostate biopsy outcomes by a mitochondrial DNA deletion assay". Prostate cancer and

Mitochondrial DNA
prostatic diseases 13 (2): 12631. doi:10.1038/pcan.2009.64. PMID20084081. [24] http:/ / chemistry. umeche. maine. edu/ CHY431/ MitoDNA. html [25] Brown WM, George M Jr., Wilson AC (1979). "Rapid evolution of animal mitochondrial DNA". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 76 (4): 19671971. doi:10.1073/pnas.76.4.1967. PMC383514. PMID109836. [26] Brown WM (1980). "Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 77 (6): 36053609. doi:10.1073/pnas.77.6.3605. PMC349666. PMID6251473. [27] Paleo-DNA Laboratory - Forensic Services (http:/ / www. ancientdna. com/ forensic. html) [28] Stone AC, Starrs JE, Stoneking M (January 2001). "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the presumptive remains of Jesse James" (http:/ / www. eva. mpg. de/ genetics/ pdf/ Stone. JFS. 2001. pdf). J. Forensic Sci. 46 (1): 1736. PMID11210907. . [29] Gill P, Ivanov PL, Kimpton C, et al. (February 1994). "Identification of the remains of the Romanov family by DNA analysis". Nat. Genet. 6 (2): 1305. doi:10.1038/ng0294-130. PMID8162066. [30] The details of the tests were published at Gil et al., 'Identification of the Remains' The Duke of Fife was officially named as the source of the comparison sample of mtDNA in Ivanov, 'Mitochondrial DNA', p. 419. [31] NASS MM, NASS S (December 1963). "INTRAMITOCHONDRIAL FIBERS WITH DNA CHARACTERISTICS : I. Fixation and Electron Staining Reactions" (http:/ / www. jcb. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 19/ 3/ 593. pdf). The Journal of cell biology 19 (3): 593611. PMC2106331. PMID14086138. . [32] Ellen Haslbrunner, Hans Tuppy and Gottfried Schatz (1964 at the Institut for Biochemistry at the Medical Faculty of the University of Vienna in Vienna, Austria): "Deoxyribonucleic Acid Associated with Yeast Mitochondria" (http:/ / www. biozentrum. unibas. ch/ emeritus/ schatz/ pdf/ Schatz_BBRC_1964. pdf) (PDF) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 15, 127 - 132.

59

Lowest common ancestor

The lowest common ancestor (LCA) is a concept in graph theory and computer science. Let T be a rooted tree with n nodes. The lowest common ancestor is defined between two nodes v and w as the lowest node in T that has both v and w as descendants (where we allow a node to be a descendant of itself). The LCA of v and w in T is the shared ancestor of v and w that is located farthest from the root. Computation of lowest common ancestors may be useful, for instance, as part of a procedure for determining the distance between pairs of nodes in a tree: the distance from v to w can be computed as the distance from the root to v, plus the distance from the root to w, minus twice the distance from the root to their lowest common ancestor. In a tree data structure where each node points to its parent, the lowest common ancestor can be easily determined by finding the first intersection of the paths from v and w to the root. In general, the computational time required for this algorithm is O(h) where h is the height of the tree (length of longest path from a leaf to the root). However, there exist several algorithms for processing trees so that lowest common ancestors may be found more quickly, in constant time per query after a linear time preprocessing stage.

History
The lowest common ancestor problem was defined by Alfred Aho, John Hopcroft, and Jeffrey Ullman(1973), but Dov Harel and Robert Tarjan(1984) were the first to develop an optimally efficient lowest common ancestor data structure. Their algorithm processes any tree in linear time, so that subsequent lowest common ancestor queries may be answered in constant time per query. However, their data structure is complex and difficult to implement. Tarjan also found a simpler but less efficient algorithm, based on the union-find data structure, for computing lowest common ancestors of an offline batch of pairs of nodes. Baruch Schieber and Uzi Vishkin(1988) simplified the data structure of Harel and Tarjan, leading to an implementable structure with the same asymptotic preprocessing and query time bounds. Their simplification is based on the principle that, in two special kinds of trees, lowest common ancestors are easy to determine: if the tree is a path, then the lowest common ancestor can be computed simply from the minimum of the levels of the two queried nodes, while if the tree is a complete binary tree, the nodes may be indexed in such a way that lowest common ancestors reduce to simple binary operations on the indices. The structure of Schieber and Vishkin decomposes any tree into a collection of paths, such that the connections between the paths have the structure of a

Lowest common ancestor binary tree, and combines both of these two simpler indexing techniques. Omer Berkman and Uzi Vishkin(1993) discovered a completely new way to answer lowest common ancestor queries, again achieving linear preprocessing time with constant query time. Their method involves forming an Euler tour of a graph formed from the input tree by doubling every edge, and using this tour to write a sequence of level numbers of the nodes in the order the tour visits them; a lowest common ancestor query can then be transformed into a query that seeks the minimum value occurring within some subinterval of this sequence of numbers. They then handle this range minimum query problem by combining two techniques, one technique based on precomputing the answers to large intervals that have sizes that are powers of two, and the other based on table lookup for small-interval queries. This method was later presented in a simplified form by Michael Bender and Martin Farach-Colton(2000). As had been previously observed by Gabow, Bentley & Tarjan (1984), the range minimum problem can in turn be transformed back into a lowest common ancestor problem using the technique of Cartesian trees. Further simplifications were made by Alstrup et al. (2004) and Fischer & Heun (2006).

60

References
Aho, Alfred; Hopcroft, John; Ullman, Jeffrey (1973), "On finding lowest common ancestors in trees", Proc. 5th ACM Symp. Theory of Computing (STOC), pp.253265, doi:10.1145/800125.804056. Alstrup, Stephen; Gavoille, Cyril; Kaplan, Haim; Rauhe, Theis (2004), "Nearest Common Ancestors: A Survey and a New Algorithm for a Distributed Environment" [1], Theory of Computing Systems 37 (3): 441456, doi:10.1007/s00224-004-1155-5. A preliminary version appeared in SPAA 2002. Bender, Michael A.; Farach-Colton, Martin (2000), "The LCA problem revisited" [2], Proceedings of the 4th Latin American Symposium on Theoretical Informatics, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1776, Springer-Verlag, pp.8894, doi:10.1007/10719839_9. Berkman, Omer; Vishkin, Uzi (1993), "Recursive Star-Tree Parallel Data Structure", SIAM Journal on Computing 22 (2): 221242, doi:10.1137/0222017. Fischer, Johannes; Heun, Volker (2006), "Theoretical and Practical Improvements on the RMQ-Problem, with Applications to LCA and LCE", Proceedings of the 17th Annual Symposium on Combinatorial Pattern Matching, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 4009, Springer-Verlag, pp.3648, doi:10.1007/11780441_5. Gabow, Harold N.; Bentley, Jon Louis; Tarjan, Robert E. (1984), "Scaling and related techniques for geometry problems", STOC '84: Proc. 16th ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, New York, NY, USA: ACM, pp.135143, doi:10.1145/800057.808675. Harel, Dov; Tarjan, Robert E. (1984), "Fast algorithms for finding nearest common ancestors", SIAM Journal on Computing 13 (2): 338355, doi:10.1137/0213024. Schieber, Baruch; Vishkin, Uzi (1988), "On finding lowest common ancestors: simplification and parallelization", SIAM Journal on Computing 17 (6): 12531262, doi:10.1137/0217079.

Lowest common ancestor

61

External links
Python implementation of the algorithm of Bender and Farach-Colton [3], by David Eppstein Lecture notes on LCAs from a 2003 MIT Data Structures course [4]. Course by Erik Demaine, notes written by Loizos Michael and Christos Kapoutsis. Notes from 2007 offering of same course [5], written by Alison Cichowlas. Video [6] of Donald Knuth explaining the SchieberVishkin technique Range Minimum Query and Lowest Common Ancestor article in Topcoder [7]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] http:/ / www. math. tau. ac. il/ ~haimk/ papers/ lnca-submitted. ps http:/ / www. cs. sunysb. edu/ ~bender/ pub/ lca. ps http:/ / www. ics. uci. edu/ ~eppstein/ PADS/ LCA. py http:/ / courses. csail. mit. edu/ 6. 897/ spring03/ scribe_notes/ L11/ lecture11. pdf http:/ / courses. csail. mit. edu/ 6. 851/ spring07/ scribe/ lec16. pdf http:/ / stanford-online. stanford. edu/ knuth/ 071203-knuth-300. asx http:/ / www. topcoder. com/ tc?module=Static& d1=tutorials& d2=lowestCommonAncestor

Most recent common ancestor

In genetics, the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of any set of organisms is the most recent individual from which all organisms in the group are directly descended. The term is often applied to human genealogy. The MRCA of a set of individuals can sometimes be determined by referring to an established pedigree. However, in general, it is impossible to identify the specific MRCA of a large set of individuals, but an estimate of the time at which the MRCA lived can often be given. Such time to MRCA (TMRCA) estimates can be given based on DNA test results and established mutation rates as practiced in genetic genealogy, or by reference to a non-genetic, mathematical model or computer simulation. The term MRCA is usually used to describe a common ancestor of individuals within a species. It can also be used to describe a common ancestor between species. To avoid confusion, last common ancestor (LCA) or the equivalent term concestor is sometimes used in place of MRCA when discussing ancestry between species. The term MRCA may also be used to identify a common ancestor between a set of organisms via specific gene pathways. Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam are examples of such MRCAs. Such genealogies in reality trace ancestry of individual genes, not organisms. As a result, TMRCA estimates for genetic MRCAs are necessarily greater than those for MRCAs of organisms.

MRCA of all living humans

Tracing one person's lineage back in time for a few generations in principle forms a binary tree of parents, grandparents, great-grandparents and so on. However, the number of individuals in an ancestor tree grows exponentially and very soon exceeds the population from which the ancestors were drawn. A human alive today would over 30 generations (going back to about the High Middle Ages), have 230 or about 1.07 billion ancestors, more than the world population at the time.[1] Thus it is obvious that there is multiple counting and the individual is descended from some of these ancestors through more than one line: pedigree collapse changes the binary tree to a directed acyclic graph. Consider the formation, one generation at a time, of the ancestor graph of all living humans with no descendants. Start with living people with no descendants at the bottom of the graph. Adding the parents of all those individuals at the top of the graph will connect (half-) siblings via one or two common ancestors, their parent(s). Adding the next

Most recent common ancestor generation will connect all first cousins. As each of the following generations of ancestors is added to the top of the graph, some of the relationships between more and more people are mapped (second cousins, third cousins and so on). Eventually a generation may be reached where one of the many top-level ancestors is the MRCA from whom it is possible to trace a path of direct descendants all the way down to every living person in the bottom generations of the graph. The MRCA of everyone alive could have co-existed with a large human population, each of whom either has no living descendants or is an ancestor of only some of the people alive today. The existence of an MRCA does therefore not imply the existence of a population bottleneck, let alone a "first couple". The MRCA of the current population can change over time as new people are born and old ones die. It is incorrect to assume that the MRCA passed all of his or her genes (or indeed any gene) down to every person alive. Because of sexual reproduction at every generation, an ancestor passes half of his or her genes to each descendant in the next generation. Save for inbreeding, the percentage of genes inherited from the MRCA becomes smaller and smaller in individuals at each generation, sometimes decreasing to zero (at which point the Ship of Theseus paradox arises[2]), as genes inherited from contemporaries of MRCA are interchanged via sexual reproduction.[3][4] Studies have used computer modelling to estimate that the MRCA of modern humans lived between 5,000 to 2,000 years ago.[4][5]

62

Identical ancestors point

The MRCA of living humans may have had many companions of both sexes. Many of these contemporaries left direct descendants, but not an unbroken line of descendants all the way down to everyone in today's population. Some contemporaries of the MRCA are ancestors of no one in the current population. The remainder are ancestors of only some of the current population. Because ancestors of the MRCA are by definition also common ancestors, we can find (less recent) common ancestors by pushing further back in time to ancient common ancestors of all people alive. Eventually we reach a point in the past where all humans can be divided into two groups: those who left no descendants today and those who are common ancestors of all living humans. This point in time is termed the identical ancestors point. Even though each living person receives genes (in original or mutated forms) in dramatically different proportions from these ancestors from the identical ancestors point,[4] from this point back, all living people share the same set of ancestors, all the way to the first single-celled organism.[1] The identical ancestors point for Homo sapiens has been estimated to between 15,000 and 5,000 years ago.[4][5]

Most recent common ancestor

63

MRCA of different species

Further information: Last universal ancestor, List of concestors in The Ancestor's Tale It is also possible to use the term MRCA to describe the common ancestor of two or more different species. In the past, the term MRCA was used interchangeably with last common ancestor (LCA) to denote both the common ancestor within a species and that between species. But MRCA is now more frequently used to describe common ancestors within a species. On the other hand, LCA now describes the common ancestor between two species.

The concept of the last common ancestor is described in Richard Dawkins' book, The Ancestor's Tale, in which he imagines a 'pilgrimage' backwards in time, during which we humans travel back through our own evolutionary history and as we do so are joined at each successive stage by all the other species of organism with which we share each respective common ancestor. Dawkins uses the word "concestor" (coined by Nicky Warren) as an alternative to LCA. In The Ancestor's Tale, following the human evolutionary tree backwards, we first meet the concestor which we share with the species that are our closest relatives, the chimpanzee and bonobo. Dawkins estimates this to have occurred between 5 and 7 million years ago. Another way of looking at this is to say that our (approximately) 250,000-greats-grandparent was a creature from which all humans, chimpanzees and bonobos are directly descended. Further on in Dawkins' imaginary journey (imaginary, in that the journey is going backwards in time), we meet the concestor we share with the Gorilla, our next nearest relative, then the Orangutan, and so on, until we finally meet the concestor of all living organisms, known as the last universal ancestor. A common mistake made by the public as well as some authors is to refer to a proposed last common ancestor as an earliest ancestor. Examples include the book The Link: Uncovering Our Earliest Ancestor by Colin Tudge,[6] and a documentary of the same name screened on the History Channel (US) and BBC One (UK),[7] both referring to the primate fossil dubbed Ida.

Evolutionary tree showing the divergence of modern species from the last universal ancestor in the center.Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P (2006). "Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life". Science 311 (5765): 12837. Bibcode2006Sci...311.1283C. doi:10.1126/science.1123061. PMID16513982. The three domains are colored, with bacteria blue, archaea green, and eukaryotes red.

MRCA of a population identified by a single genetic marker

It is also possible to consider the ancestry of individual genes (coalescent theory), instead of a person (an organism) as a whole. Unlike organisms, a gene is passed down from a generation of organisms to the next generation either as perfect replicas of itself or as slightly mutated descendant genes. While organisms have ancestry graphs and progeny graphs via sexual reproduction, a gene has a single chain of ancestors and a tree of descendants. An organism produced by sexual, allogamous reproduction has at least two ancestors (immediate parents), but a gene always has one single ancestor. Given any gene in the body of a person, we can trace a single chain of human ancestors back in time, following the lineage of this one gene. Because a typical organism is built from tens of thousands of genes, there are numerous ways to trace the ancestry of organisms using this mechanism. But all these inheritance pathways share one common

Most recent common ancestor feature. If we start with all humans alive in 1995 and trace their ancestry by one particular gene (actually a locus), we find that the farther we move back in time, the smaller the number of ancestors becomes. The pool of ancestors continues to shrink until we find the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all humans who were alive in 1995, via this particular gene pathway.[1]

64

Patrilineal and matrilineal MRCA

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is nearly immune to sexual mixing, unlike the nuclear DNA whose chromosomes are shuffled and recombined in Mendelian inheritance. Mitochondrial DNA, therefore, can be used to trace matrilineal inheritance and to find the Mitochondrial Eve (also known as the African Eve), the most recent common ancestor of all humans via the mitochondrial DNA pathway. Similarly Y chromosome is present as a single sex chromosome in the male individual and is passed on to male descendants without recombination. It can be used to trace patrilineal inheritance and to find the Y-chromosomal Adam, the most recent common ancestor of all humans via the Y-DNA pathway. Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam have been established by researchers using genealogical DNA tests. Mitochondrial Eve is estimated to have lived about 140,000 years ago. Y-chromosomal Adam is estimated to have lived around 60,000 years ago. The MRCA of humans alive today would therefore need to have lived more recently than either.[3][8] It is more complicated to infer human ancestry via autosomal chromosomes. Although an autosomal chromosome contains genes that are passed down from parents to children via independent assortment from only one of the two parents, genetic recombination (chromosomal crossover) mixes genes from non-sister chromatids from both parents during meiosis, thus changing the genetic composition of the chromosome.

Time to MRCA estimates

Different types of MRCAs are estimated to have lived at different times in the past. These time to MRCA (TMRCA) estimates are also computed differently depending on the type of MRCA being considered. Patrilineal and matrilineal MRCAs (Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam) are traced by single gene markers, thus their TMRCA are computed based on DNA test results and established mutation rates as practiced in genetic genealogy. Time to genealogical MRCA of all living humans is computed based on non-genetic, mathematical models and computer simulations. Since Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam are traced by single genes via a single ancestral parent lines, the time to these genetic MRCAs will necessarily be greater than that for the genealogical MRCA. This is because single genes will coalesce slower than tracing of conventional human genealogy via both parents. The latter considers only individual humans, without taking into account whether any gene from the computed MRCA actually survives in every single person in the current population.[9]

TMRCA via genetic markers

Mitochondrial DNA can be used to trace the ancestry of a set of populations. In this case, populations are defined by the accumulation of mutations on the mtDNA, and special trees are created for the mutations and the order in which they occurred in each population. The tree is formed through the testing of a large number of individuals all over the world for the presence or lack of a certain set of mutations. Once this is done it is possible to determine how many mutations separate one population from another. The number of mutations, together with estimated mutation rate of the mtDNA in the regions tested, allows scientists to determine the approximate time to MRCA (TMRCA) which indicates time passed since the populations last shared the same set of mutations or belonged to the same haplogroup. In the case of Y-Chrosomal DNA, TMRCA is arrived at in a different way. Y-DNA haplogroups are defined by single-nucleotide polymorphism in various regions of the Y-DNA. The time to MRCA within a haplogroup is

Most recent common ancestor defined by the accumulation of mutations in STR sequences of the Y-Chromosome of that haplogroup only. Y-DNA network analysis of Y-STR haplotypes showing a non-star cluster indicates Y-STR variability due to multiple founding individuals. Analysis yielding a star cluster can be regarded as representing a population descended from a single ancestor. In this case the variability of the Y-STR sequence, also called the microsatellite variation, can be regarded as a measure of the time passed since the ancestor founded this particular population. The descendants of Genghis Khan or one of his ancestors represents a famous star cluster that can be dated back to the time of Genghis Khan.[10] TMRCA calculations are considered critical evidence when attempting to determine migration dates of various populations as they spread around the world. For example, if a mutation is deemed to have occurred 30,000 years ago, then this mutation should be found amongst all populations that diverged after this date. If archeological evidence indicates cultural spread and formation of regionally isolated populations then this must be reflected in the isolation of subsequent genetic mutations in this region. If genetic divergence and regional divergence coincide it can be concluded that the observed divergence is due to migration as evidenced by the archaeological record. However, if the date of genetic divergence occurs at a different time than the archaeological record, then scientists will have to look at alternate archaeological evidence to explain the genetic divergence. The issue is best illustrated in the debate surrounding the demic diffusion versus cultural diffusion during the European Neolithic.[11]

65

TMRCA of all living humans

Estimating time to MRCA of all humans based on the common genealogical usage of the term 'ancestor' is much harder and less accurate compared to estimates of Patrilineal and matrilineal MRCAs. Researchers must trace ancestry along both female and male parental lines, and rely on historical and archaeological records. Depending on the survival of isolated lineages without admixture from modern migrations and taking into account long-isolated peoples, such as historical societies in central Africa, Australia and remote islands in the South Pacific, the human MRCA was generally assumed to have lived in the Upper Paleolithic period. With the advent of mathematical models and computer simulations, researchers now find that the MRCA of all humans lived remarkably recently, between 2,000 and 4,000 years ago. Rohde, Olson and Chang (2004) constructed a mathematical model that considered the tendency of individuals to choose mates from the same group, as well as the relative geographical isolation of such groups.[4] The mathematical model with one particular set of parameters showed that the MRCA lived about the year 300 BC and yielded an identical ancestor point (IAP) of 3,000 BC. The same 2004 Rohde paper also presented results from a computer program based on Monte Carlo simulation designed to overcome some of the limits of the mathematical model. The program took into consideration realistic population substructure and migration patterns, allowing the researchers to simulate historical human demography. A conservative simulation yielded a mean MRCA date of 1,415 BC and a mean IA date of 5,353 BC. A less conservative simulation gave an MRCA date of AD 55 and an IA date of 2,158 BC.[4] An explanation of this recent MRCA date is that, while humanity's MRCA was indeed a Paleolithic individual up to early modern times, the European explorers of the 16th and 17th centuries would have fathered enough offspring so that some "mainland" ancestry by today pervades remote habitats. The possibility remains that an isolated population with no recent "mainland" admixture persists somewhere, which would immediately push back the date of humanity's MRCA by many millennia. While simulations help estimate probabilities, the question can be resolved only by genetically testing every living human individual. An assumption that there are no isolated populations is questionable in view of the existence of various uncontacted peoples, who are suspected to have been isolated for many millennia, including the Sentinelese who have been isolated from the western world and also from the Asian mainland.

Most recent common ancestor

66

References
[1] See the chapter All Africa and her progenies in Dawkins, Richard (1995). River Out of Eden. New York: Basic Books. ISBN0-465-06990-8. [2] Zhaxybayeva, Olga; Lapierre, Pascal; Gogarten, J. Peter (May 2004). "Genome mosaicism and organismal lineages" (http:/ / www-bac. esi. umontreal. ca/ ~dbin1001/ h06/ presentations/ transferts-horizontaux/ HGT_genome_Olga_TIG_2004. pdf) (PDF). Trends in Genetics (Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut: Elsevier) 20 (5): 254260. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2004.03.009. PMID15109780. . Retrieved 2009-02-19. "The Ship of Theseus paradox [] is frequently invoked to illustrate this point []. Even moderate levels of gene transfer will make it impossible to reconstruct the genomes of early ancestors; " [3] Dawkins, Richard (2004). The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN0-618-00583-8. [4] Rohde DL, Olson S, Chang JT (September 2004). "Modelling the recent common ancestry of all living humans". Nature 431 (7008): 5626. Bibcode2004Natur.431..562R. doi:10.1038/nature02842. PMID15457259. [5] Rohde, DLT , On the common ancestors of all living humans (http:/ / tedlab. mit. edu/ ~dr/ Papers/ Rohde-MRCA-two. pdf). Submitted to American Journal of Physical Anthropology. (2003) [6] Tudge, Colin. (2009). The Link: Uncovering Our Earliest Ancestors. Little Brown. [7] Elizabeth Cline (May 22, 2009). "Ida-lized! The Branding of a Fossil" (http:/ / seedmagazine. com/ content/ article/ idalized_the_brand_of_a_fossil/ ). Seed Magazine. . [8] Notions such as Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam yield common ancestors that are more ancient than for all living humans (Hartwell 2004:539). [9] Chang, Joseph T.; Donnelly, Peter; Wiuf, Carsten; Hein, Jotun; Slatkin, Montgomery; Ewens, W. J.; Kingman, J. F. C. (1999). "Recent common ancestors of all present-day individuals" (http:/ / www. stat. yale. edu/ ~jtc5/ papers/ Ancestors. pdf). Advances in Applied Probability 31 (4): 100226, discussion and author's reply, 102738. doi:10.1239/aap/1029955256. . Retrieved 2008-01-29. [10] Tatiana Zerjal (2003), The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols, http:/ / web. unife. it/ progetti/ genetica/ Giorgio/ PDFfiles/ ajhg2003. pdf [11] Morelli L, Contu D, Santoni F, Whalen MB, Francalacci P, et al. (2010). Lalueza-Fox, Carles. ed. "A Comparison of Y-Chromosome Variation in Sardinia and Anatolia Is More Consistent with Cultural Rather than Demic Diffusion of Agriculture" (http:/ / www. plosone. org/ article/ info:doi/ 10. 1371/ journal. pone. 0010419). PLoS ONE 5 (4): e10419. Bibcode2010PLoSO...510419M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010419. PMC2861676. PMID20454687. .

Further reading
Hartwell, Leland (2004). Genetics: From Genes to Genomes (2nd ed.). Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill. ISBN0072919302. Walsh B (June 2001). "Estimating the time to the most recent common ancestor for the Y chromosome or mitochondrial DNA for a pair of individuals" (http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/158/2/897.pdf). Genetics 158 (2): 897912. PMC1461668. PMID11404350.

External links
Documentaries DNA Mysteries The Search for Adam (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_nNNoT4Kbg&playnext=1& list=PLA55314D7BEFFDD62&index=16) by Spencer Wells National Geographic, 2008 The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9wS1za00mMM& feature=&p=A0D41D79D1CE0DBB&index=0&playnext=1) by Stephen Oppenheimer Discovery Channel, 2002 Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (movie) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OV6A8oGtPc4& feature=PlayList&p=26D4689DBF14F73D&index=0) by Spencer Wells PBS and National Geographic Channel, 2003

Population bottleneck

67

Population bottleneck
A population bottleneck (or genetic bottleneck) is an evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or otherwise prevented from reproducing.[1] A slightly different sort of genetic bottleneck can occur if a small group becomes reproductively separated from the main population. This is called a founder effect. Population bottlenecks reduce the genetic variation and, therefore, the population's ability to adapt to new selective pressures, such as climatic change or shift in available resources. Genetic drift can eliminate alleles that could have been positively selected on by the environment if they had not already drifted out of the population.[2]

Population bottleneck followed by recovery or extinction

Population bottlenecks increase genetic drift, as the rate of drift is inversely proportional to the population size. The reduction in a population's dispersal leads, over time, to increased genetic homogeneity. If severe, population bottlenecks can also markedly increase inbreeding due to the reduced pool of possible mates (see small population size).

Examples
Humans
The Toba catastrophe theory suggests that a bottleneck of the human population occurred c. 70,000 years ago, proposing that the human population was reduced to perhaps 15,000 individuals[3] when the Toba supervolcano in Indonesia erupted and triggered a major environmental change. The theory is based on geological evidences of sudden climate change and on coalescence evidences of some genes (including mitochondrial DNA, Y-chromosome and some nuclear genes)[4] and the relatively low level of genetic variation with humans.[3] However, such coalescence is genetically expected and does not, in itself, indicate a population bottleneck, because mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome DNA are only a small part of the entire genome, and are atypical in that they are inherited exclusively through the mother or through the father, respectively. Most genes in the genome are inherited from either father or mother, and thus can be traced back in time via either matrilineal or patrilineal ancestry.[5] Research on many genes finds different coalescence points from 2 million years ago to 60,000 years ago when different genes are considered, thus disproving the existence of more recent extreme bottlenecks (i.e., a single breeding pair).[3][6] On the other hand, in 2000, a Molecular Biology and Evolution paper suggested a transplanting model or a 'long bottleneck' to account for the limited genetic variation, rather than a catastrophic environmental change.[7] This would be consistent with suggestions that in sub-Saharan Africa numbers could have dropped at times as low as 2,000, for perhaps as long as 100,000 years, before numbers began to expand again in the Late Stone Age.[8]

Population bottleneck

68

Other animals
Year American bison (est)

Before 1492 60,000,000 1890 2000 750 360,000

Wisent, also called European bison (Bison bonasus), faced extinction in the early 20th century. The animals living today are all descended from 12 individuals and they have extremely low genetic variation, which may be beginning to affect the reproductive ability of bulls (Luenser et al., 2005). The population of American bison (Bison bison) fell due to overhunting, nearly leading to extinction around the year 1890, though it has since begun to recover (see table). A classic example of a population bottleneck is that of the northern elephant seal, whose population fell to about 30 in the 1890s. Although it now numbers in the hundreds of thousands, the potential for bottlenecks within colonies remains. Dominant bulls are able to mate with the largest number of females sometimes as many as 100. With so much of a colony's offspring descended from just one dominant male, genetic diversity is limited making the species more vulnerable to diseases and genetic mutations. The golden hamster is a similarly bottlenecked species, with the vast Overhunting pushed the northern elephant seal to the brink of majority descended from a single litter found in the extinction by the late 19th century. Though they have made a Syrian desert around 1930. And cheetahs are comeback, the genetic variation within the population remains very low. sufficiently closely related to one another that transplanted skin grafts do not provoke immune responses,[9] thus suggesting an extreme population bottleneck in the past. The genome of the giant panda shows evidence of a severe bottleneck that took place about 43,000 years ago.[10] There is also evidence of at least one primate species, the golden snub-nosed monkey, that also suffered from a bottleneck around this time. Further deductions can sometimes be inferred from an observed population bottleneck. Among the Galpagos Islands giant tortoises themselves a prime example of a bottleneck the comparatively large population on the slopes of Alcedo volcano is significantly less diverse than four other tortoise populations on the same island. DNA analyses date the bottleneck to around 88,000 years before present (YBP).[11] About 100,000 YBP the volcano erupted violently, burying much of the tortoise habitat deep in pumice and ash. Bottlenecks also exist among pure-bred animals (e.g., dogs and cats: pugs, Persian) because breeders limit their gene pools by breeding with close relatives for their looks and behaviors. The extensive use of desirable individual animals at the exclusion of others can result in a popular sire effect. Before Europeans arrived in North America, prairies served as habitats to greater prairie chickens. In Illinois alone their numbers plummeted from over 100 million in 1900 to about 50 in 1990. These declines in population were the result of hunting and habitat destruction, but the random consequences have been a great loss in species diversity. DNA analysis comparing the birds from 1990 and mid-century shows a steep genetic decline in recent decades. The greater prairie chicken is currently experiencing low reproductive success.[12]

Population bottleneck

69

Plants
Research showed that there is no genetic variability in the genome of the Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis), indicating that the species (of which there are only around 100 specimens in the wild and tens of thousands cultivated) went through a severe population bottleneck.

In evolutionary theory
Further information: Evolutionary biology As a population becomes smaller, genetic drift plays a bigger role in speciation. A land animal like a brown bear might find itself locally reduced to a few dozen pairs on an Arctic island. That likely happened as the last Ice Age came to an end, and the Bering land bridge receded into the sea. In that circumstance, a beneficial trait appearing in an alpha male or two may change the color, size, swimming ability, cold resistance, or aggressiveness of the group in just a few generations.

Minimum viable population size

In conservation biology, minimum viable population size (MVP) helps to determine the effective population size when a population is at risk for extinction (Gilpin and Soul, 1986 and Soul, 1987). There is considerable debate about the usefulness of the MVP.

References
[1] Population Bottleneck | Macmillan Genetics (http:/ / www. bookrags. com/ research/ population-bottleneck-gen-03/ ) [2] "Evolution 101" (http:/ / evolution. berkeley. edu/ evosite/ evo101/ IIID3Bottlenecks. shtml). University of California Museum of Paleontology. . Retrieved 2 February 2011. [3] Dawkins, Richard (2004). "The Grasshopper's Tale". The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp.416. ISBN0297825038. ISBN. [4] Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans by Stanley H. Ambrose (http:/ / www-geology. ucdavis. edu/ ~GEL134/ ambrose. pdf) [5] See the chapter All Africa and her progenies in Dawkins, Richard (1995). River Out of Eden. New York: Basic Books. ISBN0465016065. ISBN. [6] 'Templeton tree' showing coalescence points of different genes (http:/ / www. corante. com/ loom/ img/ Templeton tree 600. jpg) [7] Population Bottlenecks and Pleistocene Human Evolution (http:/ / mbe. oupjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 17/ 1/ 2) [8] BBC news : Human line 'nearly split in two' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7358868. stm) [9] HowStuffWorks "The Endangered Cheetah" (http:/ / animals. howstuffworks. com/ endangered-species/ endangered-cheetah-info10. htm) [10] Zhang, Ya-ping, et al. (2002). "Genetic diversity and conservation of endangered animal species" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 2002/ pdf/ 7404x0575. pdf) (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 74 (Vol. 74, No. 4): 575. doi:10.1351/pac200274040575. . [11] Luciano B. Beheregaray, Claudio Ciofi, Dennis Geist, James P. Gibbs, Adalgisa Caccone, and Jeffrey R. Powell (2003). "Genes Record a Prehistoric Volcano Eruption in the Galpagos" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 302/ 5642/ 75. full. pdf?sid=f4e0c19b-a2c2-470a-b39f-a5bb82452ecd) (PDF). Science 302 (5642): 75. doi:10.1126/science.1087486. PMID14526072. . [12] "Brain & Ecology Deep Structure Lab" (http:/ / www. brainecology. net/ info/ show. asp?bh=73). Brain & Ecology Comparative Group. Brain & Ecology Deepstruc. System Co., Ltd.. 2010. . Retrieved March 13, 2011.

Gilpin, M.E., & Soul, M.E. (1986). Minimum viable populations: The processes of species extinctions. In M. Soul (Ed.). Conservation biology: The science of scarcity and diversity, pp.13-34. Sunderland Mass: Sinauer Associates. Luenser, K., J. Fickel1, A. Lehnen, S. Speck and A. Ludwig. 2005. Low level of genetic variability in European bisons (Bison bonasus) from the Bialowieza National Park in Poland. European Journal of Wildlife Research 51 (2): 84-87. Soul, M. (Ed.). (1987). Viable populations for conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Population bottleneck

70

External links
ScienceDaily: Big Bang Theory Of Human Evolution? (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/01/ 000110142554.htm) Northern Elephant Seal History (http://essp.csumb.edu/eseal/kristi_west/history.html) Masatoshi Nei (May 1, 2005). "Bottlenecks, Genetic Polymorphism and Speciation" (http://www.genetics.org/ cgi/content/full/170/1/1). Genetics (The Genetics Society of America) 170 (1): 14. PMC1449701. PMID15914771. Retrieved 2008-10-19.

Toba catastrophe theory

71

Toba catastrophe theory

Toba supereruption

Illustration of what the eruption might have looked like from approximately 50miles (80km) above Pulau Simeulue. Volcano Date Type Location Lake Toba Between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago Ultra Plinian Sumatra, Indonesia 24104N 985232E 8 Most recent supereruption; plunged Earth into a 6 to 10 year long volcanic winter, causing a bottleneck in human evolution and significant changes to regional topography.

VEI Impact

Lake Toba is the resulting crater lake

The Toba supereruption (Youngest Toba Tuff or simply YTT[1]) was a supervolcanic eruption that occurred some time between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia). It is recognized as one of the Earth's largest known eruptions. The related catastrophe theory holds that this event plunged the planet into a 6-to-10-year volcanic winter and possibly an additional 1,000-year cooling episode. This change in temperature resulted in the world's human population being reduced to 10,000 or even a mere 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution. The Toba event is the most closely studied supereruption. In 1993, science journalist Ann Gibbons first suggested a link between the eruption and a bottleneck in human evolution. Michael R. Rampino of New York University and Stephen Self of the University of Hawaii at Manoa quickly lent their support to the idea. The theory was further developed in 1998 by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Toba catastrophe theory

72

Supereruption
The Toba eruption or Toba event[2] occurred at what is now Lake Toba about 730004000yr[3][4] ago. The Toba eruption was the latest of the three major eruptions which occurred at Toba in the last 1 million years.[5] The last eruption had an estimated Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8 (described as "mega-colossal"), or magnitude M8; it thus made a sizeable contribution to the 100 30 km2 caldera complex.[6] Dense-rock equivalent estimates of eruptive volume for the eruption vary between 2000km3 and 3000km3, but the most frequently quoted DRE is 2800km3 (about 71015kg) of erupted magma, of which 800km3 was deposited as ash fall.[7] It was two orders of magnitude greater in erupted mass than the largest volcanic eruption in historic times, in 1815 at Mount Tambora in Indonesia, which caused the 1816 "Year Without a Summer" in the northern hemisphere.[8] Although the Toba eruption took place in Indonesia, it deposited an ash layer approximately 15 centimetres thick over the entirety of South Asia. A blanket of volcanic ash was also deposited over the Indian Ocean, and the Arabian and South China Sea.[9] Deep-sea cores retrieved from the South China Sea extended the known distribution of the eruption and suggest that the 2800km3 calculation of the eruption magnitude is a minimum value or even an underestimate.[10]

Volcanic winter and cooling

The apparent coincidence of the eruption with the onset of the last glacial period attracted the scientists' interest. Michael L. Rampino and Stephen Self argued that the eruption caused a "brief, dramatic cooling or 'volcanic winter'", which resulted in a global mean surface temperature drop of 35C and accelerated the glacial transition from warm to cold temperatures of the last glacial cycle.[11] Zielinski showed Greenland ice core evidence for a 1,000-year cool period with low 18O and increased dust deposition immediately following the eruption. He further suggested that this 1,000-year cool period (stadial) could have been caused by the eruption, and that the longevity of the Toba stratospheric loading may account at least for the first two centuries of the cooling episode.[12] Rampino and Self believe that global cooling was already underway at the time of the eruption, but the procedure was extremely slow; YTT "may have provided the extra 'kick' that caused the climate system to switch from warm to cold states."[13] Oppenheimer discounts the arguments that the eruption triggered the last glaciation,[14] but he accepts that it may have been responsible for a millennium of cool climate prior to the Dansgaard-Oeschger event.[15] According to Alan Robock,[16] the Toba incident did not initiate an ice age. Using an emission of 6 billion tons of sulphur dioxide, his simulations demonstrated a maximum global cooling of around 15C, approximately three years after the eruption. As the saturated adiabatic lapse rate is 4.9C/1,000 m for temperatures above freezing,[17] this means that the tree line and the snow line were around 3,000 m (9,900 ft) lower at this time. Nevertheless, the climate recovered over a few decades. Robock found no evidence that the 1,000-year cold period seen in Greenland ice core records was directly generated by the Toba eruption. Nevertheless, he argues that the volcanic winter would have been colder and longer-lasting than Ambrose assumed, which strengthens his argument for a genetic bottleneck. Contrary to Robock, Oppenheimer believes that estimates of a surface temperature drop of 35C after the eruption are probably too high; a figure closer to 1C appears more realistic.[18] Robock criticized Oppenheimer's analysis, arguing that it is based on simplistic T-forcing relationships.[19] Despite the different approaches and estimates, scientists agree that a supereruption like the one at Lake Toba must have led to very extensive ash-fall layers and injection of noxious gases into the atmosphere, having severe worldwide effects on climate and weather.[20] Additionally, the Greenland ice core data display an abrupt climate change around this time,[21] but there is no consensus that the eruption directly generated the 1,000-year cold period seen in Greenland or triggered the last glaciation.[22]

Toba catastrophe theory

73

Genetic bottleneck theory

Ann Gibbons first suggested, in an article in the October 1993 edition of Science, that a bottleneck in human evolution about 50,000 years ago could be linked to the Toba eruption.[23] Rampino and Self backed up this idea in a letter to the journal later that year.[24] The bottleneck theory was then further developed by Ambrose in 1998 and Rampino & Ambrose in 2000, who invoked the Toba eruption to explain a severe culling of the human population.[25] According to the supporters of the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human population suffered a severe population decreaseonly 3,000 to 10,000 individuals survivedfollowed eventually by rapid population increase, innovation, progress and migration.[26] Several geneticists, including Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending have proposed that the human race was reduced to approximately five to ten thousand people.[27] Genetic evidence suggests that all humans alive today, despite apparent variety, are descended from a very small population, perhaps between 1,000 to 10,000 breeding pairs about 70,000 years ago.[28] Note that this is an estimate of ancestors, not of total human population. Isolated pockets of humans who eventually died out without descendants may have also existed in numbers that cannot be reliably estimated by geneticists. Ambrose and Rampino proposed in the late 1990s that a genetic bottleneck could have been caused by the climate effects of the Toba eruption. The supporters of the Toba catastrophe theory suggest that the eruption resulted in a global ecological disaster with extreme phenomena, such as worldwide vegetation destruction, and severe drought in the tropical rainforest belt and in monsoonal regions. his massive environmental change created population bottlenecks in species that existed at the time, including hominids;[29] this in turn accelerated differentiation of the reduced human population. Therefore, Toba may have caused modern races to differentiate abruptly only 70,000 years ago, rather than gradually over one million years.[30] Robock believes that, indeed, a 10-year volcanic winter triggered by YTT could have largely destroyed the food supplies of humans and therefore caused a significant reduction in population sizes.[31] Gene analysis of some genes shows divergence anywhere from 60,000 to 2 million years ago. This does not contradict the Toba theory, however, because Toba is not conjectured to be an extreme bottleneck event. The complete picture of gene lineages, including present-day levels of human genetic variation, allows the theory of a Toba-induced human population bottleneck.[32] However, research by archaeologist Michael Petraglia's team cast doubt on Ambrose's theory. Petraglia and his team found stone tools in southern India, above and below a thick layer of ash from the Toba eruption. The tools from each layer were remarkably similar, and Petraglia says that this shows that the huge dust clouds from the eruption did not wipe out the local population of people:[33] Whoever was there seems to have persisted through the eruption. A 2009 study by Martin A. J. Williams's team challenges Petraglia's findings. Williams analysed pollen from a marine core in the Bay of Bengal with stratified Toba ash, and argued that the eruption caused prolonged deforestation in South Asia. Ambrose, who is a co-author of the study, calls the evidence "unambiguous", and further argues that YTT may have forced our ancestors to adopt new survival strategies, which permitted them to replace Neanderthals and "other archaic human species".[34] However, both Neanderthals in Europe and the small-brained Homo floresiensis in Southeastern Asia survived YTT by 50,000 and 60,000 years respectively.[35] Oppenheimer accepts that the arguments proposed by Rampino and Ambrose are plausible, but they are not yet compelling for two reasons: it is difficult to estimate the global and regional climatic impacts of the eruption, and, at the same time, we cannot conclude with any confidence that the eruption actually preceded the bottleneck.[36] Furthermore, a 2010 geneticists' study seems to question the foundations of the Toba bottleneck theory: analysis of Alu sequences across the entire human genome has shown that the effective human population was already less than 26,000 as far back as 1.2 million years ago, suggesting that no Toba bottleneck was necessary. Possible explanations for the low population size of human ancestors may include repeated population bottlenecks or periodic replacement

Toba catastrophe theory events from competing Homo subspecies.[37]

74

Genetic bottlenecks related to the human population

Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins has postulated that human mitochondrial DNA (inherited only from one's mother) and Y chromosome DNA (from one's father) show coalescence at around 140,000 and 60,000 years ago respectively. In other words, all living humans' female line ancestry trace back to a single female (Mitochondrial Eve) at around 140,000 years ago. Via the male line, all humans can trace their ancestry back to a single male (Y-chromosomal Adam) at 60,000 to 90,000 years ago.[38] This is consistent with the Toba catastrophe theory which suggests that a bottleneck of the human population occurred c. 70,000 years ago, proposing that the human population was reduced to c. 15,000 individuals[39] when the Toba supervolcano in Indonesia erupted and triggered a major environmental change, including a volcanic winter. The theory is based on geological evidences of sudden climate change at that time, and on coalescence evidences of some genes (including mitochondrial DNA, Y-chromosome and some nuclear genes)[40] and the relatively low level of genetic variation among present-day humans.[39] However, such coalescence is genetically expected and does not, in itself, indicate a population bottleneck, because mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome DNA are only a small part of the entire genome, and are atypical in that they are inherited exclusively through the mother or through the father, respectively. Most genes in the genome are inherited randomly from either father or mother, thus can be traced back in time via either matrilineal or patrilineal ancestry.[41] Research on many (but not necessarily most) genes find various coalescence points from 2 million years ago to 60,000 years ago, according to the genes considered, thus disproving the existence of more recent extreme bottlenecks (i.e. a single breeding pair).[39][42] On the other hand, in 2000, a Molecular Biology and Evolution paper suggested a transplanting model or a 'long bottleneck' to account for the limited genetic variation, rather than a catastrophic environmental change.[43] This would be consistent with suggestions that in sub-Saharan Africa human populations could have dropped at times as low as 2,000, for perhaps as long as 100,000 years, before numbers began to expand again in the Late Stone Age[44] One early oversight of many early studies is that the fixation of alleles (the object of coalescent theory study) is not a discrete mathematical function, but a probabilistic function, and it is highly dependent on the ploidy being studied. Takahata (1999) was the first molecular anthropologist to point out that conclusions drawn from single locus studies suffer from the large randomness of the fixation process. Schaffner (2004) has cleared up this issue by demonstrating the three sets of fixation TMRCAs of loci, Y chromosome, and mitogenomes compared to their probability ranges, haploid, X-linked and diploid where distributions if one assumes that population expanded 75kya from a long-standing population of 11,000 effective individuals TMRCAs for different loci are expected to fall. Takahata (1993) estimated the effective human population size at 11,000 individuals, and Schaffner working on an improved set of X-linked markers from low recombination regions of the X-chromosome identified an effective size of approximately 12,000 individuals.[45][46] PDHA1 falls on the edge of fixation times for X-linked chromosome. For autosomes, the MX1 locus and the HLA loci appear to preserve past diversity in the human population. With few exceptions, however, X-linked and autosomes appear to coalesce under a common population size.

Toba catastrophe theory Just as mitochondria are inherited matrilineally, Y-chromosomes are inherited patrilineally.[47] Y chromosomal TMRCA, the time of the Y-chromosomal Adam, lie in the 42 to 110ky range, which is a little less than half the TMRCA of mtDNA. Importantly, the genetic evidence suggests that the most recent patriarch of all humanity is much more recent than the most recent matriarch, suggesting that 'Adam' and 'Eve' were not alive at the same time. While 'Eve' is believed to have lived more than 140,000 years ago, 'Adam' appears to have lived less than 110,000 years ago.[39] According to Wilder et al. (2004), the lower TMRCA of Y is due to an effective population size of males 1/2 that of females over most of human evolution.[48] Even with a reduced effective population size there are problems with this explanation. Recently, with more mitogenomic sequences from Africa, evidence has grown for an early population size expansion. This expansion probably started prior to 100,000 years ago and greatly increasing after 100,000 years ago. The effective size of the human population should have well exceeded 104 individuals between 80,000 to 120,000 years ago. Given this expansion, implicit male populations sizes would have improbably coalesced to Y-Adam within that time frame. However, the greatest age for Y TMRCA is more recent than the evidence for expansion. In addition, despite evidence of a bottleneck, the human mtDNA TMRCA range remains consistent with population sizes estimates from X-linked and autosomal loci. However, Y-chromosomes TMRCA is not consistent with mtDNA or either of these sets (see figure:TMRCAs of loci). This inconsistency maybe explained by some form of Y chromosome selection (cultural, or genetic). A Y-chromosomal lineage might have swept the male population.[49] However, if true the place of greatest Y chromosomal diversity could be anywhere that humans inhabited Africa. However, Y diversity is greatest in Southern Africa, close to the earliest female population split predicted by Behar et al. (2009) suggesting the earliest branch in Y should be between 125,000 and 150,000 Ka in age. This suggests a SNP rate inaccuracy in the Y-chromosomal and/or mtDNA molecular clock. A recent study of X-chromosome suggests that different rates of male sperm production between humans and chimps has altered the molecular clock in sex chromosomes.[50] This shift in the molecular clock would not affect the mtDNA SNP rate and would affect the Y-chromosomal rate more than X-linked and autosomes, since these Y-chromosomal lineages spend the most time in male testes. The term bottleneck has been used to describe the population structure that created mtDNA Eve. The appearance of a bottleneck was a consequence of the appearance of a 'big bang' of HVR branching about the time humans first left Africa. From that point back to the TMRCA was less than 100,000 years and the population size estimate was below 5000 effective females. Looking backwards in time this is what might be called a retrograde bottleneck, however it is an artifact of coalescence process, since the coalescence of mitogenomes on the sequence of the MRCA (the event which initiated with mtDNA Eve and extended to the extant population) conceals the population size from all points earlier than that mutation (see figure Retrograde look at bottlenecks). Therefore the population size could have been of equal size going back 100,000s of years, to the time in which Neanderthals' ancestors and Modern humans' ancestors were part of a single population. Evidence against a population bottleneck The work done on Neanderthal sequencing (Green 2007) has identified little evidence of Neanderthal contribution to humans, moreover it describes an effective size of the population when humans and Neanderthals split was about 3000 individuals. Taken in the light of Schaffner's and Takahata's effective populations sizes, 3000 < Ne, female < 6000 and 2000 < Ne, male < 4000 does not appear to represent a magnitude shift downward from the average size. Taking a null hypothesis, prior to and after the mtDNA MRCA population sizes appear to reflect long-term small population structure up until 70,000~150,000 years ago, not a brief constricting bottleneck, but a long period of constrained size followed by an expansion.

75

Toba catastrophe theory Evidence for a population bottleneck Confidence intervals of population size do not require an alternative, population bottleneck, hypothesis. However, a bottleneck may have existed. If the population size were at 12,000 individuals as suggested by X-chromosomal studies, the Ne for mtDNA and Y in particular, is below the expected median TMRCAs (See image Above and on the left). Y chromosome and mtDNA may be more representative of population structure immediately prior to expansion. However, meshing mtDNA TMRCA and Y TMRCA is problematic. If these two loci could be treated together, they would likely fall significantly below the X-linked and autosome-derived size estimates for any given TCHLCA. Atkinson, Gray & Drummond (2009) show that prior to 150,000 years ago the population could have been as low as 1000 effective females (~1500 total, 4500 census) and as high as 11,000 effective females with a lower population size between 150,000 to 200,000 years ago. Whereas X-chromosome and autosomes warrant larger population size minima, thousands of females, these loci of larger ploidy are capable of sensing population structure of much longer periods. Such periods may include recent and ancient population structures and size oscillations. Most probable number of effective females based on TMRCA, showing the best Most population structure models for Africa estimate, and how Takahata's and Shaffners estimates compare (after conversion of Ne to Ne females) have assumed much of the growth occurred very recently, however Atkinson et al. (2009) shows that by 100,000 years ago the minimum female population size exceed the estimated population size for females. The flat population/recent growth model is troubled in considering an ancient population core in Tanzania (Gonder. et al. (2007) early East African/Khoisan split (Behar et al. 2008), and spread of L2 in parts of Africa where L0 and L1 are found in low abundance. Simply, the evidence of lineage growth appears to correlate with growth in geographic regions in which humans live. Retrospectively, this suggests that population size was growing as new lineages appears to expand territory. Comparing these observations with populations sizes suggested by X-chromosome (~7000 females) one might expect a low stand of the human population size of 1/3 to 1/2 this size between 150,000 to 250,000 years ago. This indicates that earlier periods had a reciprocal, or larger size (>7000 females) between 200,000 and 500,000 years ago. Other authors such as Endicott et al. (2009) think that bottlenecks in the human prehistory were such a common feature that they interfere with TMRCA determinations and imply the possible effect of the OIS-6 on population size reduction with a TMRCA around the time of late pliestocene climate optimum, approximately 120,000 years ago. Human parasite: analysis of louse genes Alan Rogers, a co-author of this study and professor of anthropology at the University of Utah, says: The record of our past is written in our parasites. Rogers and others have proposed the bottleneck may have occurred because of a mass die-off of early humans due to a globally catastrophic volcanic eruption. The analysis of louse genes confirmed that the population of Homo sapiens mushroomed after a small band of early humans left Africa sometime between 150,000 and 50,000 years ago.[51]

76

Toba catastrophe theory Human pathogen: analysis of Helicobacter pylori genes Recent research states that genetic diversity in the pathogenic bacterium Helicobacter pylori decreases with geographic distance from East Africa, the birthplace of modern humans. Using the genetic diversity data, the researchers have created simulations that indicate the bacteria seem to have spread from East Africa around 58,000 years ago. Their results indicate modern humans were already infected by H. pylori before their migrations out of Africa, and H. pylori remained associated with human hosts since that time.[52]

77

Genetic bottlenecks of other mammals

The population of the Eastern African chimpanzee,[53] Bornean orangutan,[54] central Indian macaque,[55] the cheetah, the tiger,[56] and the separation of the nuclear gene pools of eastern and western lowland gorillas,[57] all recovered from very low numbers around 70,00055,000 years ago.

Migration after Toba

It is currently not known where human populations were living at the time of the eruption. The most plausible scenario is that all the survivors were populations living in Africa, whose descendants would go on to populate the world. However, recent archeological finds, mentioned above, have suggested that a human population may have survived in Jwalapuram, Southern India.[58] Recent analyses of mitochondrial DNA have set the estimate for the major migration from Africa from 60,00070,000 years ago,[59] around 1020,000 years earlier than previously thought, and in line with dating of the Toba eruption to around 66,00076,000 years ago. During the subsequent tens of thousands of years, the descendants of these migrants populated Australia, East Asia, Europe, and finally the Americas. It has been suggested that nearby hominid populations, such as Homo erectus soloensis on Java, and Homo floresiensis on Flores, survived because they were upwind of Toba.[60]

Citations and notes

[1] Toba erupted four times during the Quaternary. This eruption was the strongest one, and it is known as the Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT). See Chesner & others 1991, p. 200; Jones 2007, p. 174; Oppenheimer 2002, p. 15931594; Ninkovich & others 1978; Global Volcanism Program. [2] Chesner & others 1991, p. 200; Jones 2007, p. 174; Oppenheimer 2002, p. 15931594; Ninkovich & others 1978; Global Volcanism Program. [3] Ninkovich & others 1978. [4] Chesner & others 1991. [5] Rose & Chesner 1987, p. 913; Zielinski & Mayewski 1996. [6] Oppenheimer 2002, p. 1593. [7] Jones 2007, p. 174; Rose & Chesner 1987, p. 913. [8] Petraglia & others 2007, p. 114; Zielinski & others 1996, p. 837. [9] Jones 2007, p. 173 [10] Jones 2007, p. 174; Oppenheimer 2001. pp. 15931596. [11] Rampino & Self 1993a, passim. [12] Zielinski & others 1996, pp. 837840. [13] Rampino & Self 1992, p. 52; Rampino & Self 1993a, p. 277. [14] Robock & others (2009) seem to agree on that. [15] Oppenheimer 2002, p. 1606. [16] Robock & others 2009. [17] Adiabatic Lapse Rate (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ A00144. html), IUPAC Goldbook [18] Oppenheimer 2002, pp. 1593, 1601. [19] Robock & others 2009. [20] Self & Blake 2008, p. 41. [21] [22] [23] [24] Zielinski & others 1996, p. 837. Robock & others 2009 (page?). Gibbons 1993, p.27 Rampino & Self (1993)

Toba catastrophe theory

[25] Ambrose 1998, passim; Gibbons 1993, p. 27; McGuire 2007, pp. 127128; Rampino & Ambrose 2000, pp. 7880; Rampino & Self 1993b, pp. 1955. [26] Ambrose 1998; Rampino & Ambrose 2000, pp. 71, 80. [27] Supervolcanoes (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ horizon/ 1999/ supervolcanoes_script. shtml), BBC2, 3 February 2000 [28] "When humans faced extinction" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 2975862. stm). BBC. 2003-06-09. . Retrieved 2007-01-05. [29] Rampino & Ambrose 2000, p. 80. [30] Ambrose 1998, pp. 623651. [31] Robock & others 2009. [32] Dawkins 2004. [33] "Mount Toba Eruption Ancient Humans Unscathed, Study Claims" (http:/ / anthropology. net/ 2007/ 07/ 06/ mount-toba-eruption-ancient-humans-unscathed-study-claims/ ). . Retrieved 2008-04-20. *Sanderson, Katherine (July 2007). "Super-eruption: no problem?" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2007/ 070702/ full/ news070702-15. html) ( Scholar search (http:/ / scholar. google. co. uk/ scholar?hl=en& lr=& q=author:Sanderson+ intitle:Super-eruption:+ no+ problem?& as_publication=Nature& as_ylo=& as_yhi=& btnG=Search)). Nature. doi:10.1038/news070702-15. . Retrieved 2008-12-12. *John Hawks. "At last, the death of the Toba bottleneck" (http:/ / johnhawks. net/ weblog/ reviews/ archaeology/ middle/ petraglia_toba_india_continuity_2007. html). . *According to a February 2010 news article ( "Newly Discovered Archaeological Sites in India Reveals Ancient Life" (http:/ / www. bernama. com/ bernama/ v5/ newsworld. php?id=477252). BERNAMA (Malaysian National News Agency). 23 February 2010. .) Petraglia's team has discovered further archaeological evidence in south and north India, and concluded that "many forms of life survived the supereruption, contrary to other research which has suggested significant animal extinctions and genetic bottlenecks". See also "Newly Discovered Archaeological Sites in India Reveals Ancient Life before Toba" (http:/ / anthropology. net/ 2010/ 02/ 25/ newly-discovered-archaeological-sites-in-india-reveals-ancient-life-before-toba/ ). Anthropology.net. 25 February 2010. . Retrieved 28 February 2010. [34] "Supervolcano Eruption In Sumatra Deforested India 73,000 Years ago" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 11/ 091123142739. htm). Science Daily. 24 November 2009. .; Williams & others 2009. [35] "Environmental Impact of the 73 ka Toba Super-eruption in South Asia ScienceDirect" (http:/ / anthropology. net/ 2009/ 11/ 24/ environmental-impact-of-the-73-ka-toba-super-eruption-in-south-asia-sciencedirect/ ). Anthropology.net. 24 November 2009. . Retrieved 3 March 2010.; "New Evidence Shows Populations Survived the Toba Super-eruption 74,000 Years ago" (http:/ / www. ox. ac. uk/ media/ news_releases_for_journalists/ 100222_1. html). University of Oxford. 22 February 2009. . [36] Oppenheimer 2002, pp. 1605, 1606. [37] If these results are accurate, then, even before the emergence of Homo sapiens in Africa, Homo erectus population was unusually small when the species was spreading around the world. See Huff & others 2010, p.6; Gibbons 2010. [38] Dawkins, Richard (2004), The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN0297825038, ISBN [39] Dawkins, Richard (2004), "The Grasshopper's Tale", The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, p.416, ISBN0297825038, ISBN [40] Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans by Stanley H. Ambrose (http:/ / www-geology. ucdavis. edu/ ~GEL134/ ambrose. pdf) [41] See the chapter All Africa and her progenies in Dawkins, Richard (1995), River Out of Eden, New York: Basic Books, ISBN0465016065, ISBN [42] "'Templeton tree' showing coalescence points of different genes" (http:/ / www. corante. com/ loom/ img/ Templeton tree 600. jpg). . Retrieved 2012-03-10. [43] ""Population Bottlenecks and Pleistocene Human Evolution", ''Molecular Biology and Evolution''" (http:/ / mbe. oupjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 17/ 1/ 2). Mbe.oupjournals.org. . Retrieved 2012-03-10. [44] Rincon, Paul (2008-04-24). ""Human line 'nearly split in two'"" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7358868. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2012-03-10. [45] Takahata N (1993), "Allelic genealogy and human evolution" (http:/ / mbe. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 10/ 1/ 2), Mol Biol Evol 10 (1): 222, PMID8450756, . [46] Schaffner (2004) [47] Sykes, Brian D. (2003), Adam's curse: a future without men, London: Bantam, ISBN0-593-05005-3 [48] Wilder JA, Mobasher Z, Hammer MF. (2004), "Genetic evidence for unequal effective population sizes of human females and males.", Mol Biol Evol. 21 (11): 204757, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh214, PMID15317874. [49] Pritchard JK, Seielstad MT, Perez-Lezaun A, Feldman MW (1999), "Population growth of human Y chromosomes: a study of Y chromosome microsatellites..", Mol Biol Evol. 16 (12): 179198, PMID10605120. [50] Elie Dolgin, "Human-chimp interbreeding challenged" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2009/ 090828/ full/ news. 2009. 870. html), Nature, doi:10.1038/news.2009.870 (inactive 2010-09-09), . [51] "Of Lice And Men: Parasite Genes Reveal Modern & Archaic Humans Made Contact" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2004/ 10/ 041005075751. htm). University of Utah. . Retrieved 2008-01-17.

78

Toba catastrophe theory

[52] Linz & others 2007. [53] Goldberg 1996. [54] Steiper 2006. [55] Hernandez & others 2007. [56] Luo & others 2004. [57] Thalman & others 2007. [58] Petraglia & others 2007, passim. [59] "New 'Molecular Clock' Aids Dating Of Human Migration History" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 06/ 090604124023. htm). ScienceDaily. . Retrieved 2009-06-30. [60] "Human species before and after the genetic bottleneck associated with Toba" (http:/ / www. andaman. org/ BOOK/ originals/ Weber-Toba/ ch5_bottleneck/ textr5. htm). Andaman.org. . Retrieved 2012-03-10.

79

References
Ambrose, Stanley H. (1998). "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans" (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/stanley_ambrose.php). Journal of Human Evolution 34 (6): 623651. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219. PMID9650103. Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991). "Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" (http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/ ChesnerGeology.pdf). Geology 19: 200203. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2. Dawkins, Richard (2004). "The Grasshopper's Tale". The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. p.416. ISBN0-618-00583-8. Gibbons, Ann (1 October 1993). "Pleistocene Population Explosions" (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/ pdf_extract/262/5130/27). Science 262 (5130): 2728. doi:10.1126/science.262.5130.27. PMID17742951. Gibbons, Ann (19 January 2010). "Human Ancestors Were an Endangered Species" (http://sciencenow. sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2010/119/2). ScienceNow. Goldberg, T.L. (1996). Genetics and biogeography of East African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Harvard University, unpublished PhD Thesis. Hernandez, R.D.; M.J. Hubisz, D.A. Wheeler,4 D.G. Smith,5 B. Ferguson,6 D. Ryan,7 J. Rogers,8 L. Nazareth,9 A. Indap,10 T. Bourquin,11 J. McPherson,12 D. Muzny,13 R. Gibbs,14 R. Nielsen,15 C.D. Bustamante (2007). "Demographic histories and patterns of linkage disequilibrium in Chinese and Indian Rhesus macaques". Science (316): 240243. doi:10.1126/science.1140462. Huff, Chad. D; Xing, Jinchuan; Rogers, Alan R.; Witherspoon, David; Jorde, Lynn B. (19 January 2010). "Mobile Elements Reveal Small Population Size in the Ancient Ancestors of Homo Sapiens" (http://www.pnas.org/ content/early/2010/01/06/0909000107.full.pdf+html). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (5): 16. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909000107. PMC2836654. PMID20133859. Jones, S. C. (2007). Qm9GfjNlnRwC&lpg= PP1&pg= PA173 "The Toba Supervolcanic Eruption: Tephra-Fall Deposits in India and Paleoanthropological Implications" (http://books.google.com/books?id=). In Petraglia, M. D.; Allchin, B.. The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia. Springer. pp.173200. ISBN1402055617. McGuire, W.J. (2007). Gpwgm022ltMC "The GGE Threat: Facing and Coping with Global Geophysical Events" (http://books.google.com/?id=). In Bobrowsky, Peter T.; Rickman, Hans. Comet/Asteroid Impacts and Human Society: an Interdisciplinary Approach. Springer. pp.123141. ISBN3540327096. Linz, B.; et al. (February 2007). "An African origin for the intimate association between humans and Helicobacter pylori". Nature 445 (7130): 9158. doi:10.1038/nature05562. PMC1847463. PMID17287725. Luo, S.-J.; J.-H. Kim, W.E. Johnson,4 J. Van der Walt,5 J. Martenson,6 N. Yuhid,7 D.G. Miquelle,8 O. Uphyrkina,9 J.M. Goodrich,10 H.B. Quigley,11 R. Tilson,12 G. Brady,13 P. Martelli,14 V. Subramaniam,15 C. McDougal,16 S. Hean,17 S.-Q. Huang,18 W. Pan,19 U.K. Karanth,20 M. Sunquist,21 J.L.D. Smith,22 S.J. O'Brien (2004). "Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers (Panthera tigris)". PLoS Biology 2 (12): 22752293. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442. PMC534810. PMID15583716.

Toba catastrophe theory "KAr age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra". Nature 276 (276): 574577. 7 December 1978. doi:10.1038/276574a0. Petraglia, M.; R. Korisettar, N. Boivin, C. Clarkson,4 P. Ditchfield,5 S. Jones,6 J. Koshy,7 M.M. Lahr,8 C. Oppenheimer,9 D. Pyle,10 R. Roberts,11 J.-C. Schwenninger,12 L. Arnold,13 K. White. (6 July 2007). "Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-eruption" (http://toba. arch.ox.ac.uk/pub_files/Petraglia2007Science.pdf). Science 317 (5834): 114116. doi:10.1126/science.1141564. PMID17615356. Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (2 September 1992). "Volcanic Winter and Accelerated Glaciation following the Toba Super-eruption" (http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1992/1992_Rampino_Self.pdf). Nature 359 (6390): 5052. doi:10.1038/359050a0. Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (1993). "ClimateVolcanism Feedback and the Toba Eruption of ~74,000 Years ago" (http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1993/1993_Rampino_Self.pdf). Quaternary Research 40: 269280. doi:10.1006/qres.1993.1081. Rampino, Michael R.; Self, Stephen (24 December 1993). "Bottleneck in the Human Evolution and the Toba Eruption" (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pdf_extract/262/5142/1955). Science 262 (5142): 1955. doi:10.1126/science.8266085. PMID8266085. Robock, A.; Ammann, C.M.; Oman, L.; Shindell, D.; Levis, S.; Stenchikov, G. (2009). "Did the Toba Volcanic Eruption of ~74k BP Produce Widespread Glaciation?". Journal of Geophysical Research 114: D10107. Bibcode2009JGRD..11410107R. doi:10.1029/2008JD011652. Rose, W.I.; Chesner, C.A. (October 1987). "Dispersal of Ash in the Great Toba Eruption, 75 ka" (http://www. geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/RoseTobaFallGeology.pdf). Geology 15 (10): 913917. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2. Steiper, M.E. (2006). "Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (Genus: Pongo) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci". Journal of Human Evolution (50): 509522. Thalman, O.; Fisher, A.; Lankester, F.; Pbo, S.; Vigilant, L. (2007). "The complex history of gorillas: insights from genomic data". Molecular Biology and Evolution (24): 146158. Zielinski, A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996). "Potential Atmospheric impact of the Toba mega-eruption ~71'000 years ago". Geophysical Research Letters 23 (8): 837840. Bibcode1996GeoRL..23..837Z. doi:10.1029/96GL00706. Self, Stephen; Blake, Stephen (February 2008). "Consequences of Explosive Supereruptions" (http://elements. geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/full/4/1/41). Elements 4 (1): 4146. doi:10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.41. "Toba" (http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-09). Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2010-03-05. Williams, Martin A.J.; Stanley H. Ambrose, Sander van der Kaars,4 Carsten Ruehlemann,5 Umesh Chattopadhyaya,6 Jagannath Pal,7 Parth R. Chauhan (30 December 2009). "Environmental impact of the 73 ka Toba super-eruption in South Asia". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (Elsevier) 284 (34): 295314. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.009. Zielinski, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L.D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M.S.; Taylor, K. (1996). "Potential Atmospheric Impact of the Toba MegaEruption ~71,000 years ago" (http://faculty.jsd.claremont.edu/ dmcfarlane/Joyce/Mulu ash/Zielinski__Atmospheric effetcs.pdf). Geophysical Research Letters 23 (8): 837840. Bibcode1996GeoRL..23..837Z. doi:10.1029/96GL00706. Atkinson, QD; Gray, RD; Drummond, AJ (January 2009), "Bayesian coalescent inference of major human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup expansions in Africa" (http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18826938), Proceedings. Biological Sciences / the Royal Society 276 (1655): 36773, doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0785, PMC2674340, PMID18826938 Behar, DM; Villems, R; Soodyall, H; Blue-Smith, J; Pereira, L; Metspalu, E; Scozzari, R; Makkan, H et al. (May 2008), "The dawn of human matrilineal diversity" (http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/

80

Toba catastrophe theory S0002-9297(08)00255-3), American Journal of Human Genetics 82 (5): 113040, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.04.002, PMC2427203, PMID18439549 Cann, RL; Stoneking, M; Wilson, AC (1987), "Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution", Nature 325 (6099): 316, doi:10.1038/325031a0, PMID3025745 Cox, MP (August 2008), "Accuracy of molecular dating with the rho statistic: deviations from coalescent expectations under a range of demographic models", Hum. Biol. 80 (4): 33557, doi:10.3378/1534-6617-80.4.335, PMID19317593 Endicott, SY; P, SY; Ho (April 2008), "A Bayesian evaluation of human mitochondrial substitution rates", Am. J. Hum. Genet. 82 (4): 895902, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.01.019, PMC2427281, PMID18371929 Endicott, P; Ho, SY; Metspalu, M; Stringer, C (September 2009), "Evaluating the mitochondrial timescale of human evolution", Trends Ecol. Evol. (Amst.) 24 (9): 51521, doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.006, PMID19682765 Excoffier, L; Yang, Z (October 1999), "Substitution rate variation among sites in mitochondrial hypervariable region I of humans and chimpanzees" (http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=10563016), Mol. Biol. Evol. 16 (10): 135768, PMID10563016 Felsenstein, J (April 1992), "Estimating effective population size from samples of sequences: inefficiency of pairwise and segregating sites as compared to phylogenetic estimates", Genet. Res. 59 (2): 13947, doi:10.1017/S0016672300030354, PMID1628818

81

Gonder, MK; Mortensen, HM; Reed, FA; de Sousa, A; Tishkoff, SA (December 2007), "Whole-mtDNA genome sequence analysis of ancient African lineages", Mol. Biol. Evol 24 (3): 75768, doi:10.1093/molbev/msl209, PMID17194802 Ingman, M; Kaessmann, H; Pbo, S; Gyllensten, U (December 2000), "Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans", Nature 408 (6813): 70813, doi:10.1038/35047064, PMID11130070 Kaessmann, H; Pbo, S (January 2002), "The genetical history of humans and the great apes" (http://www3. interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0954-6820&date=2002& volume=251&issue=1&spage=1), J. Intern. Med. 251 (1): 118, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00907.x, PMID11851860 Loewe, L; Scherer First1 = S, Siegfried (November 1997), "Mitochondrial Eve: The Plot Thickens", Trends in Ecology & Evolution 12 (11): 4223, doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01204-4 Maca-Meyer, N; Gonzlez, AM; Larruga, JM; Flores, C; Cabrera, VM (2001), "Major genomic mitochondrial lineages delineate early human expansions" (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/2/13), BMC Genet. 2: 13, doi:10.1186/1471-2156-2-13, PMC55343, PMID11553319 Nielsen, R; Beaumont, MA (March 2009), "Statistical inferences in phylogeography", Mol. Ecol. 18 (6): 103447, doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.04059.x, PMID19207258 Oppenheimer, Stephen (2004), The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa, New York, NY: Carroll & Graf, ISBN0-7867-1334-8 Parsons, TJ; Muniec, DS; Sullivan, K; Woodyatt, N et al. (April 1997), "A high observed substitution rate in the human mitochondrial DNA control region", Nat. Genet. 15 (4): 3638, doi:10.1038/ng0497-363, PMID9090380 Soares, P; Ermini, L; Thomson, N; Mormina, M; Rito, T; Rhl, A; Salas, A; Oppenheimer, S et al. (June 2009), "Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock", American Journal of Human Genetics 84 (6): 74059, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001, PMC2694979, PMID19500773 Schaffner, SF (2004), "The X chromosome in population genetics" (http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v5/ n1/abs/nrg1247.html), Nat Rev Genet 5 (1): 4351, doi:10.1038/nrg1247, PMID14708015 Takahata, N (January 1993), "Allelic genealogy and human evolution" (http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8450756), Mol. Biol. Evol. 10 (1): 222, PMID8450756 Vigilant, L; Pennington, R; Harpending, H; Kocher, TD; Wilson, AC (December 1989), "Mitochondrial DNA sequences in single hairs from a southern African population", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 86 (23): 93504, doi:10.1073/pnas.86.23.9350, PMC298493, PMID2594772

Toba catastrophe theory Vigilant, L; Stoneking, M; Harpending, H; Hawkes, K; Wilson, AC (September 1991), "African populations and the evolution of human mitochondrial DNA" (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=1840702), Science 253 (5027): 15037, doi:10.1126/science.1840702, PMID1840702 Watson E, Forster P, Richards M, Bandelt HJ (September 1997), "Mitochondrial footprints of human expansions in Africa" (http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002-9297(07)64333-X), Am. J. Hum. Genet. 61 (3): 691704, doi:10.1086/515503, PMC1715955, PMID9326335

82

External links
Population Bottlenecks and Volcanic Winter (http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/paleo/bottleneck.html) 1998 article based on news release regarding Ambrose's paper (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/ 09/980908074159.htm) Homepage of Professor Stanley H. Ambrose (http://www.anthro.illinois.edu/people/ambrose) Toba Volcano, by George Weber (http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/originals/Weber-Toba/textr.htm) "The proper study of mankind" (http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5299220& no_na_tran=1)Article in The Economist Journey of Mankind (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/) by The Bradshaw Foundationincludes discussion on Toba eruption, DNA and human migrations] Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/03/ 050310103042.htm) ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005)By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern humans. Out Of Africa Bacteria, As Well: Homo Sapiens And H. Pylori Jointly Spread Across The Globe (http://www. sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070215134529.htm) ScienceDaily (Feb. 16, 2007)When man made his way out of Africa some 60,000 years ago to populate the world, he was not alone: He was accompanied by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori...; illus. migration map.

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

83

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

This article is a list of volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission around the Quaternary period. Some cooled the global climate; the extent of this effect depends on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted.[1][2] The topic in the background is an overview of the VEI and sulfur dioxide emission/ Volcanic winter relationship. Before the Holocene epoch the criteria is less strict because of scarce data available, partly for the later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. So, the known large eruptions after the Paleogene period are listed, and specially the Yellowstone hotspot, Santorini, and Taupo Volcanic Zone ones. Just some eruptions before the Neogene period are listed as well. Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kilauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: so Santorini, six times and Yellowstone hotspot, twenty one times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain and the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand appear often too. In order to keep the list manageable, the eruptions in the Holocene on the link: Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka [3] were not added yet, but they are listed on the Peter L. Ward's supplemental table.[4]

Large Quaternary eruptions

The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP,[5] (10 000 14C years ago)

Since 1000 AD
Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, Jun 15; VEI6; 6 to 16 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' to unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of tephra;[6] an estimated 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted[1] Novarupta, Alaska Peninsula; 1912, Jun 6; VEI6; 13 to 15 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' to unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of lava[7][8][9] Santa Maria, Guatemala; 1902, Oct 24; VEI6; 20 cubic kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[10] Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 2627; VEI6; 21 cubic kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[11] Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI7; 150 cubic kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra;[6] an estimated 200 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted, produced the "Year Without a Summer"[12] Grmsvtn, Northeastern Iceland; 17831785; Laki; 17831784; VEI6; 14 cubic kilometers of lava, an estimated 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted, produced a Volcanic winter, 1783, on the North Hemisphere.[13] Long Island (Papua New Guinea), Northeast of New Guinea; 1660 20; VEI6; 30 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[6] Kolumbo, Santorini, Greece; 1650, Sep 27; VEI6; 60 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[14] Huaynaputina, Peru; 1600, Feb 19; VEI 6; 30 cubic kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[15] Billy Mitchell, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea; 1580 20; VEI6; 14 cubic kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[6] Brarbunga, Northeastern Iceland; 1477; VEI6; 10 cubic kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[6] 1452-53 ice core event, New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain; only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; 36 to 96 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' to

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of tephra; 175-700 million tons of sulfuric acid[16][17][18] Quilotoa, Ecuador; 1280(?); VEI6; 21 cubic kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra[6] 1258 ice core event, tropics; 200 to 800 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' to unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of tephra[19]

84

Overview of Common Era

This is a sortable summary of Common Era eruptions; date uncertainties, tephra volumes and references are not included.
Caldera/ Caldera complex name Volcanic arc/ belt or Subregion or Hotspot Luzon Volcanic Arc Aleutian Range Central America Volcanic Arc Taupo Volcanic Zone Sunda Arc Lesser Sunda Islands Iceland Bismarck Volcanic Arc South Aegean Volcanic Arc Andes, Central Volcanic Zone Bougainville & Solomon Is. Iceland New Hebrides Arc VEI Date Tephra or eruption name

Mount Pinatubo Novarupta Santa Mara Mount Tarawera Krakatoa Mount Tambora Grmsvtn and Laki Long Island (Papua New Guinea) Kolumbo, Santorini Huaynaputina Billy Mitchell Brarbunga 1452-53 ice core event Quilotoa Baekdu Mountain Katla Ceboruco Dakataua Pago Mount Churchill Rabaul Caldera Ilopango Ksudach Taupo Caldera Mount Vesuvius Mount Churchill Ambrym

6 6 6 5 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

1991, Jun 15 1912, Jun 6 1902, Oct 24 1886, Jun 10 1883, Aug 26-27 1815, Apr 10 1783-85 1660 1650, Sep 27 1600, Feb 19 1580 1477 1452-53 1280 969 AD 934-940 AD 930 AD 800 AD 710 AD 700 AD 540 AD 450 AD 240 AD 230 AD 79 AD 60 AD 50 AD Hatepe eruption Pompeii eruption Tianchi eruption Eldgj eruption

Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone 6 China/ North Korea border Iceland Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt Bismarck Volcanic Arc Bismarck Volcanic Arc eastern Alaska, USA Bismarck Volcanic Arc Central America Volcanic Arc Kamchatka Peninsula Taupo Volcano Italy eastern Alaska, USA New Hebrides Arc 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 5 6 6

Note: Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Okataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, Tarawera volcanic complex had the same magma source in the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field had all Yellowstone hotspot

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions as magma source.

85

Earlier Quaternary eruptions

2.588 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin. Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9ka; VEI6; 6 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[20][21][22][23] Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18km), Aleutian Range, 17ka 5; more than 50km3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4] Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17ka. Menengai, East African Rift, Kenya; 29ka[6] Morne Diablotins, Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI6; 30ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite).[24] Kurile Lake, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5ka; VEI7[6] Maninjau Caldera (size: 20 x 8km), West Sumatra; VEI7; around 52ka; 220 to 250 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' to unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of tephra.[25] Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30km), Sumatra, Indonesia; 73ka 4; 2500 to 3000 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' to unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of tephra; probably 6,000 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff).[1][26][27][28][29] Atitln Caldera (size: 17 x 20km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84ka; VEI7; 300km3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[30] Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kysh, Japan; 90ka; last eruption was more than 600 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4][31] Sierra La Primavera volcanic complex (size: 11km wide), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 95ka; 20 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Tala Tuff.[4][32] Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kysh, Japan; 120ka; 80km3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4] Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kysh, Japan; 140ka; 80km3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4] Puy de Sancy, Massif Central, central France; it is part of an ancient stratovolcano which has been inactive for about 220,000 years. Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18km), Aleutian Range, 233ka; more than 50km3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4] Mount Aso (size: 24km wide), island of Kysh, Japan; caldera formed as a result of four huge caldera eruptions; 270ka; 80 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4] Uzon-Geyzernaya calderas (size: 9 x 18km), Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 325-175ka[33] 20km3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of ignimbrite deposits.[34] Diamante CalderaMaipo volcano complex (size: 20 x 16km), Argentina-Chile; 450ka; 450 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4][35] Yellowstone hotspot; Yellowstone Caldera (size: 45 x 85km); 640ka; VEI8; more than 1000 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra (Lava Creek Tuff)[6] Three Sisters (Oregon), USA; Tumalo volcanic center; with eruptions from 600 - 700 to 170ka years ago Uinkaret volcanic field, Arizona, USA; the Colorado River was dammed by lava flows multiple times from 725 to 100ka.[36] Mono County, California, USA; Long Valley Caldera; 758.9ka 1.8; VEI7; 600 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Bishop Tuff.[4][37] Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; around 1.15Ma; VEI7; around 600 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of the Tshirege formation, Upper Bandelier eruption.[4][38][39] Sutter Buttes, Central Valley of California, USA; were formed over 1.5Ma by a now-extinct volcano.

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions Ebisutoge-Fukuda tephras, Japan; 1.75Ma; 380 to 490 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' to unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of tephra.[4] Yellowstone hotspot; Island Park Caldera (size: 100 x 50km); 2.1Ma; VEI8; 2450 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Huckleberry Ridge Tuff.[4][6] Cerro Galn (size: 32km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 2.2Ma; VEI8; 1050 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Cerro Galn Ignimbrite.[40]

86

Large Neogene eruptions

Pliocene eruptions
Approximately 5.332million years BP, the Pliocene epoch begins. Most eruptions before the Quaternary period have an unknown VEI.

Santa Rosa-Calico

Virgin Valley

McDermitt

Black Mountain

Silent Canyon

Timber Mountain

Stonewall

Long Valley

Lunar Crater

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions Nevada/ California: Volcanism locations.

87

Cochetopa

La Garita

Lake City

Platoro

Dotsero

Colorado volcanism. Links: La Garita, Cochetopa and North Pass (North Pass), Lake City, and Dotsero.

Valles

Socorro

Potrillo

Zuni-Bandera

Carizzozo

New Mexico volcanism. Links: Valles, Socorro, Potrillo, Carrizozo, and Zuni-Bandera. Boring Lava Field, Boring, Oregon, USA; the zone became active at least 2.7Ma, and has been extinct for about 300,000 years.[41]

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions Norfolk Island, Australia; remnant of a basaltic volcano active around 2.3 to 3Ma.[42] Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 2.9Ma; VEI7; more than 820 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Pastos Grandes Ignimbrite.[43] Little Barrier Island, northeastern coast of New Zealand's North Island; it erupted from 1million to 3Ma.[44] Mount Kenya; a stratovolcano created approximately 3Ma after the opening of the East African rift.[45] Pacana Caldera (size: 60 x 35km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile; 4Ma; VEI8; 2500 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Atana Ignimbrite.[46] Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 4Ma; 620 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Frailes Ignimbrite E.[4][47] Cerro Galn (size: 32km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 4.2Ma; 510 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Real Grande and Cueva Negra tephra.[4] Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Kilgore Caldera (size: 80 x 60km); VEI8; 1800 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Kilgore Tuff; 4.45Ma 0.05.[4][48] Kari Kari Caldera, Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 5Ma; 470 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4]

88

Miocene eruptions
Approximately 23.03million years BP, the Neogene period and Miocene epoch begin. Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4Ma.[49] Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51Ma 0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff).[48] Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Blue Creek Tuff.[4] Cerro Panizos (size: 18km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Panizos Ignimbrite.[4][50] Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27Ma 0.04 (Walcott Tuff).[48] Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60km), Idaho; 6.62Ma 0.03; 1500 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Blacktail Tuff.[4][48] Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Sifon Ignimbrite.[4] Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 810Ma Banks Peninsula, New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12Ma.[51] Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8-10Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Runion hotspot. Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10Ma.[52] Yellowstone hotspot, Picabo volcanic field, Idaho; 10.21Ma 0.03 (Arbon Valley Tuff).[48] Mount Cargill, New Zealand; the last eruptive phase ended some 10Ma. The center of the caldera is about Port Chalmers, the main port of the city of Dunedin.[53][54][55] Yellowstone hotspot, Idaho; Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field; 10.0 to 12.5Ma (Ashfall Fossil Beds eruption).[52] Anahim hotspot, British Columbia, Canada; has generated the Anahim Volcanic Belt over the last 13 million years. Yellowstone hotspot, Owyhee-Humboldt volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon; around 12.8 to 13.9Ma.[52][56] Campi Flegrei, Naples, Italy; 14.9Ma; 79 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff.[4] Huaylillas Ignimbrite, Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile; 15Ma 1; 1100 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4]

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Whitehorse Caldera (size: 15km wide), Oregon; 15Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Whitehorse Creek Tuff.[4][57] Yellowstone hotspot (?), Lake Owyhee volcanic field; 15.0 to 15.5Ma.[58] Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Jordan Meadow Caldera, (size: 1015km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6Ma; 350 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) Longridge Tuff member 2-3.[4][52][57][59] Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Longridge Caldera, (size: 33km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6Ma; 400 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) Longridge Tuff member 5.[4][52][57][59] Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Calavera Caldera, (size: 17km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.7Ma; 300 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Double H Tuff.[4][52][57][59] Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Hoppin Peaks Caldera, 16Ma; Hoppin Peaks Tuff.[60] Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Pueblo Caldera (size: 20 x 10km), Oregon; 15.8Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Trout Creek Mountains Tuff.[4][57][60] Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Washburn Caldera, (size: 30 x 25km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 16.548Ma; 250 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Oregon Canyon Tuff.[4][57][59] Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field (NWNV), Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5Ma.[61] Yellowstone hotspot, Steens and Columbia River flood basalts, Pueblo, Steens, and Malheur Gorge-region, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, USA; most vigorous eruptions were from 1417Ma; 180000 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' cumi) of lava.[4][62][63][64][65][66][67][68] Mount Lindesay (New South Wales), Australia; is part of the remnants of the Nandewar extinct volcano that ceased activity about 17Ma after 4 million years of activity. Oxaya Ignimbrites, northern Chile (around 18S); 19Ma; 3000 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[4] Pemberton Volcanic Belt was erupting about 21 to 22Ma.[69]

89

Volcanism before the Neogene

La Garita Caldera (size: 100 x 35km), Wheeler Geologic Area, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado, USA; VEI8; 5000 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a major single eruption about 27.8Ma.[40][70][71] Unknown source, Ethiopia; 29Ma 1; 3000 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of Green Tuff and SAM.[4] Sam Ignimbrite, Yemen; 29.5Ma; at least 5550 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.[72]
Distribution of selected hotspots. The numbers in the figure are related to the listed hotspots on Hotspot (geology).

Jabal Kuraa Ignimbrite, Yemen; 29.6Ma; at least 3700 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.[72] About 33.9million BP, the Oligocene epoch of the Paleogene period begins Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex, British Columbia/ Yukon, Canada; around 50Ma; VEI7; 850 cubic kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of tephra.[73]

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions Canary hotspot is believed to have first appeared about 60 million years ago. Approximately 65.5million years BP, the KT boundary/ extinction event occurred Runion hotspot, Deccan Traps, India, formed between 60 and 68Ma The Louisville hotspot has produced the Louisville seamount chain, it is active for at least 80 million years. It may have originated the Ontong Java Plateau around 120Ma. Hawaii hotspot, Meiji Seamount is the oldest seamount in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, with an estimated age of 82 million years. Paran and Etendeka traps, Brazil, Namibia and Angola; 128 to 138Ma.[74] Glen Coe, Scotland; VEI8; 420Ma Scafells, Lake District, England; VEI8; Ordovician (488.3 - 443.7Ma). Approximately 2,500million years BP, the Proterozoic eon of the Precambrian eon begins Mackenzie Large Igneous Province, Canadian Shield, Canada; 1,270Ma. About 3,800million years BP, the Archean eon of the Precambrian eon begins Blake River Megacaldera Complex, Misema Caldera, Ontario-Quebec border, Canada; 2,704-2,707Ma.[73]

90

Notes
The Mackenzie Large Igneous Province contains the largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth.[75] The Mackenzie dike swarm throughout the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province is also the largest dike swarm on Earth, covering an area of 2700000 km2 (unknown operator: u'strong' sqmi).[76] The Bachelor (27.4 Ma), San Luis (27-26.8 Ma), and Creede (26 Ma) calderas partially overlap each other and are nested within the large La Garita (27.6 Ma) caldera, forming the central caldera cluster of the San Juan volcanic field, Wheeler Geologic Area, La Garita Wilderness. Creede, Colorado and San Luis Peak (Continental Divide of the Americas) are nearby. North Pass Caldera is northeastern the San Juan Mountains, North Pass. The Platoro volcanic complex lies southeastern of the central caldera cluster. The center of the western San Juan caldera cluster lies just West of Lake City, Colorado. The Rio Grande rift includes the San Juan volcanic field, the Valles Caldera, the Potrillo volcanic field, and the Socorro-Magdalena magmatic system.[77] The Socorro Magma Body is uplifting the surface at approximately 2mm/year.[78][79] The southwestern Nevada volcanic field, or Yucca Mountain volcanic field, includes: Stonewall Mountain caldera complex, Black Mountain Caldera, Silent Canyon Caldera, Timber Mountain - Oasis Valley caldera complex, Crater Flat Group, and Yucca Mountain. Towns nearby: Beatty, Mercury, Goldfield.[80] It is aligned as a Crater Flat volcanic field, Rveille Range, Lunar Crater volcanic field, Zone (CFLC).[81] The Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah is nearby too. McDermitt volcanic field, or Orevada rift volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon, nearby are: McDermitt, Trout Creek Mountains, Bilk Creek Mountains, Steens Mountain, Jordan Meadow Mountain (6,816ft), Long Ridge, Trout Creek, and Whitehorse Creek. Emmons Lake stratovolcano (caldera size: 11 x 18km), Aleutian Range, was formed through six eruptions. Mount Emmons, Mount Hague, and Double Crater are post-caldera cones.[6] The topography of the Basin and Range Province is a result of crustal extension within this part of the North American Plate (rifting of the North American craton or Laurentia from Western North America; e.g. Gulf of California, Rio Grande rift, Oregon-Idaho graben). The crust here has been stretched up to 100% of its original width.[82] In fact, the crust underneath the Basin and Range, especially under the Great Basin (includes Nevada), is some of the thinnest in the world. Topographically visible calderas: South part of the McDermitt volcanic field (four overlapping and nested calderas), West of McDermitt; Cochetopa Park Caldera, West of the North Pass; Henry's Fork Caldera; Banks Peninsula, New Zealand (Photo) and Valles Caldera. Newer drawings show McDermitt volcanic field (South), as

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions five overlapping and nested calderas. Hoppin Peaks Caldera is included too. Repose periods: Toba (0.38 Ma),[28] Valles Caldera (0.35 Ma),[83][84] Yellowstone Caldera (0.7 Ma).[85] Kiloannum (ka), is a unit of time equal to one thousand years. Megaannum (Ma), is a unit of time equal to one million years, one can assume that "ago" is implied.

91

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

VEI and ejecta volume correlation

VEI

Tephra Volume (cubic kilometers) Effusive >0.00001 >0.001 >0.01 >0.1 >1 >10 >100 >1000

Example

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua, 1570 Pos Volcano, Costa Rica, 1991 Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand, 1971 Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985 Eyjafjallajkull, Iceland, 2010 Mount St. Helens, United States, 1980 Krakatoa, Indonesia, 1883 Mount Tambora, Indonesia, 1815 Yellowstone Caldera, United States, Pleistocene

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

92

Volcanic dimming
The Global dimming through volcanism (ash aerosol and sulfur dioxide) is quite independent of the eruption VEI.[86][87][88] When sulfur dioxide (boiling point at standard state: -10C) reacts with water vapor, it creates sulfate ions (the precursors to sulfuric acid), which are very reflective; ash aerosol on the other hand absorbs Ultraviolet.[89] Global cooling through volcanism is the sum of the influence of the Global dimming and the influence of the high albedo of the deposited ash layer.[90] The lower snow line and its higher albedo might prolong this cooling period.[91] Bipolar comparison showed six sulfate events: Tambora (1815), Cosigina (1835), Krakatoa (1883), Agung (1963), and El Chichn (1982), and the 180910 ice core event.[92] And the atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation data from the Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO), Hawaii (1932'N) detected only five eruptions:[93] Jun 11, 2009, Sarychev Peak (?), Kuril Islands, 400 tons of tephra, VEI4 480530N 153120E Jun 12-15, 1991 (eruptive climax), Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 11,000 0.5 tons of tephra, VEI6 Global cooling: 0.5C,[94] 15080N 120210E Mar 28, 1982, El Chichn, Mexico, 2,300 tons of tephra, VEI5 172136N 931340W Oct 10, 1974, Volcn de Fuego, Guatemala, 400 tons of tephra, VEI4 142822N 905249W Feb 18, 1963, Agung, Lesser Sunda Islands, 100 tons of lava, more than 1,000 tons of tephra, VEI5 Northern Hemisphere cooling: 0.3C,[95]82030S 1153030E But very large sulfur dioxide emissions overdrive the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide's and methane's concentration goes up (greenhouse gases), global temperature goes up, ocean's temperature goes up, and ocean's carbon dioxide solubility goes down.[2]

Location of Mount Pinatubo, showing area over which ash from the 1991 eruption fell.

Satellite measurements of ash and aerosol emissions from Mount Pinatubo.

MLO transmission ratio - Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions

NASA, Global Dimming ElChichon, VEI5; Pinatubo, VEI6.

Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes. Mount Pinatubo: 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide.

TOMS sulfur dioxide from the June 15, 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.

Sarychev Peak: the sulphur dioxide cloud generated by the eruption on June 12, 2009 (in Dobson units).

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

93

Some maps

Yellowstone sits on top of three overlapping calderas. (USGS)

Diagram of Island Park and Henry's Fork Caldera.

Harney Basin, Steens Mountain, Owyhee and [67] Malheur River.

Steens Mountain, McDermitt volcanic field and Oregon/ Nevada stateline.

Location of Yellowstone Hotspot in Millions of Years Ago.

Snake River Plain, image from NASA's Aqua satellite, 2008

Location of Yucca Mountain in southern Nevada, to the west of the Nevada Test Site.

Jemez Ranger District and Jemez Mountains, Santa Fe National Forest.

References
[1] Robock, A., C.M. Ammann, L. Oman, D. Shindell, S. Levis, and G. Stenchikov (2009). "Did the Toba volcanic eruption of ~74k BP produce widespread glaciation?". Journal of Geophysical Research 114: D10107. Bibcode2009JGRD..11410107R. doi:10.1029/2008JD011652. [2] Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways". Thin Solid Films 517 (11): 31883203. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. [3] http:/ / www. kscnet. ru/ ivs/ volcanoes/ holocene/ main/ main. htm [4] "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (http:/ / www. tetontectonics. org/ Climate/ Table_S1. pdf). Teton Tectonics. . Retrieved 2010-03-16. [5] "International Stratigraphic Chart" (http:/ / www. stratigraphy. org/ upload/ ISChart2009. pdf). International Commission on Stratigraphy. . Retrieved 2009-12-23. [6] http:/ / www. volcano. si. edu/ world/ largeeruptions. cfm Large Holocene Eruptions [7] Brantley, Steven R. (1999-01-04). Volcanoes of the United States (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ volcus/ index. html). United States Geological Survey. pp.30. ISBN0160450543. OCLC156941033 30835169 44858915. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [8] Judy Fierstein; Wes Hildreth, James W. Hendley II, and Peter H. Stauffer (1998). Can Another Great Volcanic Eruption Happen in Alaska? U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 075-98 (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ fs075-98/ ). Version 1.0. United States Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-09-10. [9] Fierstein, Judy; Wes Hildreth (2004-12-11). "The plinian eruptions of 1912 at Novarupta, Katmai National Park, Alaska". Bulletin of Volcanology (Springer) 54 (8): 646. Bibcode1992BVol...54..646F. doi:10.1007/BF00430778. [10] "Santa Maria" (http:/ / www. volcano. si. edu/ world/ volcano. cfm?vnum=1402-03=). Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2010-03-19. [11] Hopkinson, Deborah (Jan 2004). The Volcano That Shook the world: Krakatoa 1883 (http:/ / teacher. scholastic. com/ activities/ wwatch/ volcanoes/ witnesses. htm). 11. New York: Storyworks. p. 8. . [12] http:/ / www. earlham. edu/ ~ethribe/ web/ tambora. htm [13] BBC Timewatch: "Killer Cloud", broadcast 19 January 2007 (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ timewatch) [14] Sigurdsson Haraldur, Carey S., Mandeville C. (1990). "Assessment of mass, dynamics and environmental effects of the Minoan eruption of the Santorini volcano". Thera and the Aegean World III: Proceedings of the Third Thera Conference II: 10012. [15] "Huaynaputina" (http:/ / www. volcano. si. edu/ world/ volcano. cfm?vnum=1504-03=). Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2008-12-29. [16] Nemeth, Karoly; Shane J. Cronin, James D.L. White (2007). "Kuwae caldera and climate confusion". The Open Geology Journal 1 (5): 711. doi:10.2174/1874262900701010007. [17] Gao, Chaochao; A. Robock, S. Self, J. B. Witter, J. P. Steffenson, H. B. Clausen, M.-L. Siggaard-Andersen, S. Johnsen, P. A. Mayewski, and C. Ammann (27 June 2006). "The 1452 or 1453 A.D. Kuwae eruption signal derived from multiple ice core records: Greatest volcanic sulfate event of the past 700 years" (http:/ / www. agu. org/ pubs/ crossref/ 2006/ 2005JD006710. shtml). Journal of Geophysical Research

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

111: D12107. Bibcode2006JGRD..11112107G. doi:10.1029/2005JD006710. . Retrieved 2010-03-19. [18] Witter, J.B.; Self S. (Januar 2007). "The Kuwae (Vanuatu) eruption of AD 1452: potential magnitude and volatile release". Bulletin of Vulcanology 69 (3): 301318. doi:10.1007/s00445-006-0075-4. [19] Oppenheimer, Clive (19 Mar 2003). "Ice core and palaeoclimatic evidence for the timing and nature of the great mid-13th century volcanic eruption". International Journal of Climatology (Royal Meteorological Society) 23 (4): 417426. doi:10.1002/joc.891. [20] van den Bogaard, P (1995). 40Ar/(39Ar) ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significance (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1995E& PSL. 133. . 163V) [21] de Klerk et al. (2008). Environmental impact of the Laacher See eruption at a large distance from the volcano: Integrated palaeoecological studies from Vorpommern (NE Germany) (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V6R-4TK47K6-2& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=71ba089842c02f563af451b05845ec69) [22] Baales, Michael; Jris, Olaf; Street, Martin; Bittmann, Felix; Weninger, Bernhard; Wiethold, Julian (November 2002). "Impact of the Late Glacial Eruption of the Laacher See Volcano, Central Rhineland, Germany". Quaternary Research 58 (3): 273288. doi:10.1006/qres.2002.2379. [23] Forscher warnen vor Vulkan-Gefahr in der Eifel. Spiegel Online, 13. Februar 2007. (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ wissenschaft/ natur/ 0,1518,466051,00. html) Retrieved January 11, 2008 [24] Carey, Steven N.; Sigurdsson, Haraldur (1980). "The Roseau Ash: Deep-sea Tephra Deposits from a Major Eruption on Dominica, Lesser Antilles Arc". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 7 (12): 6786. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(80)90020-7. [25] Alloway, Brent V.; Agung Pribadi, John A. Westgate, Michael Bird, L. Keith Fifield, Alan Hogg, Ian Smith (30 October 2004). "Correspondence between glass-FT and 14C ages of silicic pyroclastic flow deposits sourced from Maninjau caldera, west-central Sumatra". Earth and Planetary Science Letters (Elsevier) 227 (12): 121. Bibcode2004E&PSL.227..121A. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.08.014. [26] Twickler and K. Taylor, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996). "Potential Atmospheric impact of the Toba mega-eruption ~71'000 years ago". Geophysical Research Letters (American Geophysical Union) 23 (8): 837840. Bibcode1996GeoRL..23..837Z. doi:10.1029/96GL00706. [27] Jones, S.C. (2007) The Toba supervolcanic eruption: Tephra-fall deposits in India and Paleoanthropological implications; in The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia (eds.) M D Petraglia and B Allchin (New York: Springer Press) pp 173-200 [28] Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991). "Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" (http:/ / www. geo. mtu. edu/ ~raman/ papers/ ChesnerGeology. pdf). Geology 19 (3): 200203. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2. . Retrieved 2010-01-20. [29] Ninkovich, D.; N.J. Shackleton, A.A. Abdel-Monem, J.D. Obradovich, G. Izett (7 December 1978). "KAr age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra". Nature (Nature Publishing Group) 276 (276): 574577. doi:10.1038/276574a0. [30] "Guatemala Volcanoes and Volcanics" (http:/ / vulcan. wr. usgs. gov/ Volcanoes/ Guatemala/ description_guatemala_volcanoes. html). USGS - CVO. . Retrieved 2010-03-13. [31] Cities on Volcanoes 5 conference: (http:/ / www. eri. u-tokyo. ac. jp/ COV5/ main. html) A6: Living with Aso-Kuju volcanoes and geothermal field . (http:/ / www. eri. u-tokyo. ac. jp/ COV5/ fieldexcursions/ a. html) [32] "Sierra la Primavera" (http:/ / www. volcano. si. edu/ world/ volcano. cfm?vnum=1401031E). Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2010-03-24. [33] http:/ / gsa. confex. com/ gsa/ 2004AM/ finalprogram/ abstract_78738. htm [34] Uzon (http:/ / www. volcano. si. edu/ world/ volcano. cfm?vnum=1000-17=), Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution [35] Sruoga, Patricia; Eduardo J. Llambas, Luis Fauqu, David Schonwandt and David G. Repol (September 2005). "Volcanological and geochemical evolution of the Diamante CalderaMaipo volcano complex in the southern Andes of Argentina (3410S)". Journal of South American Earth Sciences 19 (4): 399414. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2005.06.003. [36] Karlstrom, K.; Crow, R., Peters, L., McIntosh, W., Raucci, J., Crossey, L., and Umhoefer, P. (2007). "40Ar/39Ar and field studies of Quaternary basalts in Grand Canyon and model for carving Grand Canyon: Quantifying the interaction of river incision and normal faulting across the western edge of the Colorado Plateau". GSA Bulletin 119 (11/12): 12831312. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2007)119[1283:AAFSOQ]2.0.CO;2. [37] Hildreth, W. (1979), Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (2000). [38] Izett, Glen A. (1981). [39] Heiken et al. (1990). [40] Ben G. Mason; David M. Pyle, and Clive Oppenheimer (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth" (PDF). Bulletin of Volcanology 66 (8): 735748. Bibcode2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. [41] Wood, Charles A.; Jrgen Kienle (1990). Volcanoes of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp.170172. [42] Geological origins (http:/ / www. norfolkisland. com. au/ environment/ geological_origins. cfm), Norfolk Island Tourism. Accessed 2007-04-13. [43] Ort, M. H.; de Silva, S.; Jiminez, N.; Salisbury, M.; Jicha, B. R. and Singer, B. S. (2009). Two new supereruptions in the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of the Central Andes (http:/ / gsa. confex. com/ gsa/ 2009AM/ finalprogram/ abstract_165247. htm). [44] Lindsay, Jan M.; Tim J. Worthington, Ian E. M. Smith, and Philippa M. Black (June 1999). "Geology, petrology, and petrogenesis of Little Barrier Island, Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand" (http:/ / www. rsnz. org/ publish/ nzjgg/ 1999/ 11. pdf). New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 42 (2): 155168. doi:10.1080/00288306.1999.9514837. . Retrieved 2007-12-03.

94

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

[45] Philippe Nonnotte. "tude volcano-tectonique de la zone de divergence Nord-Tanzanienne (terminaison sud du rift kenyan) Caractrisation ptrologique et gochimique du volcanisme rcent (8 Ma Actuel) et du manteau source Contraintes de mise en place thse de doctorat de l'universit de Bretagne occidentale, spcialit : gosciences marines" (http:/ / tel. archives-ouvertes. fr/ docs/ 00/ 15/ 90/ 18/ PDF/ These_P. Nonnotte_web. pdf). . [46] Lindsay J. M., de Silva S., Trumbull R., Emmermann R., Wemmer K. (2001). "La Pacana caldera, N. Chile: a re-evaluation of the stratigraphy and volcanology of one of the world's largest resurgent calderas". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 106 (12): 145173. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00270-5. [47] Frailes Plateau (http:/ / volcano. oregonstate. edu/ CVZ/ frailes/ index. html) [48] "Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA" (http:/ / www. rcn. montana. edu/ pubs/ pdf/ 2005/ GSA_Heise_final. pdf). GSA Bulletin 117 (34): 288306. March 2005. doi:10.1130/B25519.1. . Retrieved 2010-03-16. [49] Geography and Geology (http:/ / www. lordhoweisland. info/ conservation/ geo. htm), Lord Howe Island Tourism Association. Retrieved on 2009-04-20. [50] "Cerro Panizos" (http:/ / volcano. oregonstate. edu/ CVZ/ panizos/ index. html). Volcano World. . Retrieved 2010-03-15. [51] Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand (http:/ / www. teara. govt. nz/ en/ geology-overview/ 7) [52] "Mark Anders: Yellowstone hotspot track" (http:/ / www. ldeo. columbia. edu/ ~manders/ SRP_erupt. html). Columbia University, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO). . Retrieved 2010-03-16. [53] Coombs, D. S., Dunedin Volcano, Misc. Publ. 37B, pp. 228, Geol. Soc. of N. Z., Dunedin, 1987. [54] Coombs, D. S., R. A. Cas, Y. Kawachi, C. A. Landis, W. F. Mc-Donough, and A. Reay, Cenozoic volcanism in north, east and central Otago, Bull. R. Soc. N. Z., 23, 278312, 1986. [55] Bishop, D.G., and Turnbull, I.M. (compilers) (1996). Geology of the Dunedin Area. Lower Hutt, NZ: Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences. ISBN 0-478-09521-X. [56] Sawyer, David A.; R. J. Fleck, M. A. Lanphere, R. G. Warren, D. E. Broxton and Mark R. Hudson (October 1994). "Episodic caldera volcanism in the Miocene southwestern Nevada volcanic field: Revised stratigraphic framework, 40Ar/39Ar geochronology, and implications for magmatism and extension" (http:/ / bulletin. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 106/ 10/ 1304). Geological Society of America Bulletin 106 (10): 13041318. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1994)106<1304:ECVITM>2.3.CO;2. . Retrieved 2010-03-26. [57] Lipman, P.W. (Sept. 30, 1984). "The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths". Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (B10): 88018841. Bibcode1984JGR....89.8801L. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08801. [58] Rytuba, James J.; John, David A., and McKee, Edwin H. (May 35, 2004). "Volcanism Associated with Eruption of the Steens Basalt and Inception of the Yellowstone Hotspot" (http:/ / gsa. confex. com/ gsa/ 2004RM/ finalprogram/ abstract_72657. htm). Rocky Mountain (56th Annual) and Cordilleran (100th Annual) Joint Meeting Paper No. 44-2. . Retrieved 2010-03-26. [59] Steve Ludington, Dennis P. Cox, Kenneth W. Leonard, and Barry C. Moring (1996). "Chapter 5, Cenozoic Volcanic Geology in Nevada" (http:/ / www. nbmg. unr. edu/ dox/ ofr962/ ). In Donald A. Singer. An Analysis of Nevada's Metal-Bearing Mineral Resources. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada. [60] Rytuba, J.J.; McKee, E.H. (1984). "Peralkaline ash flow tuffs and calderas of the McDermitt Volcanic Field, southwest Oregon and north central Nevada" (http:/ / www. agu. org/ pubs/ crossref/ 1984/ JB089iB10p08616. shtml). Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (B10): 86168628. Bibcode1984JGR....89.8616R. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08616. . Retrieved 2010-03-23. [61] Matthew A. Coble, and Gail A. Mahood (2008). New geologic evidence for additional 16.5-15.5 Ma silicic calderas in northwest Nevada related to initial impingement of the Yellowstone hot spot (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 1755-1315/ 3/ 1/ 012002/ ees8_3_012002. pdf?request-id=fbb453bc-6e79-4194-965a-0d2abf488999). Collapse Calderas Workshop, IOP Conf. Series. doi:10.1088/1755-1307/3/1/012002. . Retrieved 2010-03-23. [62] Carson, Robert J.; Pogue, Kevin R. (1996). Flood Basalts and Glacier Floods:Roadside Geology of Parts of Walla Walla, Franklin, and Columbia Counties, Washington. Washington State Department of Natural Resources (Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 90). [63] Reidel, Stephen P. (2005). "A Lava Flow without a Source: The Cohasset Flow and Its Compositional Members". Journal of Geology 113 (1): 121. doi:10.1086/425966. [64] Brueseke, M.E.; Heizler, M.T., Hart, W.K., and S.A. Mertzman (15 March 2007). "Distribution and geochronology of Oregon Plateau (U.S.A.) flood basalt volcanism: The Steens Basalt revisited". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 161 (3): 187214. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.12.004. [65] SummitPost.org, Southeast Oregon Basin and Range (http:/ / www. summitpost. org/ area/ range/ 355999/ southeast-oregon-basin-and-range. html) [66] USGS, Andesitic and basaltic rocks on Steens Mountain (http:/ / tin. er. usgs. gov/ geology/ state/ sgmc-unit. php?unit=ORTbas;0) [67] GeoScienceWorld, Genesis of flood basalts and Basin and Range volcanic rocks from Steens Mountain to the Malheur River Gorge, Oregon (http:/ / bulletin. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 115/ 1/ 105) [68] "Oregon: A Geologic History. 8. Columbia River Basalt: the Yellowstone hot spot arrives in a flood of fire" (http:/ / www. oregongeology. com/ sub/ publications/ ims/ ims-028/ unit08. htm). Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. . Retrieved 2010-03-26. [69] Cenozoic to Recent plate configurations in the Pacific Basin: Ridge subduction and slab window magmatism in western North America (http:/ / www. gsajournals. org/ perlserv/ ?request=get-document& doi=10. 1130/ GES00020. 1) [70] Largest explosive eruptions: New results for the 27.8Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado (http:/ / staff. aist. go. jp/ s-takarada/ CEV/ newsletter/ lagarita. html)

95

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

[71] Olivier Bachmann; Michael A. Dungan, and Peter W. Lipman (2002). "The Fish Canyon Magma Body, San Juan Volcanic Field, Colorado: Rejuvenation and Eruption of an Upper-Crustal Batholith" (http:/ / petrology. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 43/ 8/ 1469). Journal of Petrology 43 (8): 14691503. doi:10.1093/petrology/43.8.1469. . Retrieved 2010-03-16. [72] Ingrid Ukstins Peate; Joel A. Baker; Mohamed Al-Kadasi; Abdulkarim Al-Subbary; Kim B. Knight; Peter Riisager; Matthew F. Thirlwall; David W. Peate; Paul R. Renne; Martin A. Menzies (2005). "Volcanic stratigraphy of large-volume silicic pyroclastic eruptions during Oligocene Afro-Arabian flood volcanism in Yemen". Bulletin of Volcanology 68 (2): 135156. doi:10.1007/s00445-005-0428-4.. [73] Crustal recycling during subduction at the Eocene Cordilleran margin of North America (http:/ / article. pubs. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/ ppv/ RPViewDoc?_handler_=HandleInitialGet& journal=cjes& volume=40& calyLang=eng& articleFile=e03-063. pdf) Retrieved on 2007-06-26 [74] Sur l'ge des trapps basaltiques (On the ages of flood basalt events); Vincent E. Courtillot & Paul R. Renneb; Comptes Rendus Geoscience; Vol: 335 Issue: 1, January, 2003; pp: 113-140 [75] Muskox Property - The Muskox Intrusion (http:/ / www. prizemining. com/ s/ MuskoxProperty. asp) [76] The 1.27 Ga Mackenzie Large Igneous Province and Muskox layered intrusion (http:/ / www. largeigneousprovinces. org/ 08sep. html) [77] "Westward Migrating Ignimbrite Calderas and a Large Radiating Mafic Dike Swarm of Oligocene Age, Central Rio Grande Rift, New Mexico: Surface Expression of an Upper Mantle Diapir?" (http:/ / geoinfo. nmt. edu/ staff/ chamberlin/ mrds/ Chamberlin_2002_GSA_poster. pdf). New Mexico Tech. . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [78] Fialko, Y., and M. Simons, Evidence for on-going inflation of the Socorro magma body, New Mexico, from interferometric synthetic aperture radar imaging Geop. Res. Lett., 28, 3549-3552, 2001. [79] "Socorro Magma Body" (http:/ / www. ees. nmt. edu/ Geop/ Museum_Posters/ NMseismology. html). New Mexico Tech. . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [80] "Figure: Calderas within southwestern Nevada volcanic field" (http:/ / www. pggdb-swnvf. lanl. gov/ report/ img/ fig-1. jpg). Los Alamos National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2010-03-16. [81] Smith, E.I., and D.L. Keenan (30 August 2005). "Yucca Mountain Could Face Greater Volcanic Threat" (http:/ / www. state. nv. us/ nucwaste/ news2005/ pdf/ eos20050830. pdf). Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 86 (35). . Retrieved 1/3/09. [82] Geologic Provinces of the United States: Basin and Range Province on USGS.gov website (http:/ / geomaps. wr. usgs. gov/ parks/ province/ basinrange. html) Retrieved 9 November 2009 [83] Doell, R.R., Dalrymple, G.B., Smith, R.L., and Bailey, R.A., 1986, Paleomagnetism, potassium-argon ages, and geology of rhyolite and associated rocks of the Valles Caldera, New Mexico: Geological Society of America Memoir 116, p. 211-248. [84] Izett, G.A., Obradovich, J.D., Naeser, C.W., and Cebula, G.T., 1981, Potassium-argon and fission-track ages of Cerro Toledo rhyolite tephra in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, in Shorter contributions to isotope research in the western United States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1199-D, p. 37-43. [85] Christiansen, R.L., and Blank, H.R., 1972, Volcanic stratigraphy of the Quaternary rhyolite plateau in Yellowstone National Park: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 729-B, p. 18. [86] Salzer, Matthew W.; Malcolm K. Hughes (2007). "Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr" (http:/ / media. longnow. org/ files/ 2/ Salzer_Hughes_2007. pdf). Quaternary Research 67: 5768. Bibcode2007QuRes..67...57S. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004. . Retrieved 2010-03-18. [87] "VEI glossary entry" (http:/ / volcanoes. usgs. gov/ images/ pglossary/ vei. php). USGS. . Retrieved 2010-03-30. [88] "Volcanic Sulfur Aerosols Affect Climate and the Earth's Ozone Layer - Volcanic ash vs sulfur aerosols" (http:/ / volcanoes. usgs. gov/ hazards/ gas/ s02aerosols. php). U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2010-04-21. [89] http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ IOTD/ view. php?id=38975 Earth Observatory - Sarychev Eruption [90] Jones, M.T., Sparks, R.S.J., and Valdes, P.J. (2007). "The climatic impact of supervolcanis ash blankets". Climate Dynamics 29 (6): 553564. doi:10.1007/s00382-007-0248-7. [91] Jones, G.S., Gregory, J.M., Scott, P.A., Tett, S.F.B., Thorpe, R.B., 2005. An AOGCM model of the climate response to a volcanic super-eruption. Climate Dynamics 25, 725-738 [92] Dai, Jihong; Ellen Mosley-Thompson and Lonnie G. Thompson (1991). "Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding Tambora" (http:/ / www. agu. org/ pubs/ crossref/ 1991/ 91JD01634. shtml). Journal of Geophysical Research (Atmospheres) 96 (D9): 17,36117,366. . [93] http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ gmd/ grad/ mloapt. html Atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation (Preliminary) at Mauna Loa, Hawaii [94] "Mt. Pinatubo's cloud shades global climate" (http:/ / www. thefreelibrary. com/ Mt. + Pinatubo's+ cloud+ shades+ global+ climate. -a012467057). Science News. . Retrieved 2010-03-07. [95] Jones, P.D., Wigley, T.M.I, and Kelly, P.M. (1982), Variations in surface air temperatures: Part I. Northern Hemisphere, 1881-1980: Monthly Weather Review, v.110, p. 59-70.

96

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

97

Further reading
Ammann, Caspar M.; Philippe Naveau (6 March 2003). "Statistical analysis of tropical explosive volcanism occurrences over the last 6 centuries" (http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/ccr/ammann/76/2002GL016388.pdf). Geophysical Research Letters 30 (5): 1210. Bibcode2003GeoRL..30e..14A. doi:10.1029/2002GL016388. Retrieved 2010-03-19. Froggatt, P.C.; Lowe, D.J. (1990). "A review of late Quaternary silicic and some other tephra formations from New Zealand: their stratigraphy, nomenclature, distribution, volume, and age" (http://www.royalsociety.org. nz/includes/download.aspx?ID=91578). New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 33: 89109. Retrieved 2010-03-19. Lipman, P.W. (Sept. 30, 1984). "The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths". Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (B10): 88018841. Bibcode1984JGR....89.8801L. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08801. Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology 66 (8): 735748. Bibcode2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. Newhall, Christopher G., Dzurisin, Daniel (1988); Historical unrest at large calderas of the world, USGS Bulletin 1855, p.1108 (http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/b/b1855) Siebert L., and Simkin T. (2002-). Volcanoes of the World: an Illustrated Catalog of Holocene Volcanoes and their Eruptions. Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program, Digital Information Series, GVP-3, (http:// www.volcano.si.edu/world/). Simkin T., and Siebert L. (1994). Volcanoes of the World. Geoscience Press, Tucson, 2nd edition. pp.349. ISBN0 945005 12 1. Simkin T., and Siebert L. (2000). "Earth's volcanoes and eruptions: an overview". In Sigurdsson H.. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 249261 Simkin, T.; Siebert L., McClelland L., Bridge D., Newhall C., and Latter J.H. (1981). Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazeteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years. Hutchinson-Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. pp.232. ISBN0 87933 408 8. Stern, Charles R. (December 2004). "Active Andean volcanism: its geologic and tectonic setting" (http://www. scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0716-02082004000200001&script=sci_arttext). Revista Geolgica de Chile 31 (2): 161206. doi:10.4067/S0716-02082004000200001. Retrieved 2010-03-17. United States Geological Survey; Cascades Volcano Observatory, Vancouver, Washington; Index to CVO online volcanoes (http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/framework.html) Map: Tom Simkin, Robert I. Tilling, Peter R. Vogt, Stephen H. Kirby, Paul Kimberly, and David B. Stewart, Third Edition (Published 2006) interactive world map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics (http://mineralsciences.si.edu/tdpmap/) Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways" (http://www. tetontectonics.org/Climate/SO2InitiatesClimateChange.pdf). Thin Solid Films 517 (11): 31883203. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Retrieved 2010-03-19. Supplementary Table I: "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf). Teton Tectonics. Retrieved 2010-03-16. Supplementary Table II: "Supplementary References to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009)" (http://www. tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1_References.pdf). Teton Tectonics. Retrieved 2010-03-16.

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

98

External links
Volcano World Information (http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/) Volcano Live, John Seach (http://www.volcanolive.com/index.html) Volcanoes in Nicaragua (http://www.vianica.com/go/specials/9-nicaragua-volcanoes.html) Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka (http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/volcanoes/holocene/main/main.htm) National Park Service interactive map showing trace of the hotspot over time (http://www.nps.gov/yell/ naturescience/tracking_hotspot.htm) Reference Database of the International Association of Volcanology (XLS file) (http://www.volcano.group. cam.ac.uk/database/caldera-results.xls) Reference Database of Chemistry of the Earths Interior (XLS file) (http://www.volcano.group.cam.ac.uk/ database/ignimbrite-results.xls) Volcanic sulfate record in the GISP2 core (ftp protocol) (ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/paleo/icecore/ greenland/summit/gisp2/chem/volcano.txt)

99

The First Language

Proto-Human language
The Proto-Human language (also Proto-Sapiens, Proto-World) is the hypothetical most recent common ancestor of all the world's languages. The concept of "Proto-Human" presupposes monogenesis of all recorded spoken human languages. It does not presuppose monogenesis of these languages with unrecorded languages, such as those of the Paleolithic or hypothetical Neanderthal languages. Advocates of linguistic polygenesis do not accept the notion of a fully developed Proto-Human language and consider the world's language families independent developments of a proto-linguistic form of communication used by archaic Homo sapiens. If the assumption of a "Proto-Human" language is accepted, its date may be set anywhere between 200,000 years ago (the age of Homo sapiens) and 50,000 years ago (the age of behavioral modernity).

Terminology
There is no generally accepted term for this concept. Most treatments of the subject do not include a name for the language under consideration (e.g. Bengtson and Ruhlen 1994). The terms Proto-World and Proto-Human[1] are in occasional use. Merritt Ruhlen has been using the term Proto-Sapiens.

History of the idea

The first serious scientific attempt to establish the reality of monogenesis was that of Alfredo Trombetti, in his book L'unit d'origine del linguaggio, published in 1905 (cf. Ruhlen 1994:263). Trombetti estimated that the common ancestor of existing languages had been spoken between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago (1922:315). Monogenesis was dismissed by many linguists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the doctrine of the polygenesis of the human races and their languages held the ascendancy (e.g. Saussure 1986/1916:190). The best-known supporter of monogenesis in America in the mid-20th century was Morris Swadesh (cf. Ruhlen 1994:215). He pioneered two important methods for investigating deep relationships between languages, lexicostatistics and glottochronology. In the second half of the 20th century, Joseph Greenberg produced a series of large-scale classifications of the world's languages. These were and are controversial but widely discussed. Although Greenberg did not produce an explicit argument for monogenesis, all of his classification work was geared toward this end. As he stated (1987:337): "The ultimate goal is a comprehensive classification of what is very likely a single language family." Notable living American advocates of linguistic monogenesis are Merritt Ruhlen, John Bengtson, and Harold Fleming.

Proto-Human language

100

Date and location

The first concrete attempt to estimate the date of the hypothetical ancestor language was that of Alfredo Trombetti (1922:315), who concluded it was spoken between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago. This estimate happens to agree with current estimates on the age of Homo sapiens. While earliest known fossils of anatomically modern humans date from around 195,000 years ago, the matrilinear most recent common ancestor shared by all living humans (dubbed Mitochondrial Eve), is dated to about 120-150 thousand years ago. The divergence of the three main descendant lines within Africa, L1/A in Southern Africa (Khoisan/Capoid peoples), L2/B in Central and West Africa (NigerCongo- and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples, Mbuti pygmies), and L3 (East Africa, Out-of-Africa migration), dates to about 100 to 80 thousand years ago. It is uncertain or disputed whether the earliest members of Homo sapiens had fully developed language. Some scholars link the emergence of language proper (out of a proto-linguistic stage that may have lasted considerably longer) to the development of behavioral modernity towards the end of the Middle Paleolithic or at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, roughly 50,000 years ago. Thus, in the opinion of Richard Klein, the ability to produce complex speech only developed some 50,000 years ago (with the appearance of modern man or Cro-Magnon man).

Characteristics
The difficulty in making any statement on particulars of Proto-Human lies in the time depth involved, which is far beyond what linguists can trace back today (between five and ten millennia in the cases of Indo-European and Afroasiatic). Some linguists (e.g. Ruhlen 1994) claim that this difficulty can be overcome by means of mass comparison and internal reconstruction (cf. Babaev 2008). The relatively few linguists who have discussed the subject disagree on how much can be known of the ancestor language. A conservative position, taken by Lyle Campbell, is that it would have shared the "design features" of known human languages, such as grammar, defined as "fixed or preferred sequences of linguistic elements", and recursion, defined as "clauses embedded in other clauses", but that beyond this nothing can be known of it (Campbell and Poser 2008:391). Less conservative linguists have advanced proposals on the vocabulary and syntax of the ancestor language. There are no serious current proposals on its grammar and phonology.

Vocabulary
A fairly large number of words have been tentatively traced back to the ancestor language, based on the occurrence of similar sound-and-meaning forms in languages across the globe. The best-known such vocabulary list is that of John Bengtson and Merritt Ruhlen (1994), who identify 27 "global etymologies". The following table, adapted from Ruhlen (1994b), lists a selection of these forms.
Language Khoisan Nilo-Saharan NigerCongo Afroasiatic Kartvelian Dravidian Eurasiatic Who? What? !k na nani k(w) min yv kwi ma de ni ma ma y mi ma Two /kam ball bala bwVr yor irau pl gnyis Water One/Finger Arm-1 k nki engi akwa rtsqa nru akw owa //knu tok dike tak ert birelu tik tok //k kani kono ganA tot ka konV kan xeen qe kay Arm-2 h boko boko Bend/Knee //gom kutu bogo bunqe muql mea somm toma pa pune tshm ym Hair / sum Vagina/Vulva Smell/Nose !kwai buti butu put put pou putV puti betik suna sun uu sn su iu ona

bhghu(s) bk() boq baa pjut buku

DenCaucasian kwi Austric

o-ko-e m-anu

(m)bar namaw nto

Proto-Human language

101
mina boula bula pl okho gugu akw dik kuman dki akan mala kano ben pajing boko buku buku buka utu puda summe butie snna mura una

Indo-Pacific Australian Amerind aani kune

minha mana

Source: Ruhlen 1994b:103. The symbol V stands for "a vowel whose precise character is unknown" (ib. 105). Clicking on the symbols in the top line will order the forms alphabetically. Based on these correspondences, Merritt Ruhlen (1994b:105) lists these roots for the ancestor language: ku = 'who' ma = 'what' pal = 'two' akwa = 'water' tik = 'finger' kanV = 'arm' boko = 'arm' buku = 'knee' sum = 'hair' putV = 'vulva' una = 'nose, smell'

Syntax
In a 2003 paper, Murray Gell-Mann and Merritt Ruhlen argued that the ancestral language had subjectobjectverb (SOV) word order. The reason for thinking so is that the world's major language families nearly all reconstruct back to SOV word order in their earliest stages. Their proposal develops an earlier one made by Talmy Givn (1979:271-309). If this thesis is correct, it would have wide-ranging implications. Since a key article by Joseph Greenberg in 1963, it has been known that SOV word order is commonly associated with a series of other phenomena (Gell-Mann and Ruhlen 2003:3-4). Among these, some of the most important are: Adjectives precede the nouns they modify. Dependent genitives precede the nouns they modify. "Prepositions" are really "postpositions", following the nouns they refer to. For example, instead of saying The man goes to the wide river, as in English, Proto-Human speakers would have said Man wide river to goes.

Criticism
Many linguists reject the methods used to determine these forms. Several areas of criticism are raised with the methods Ruhlen and Gell-Mann employ. The essential basis of these criticisms is that the words being compared do not show common ancestry; the reasons for this vary. One is onomatopoeia: for example, the suggested root for 'smell' listed above, *una may simply be a result of many languages employing an onomatopoeic word that sounds like sniffing, snuffling, or smelling. Another is the taboo quality of certain words. Lyle Campbell points out that many established proto-languages do not contain an equivalent word for *putV 'vulva' because of how often such taboo words are replaced in the lexicon, and notes that it "strains credibility to imagine" that a proto-World form of such a word would survive in many languages.

Proto-Human language Using the criteria that Bengston and Ruhlen employ to find cognates to their proposed roots, Lyle Campbell finds seven possible matches to their root for woman *kuna in Spanish, including cnyuge 'wife, spouse', china 'girl', and cana 'old woman (adjective)'. He then goes on to show how what Bengston and Ruhlen would identify as reflexes of *kuna cannot possibly be related to a proto-World word for woman. Cnyuge, for example, comes from the Latin roots for 'with' and 'yoke', so its origin had nothing to do with the word 'woman'. China is a loanword from Quechua and thus cannot be an example of a Spanish inheritance from Proto-World. Cana comes from the Latin word for 'white', and again shows a history unrelated to the word 'woman' (Campbell and Poser 2008:370-372). Campbell's assertion is that these types of problems are endemic to the methods used by Ruhlen and others. There are some linguists who question the very possibility of tracing language elements so far back into the past. Campbell notes that given the time elapsed since the origin of human language, every word from that time would have been replaced or changed beyond recognition in all languages today. Campbell harshly criticizes efforts to reconstruct a Proto-human language, saying "the search for global etymologies is at best a hopeless waste of time, at worst an embarrassment to linguistics as a discipline, unfortunately confusing and misleading to those who might look to linguistics for understanding in this area" (Campbell and Poser 2008:393).

102

References
Notes
[1] used by the Harold Fleming (http:/ / www. people. fas. harvard. edu/ ~witzel/ MTLR-34b. htm) and John Bengtson (2007).

General references
Bengtson, John D. and Merritt Ruhlen. 1994. "Global etymologies." (http://www.merrittruhlen.com/files/ Global.pdf) In Ruhlen 1994a, pp.277336. Bengtson, John D. 2007. "On fossil dinosaurs and fossil words." (http://jdbengt.net/articles/fossilwords.pdf) (Also: HTML version (http://google.com/search?q=cache:7E7DNXJuWeUJ:jdbengt.net/articles/fossilwords. pdf).) Campbell, Lyle, and William J. Poser. 2008. Language Classification: History and Method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Edgar, Blake. 2008 "Letter from South Africa." (http://www.archaeology.org/0803/abstracts/letter.html) Archaeology 61.2, MarchApril 2008. Gell-Mann, Murray and Merritt Ruhlen. 2003. "The origin and evolution of syntax." (http://www.nostratic.ru/ books/(254)gell-ruhlen-syntax.pdf) (Also: HTML version (http://google.com/ search?q=cache:IHEppvBw5boJ:www.nostratic.ru/books/(254)gell-ruhlen-syntax.pdf).) Givn, Talmy. 1979. On Understanding Grammar. New York: Academic Press. Greenberg, Joseph. 1963. "Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements." (http://ling.kgw.tu-berlin.de/Korean/Artikel02/) In Universals of Language, edited by Joseph Greenberg, Cambridge: MIT Press, pp.5890. (In second edition of Universals of Language, 1966: pp.73113.) Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. The Languages of Africa, revised edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. (Published simultaneously at The Hague by Mouton & Co.) Greenberg, Joseph H. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." Reprinted in Joseph H. Greenberg, Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method, edited by William Croft, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000-2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Volume 1: Grammar. Volume 2: Lexicon. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Klein, Richard G. and Blake Edgar. 2002. The Dawn of Human Culture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown, and John G. Fleagle. 2005. "Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia." (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/full/nature03258.html)

Proto-Human language Nature 433.7027, 733736. Ruhlen, Merritt. 1994a. On the Origin of Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy, Stanford: Stanford University Press. Ruhlen, Merritt. 1994b. The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1986. Course in General Linguistics, translated by Roy Harris. Chicago: Open Court. (English translation of 1972 edition of Cours de linguistique gnrale, originally published in 1916.) Trombetti, Alfredo. 1905. L'unit d'origine del linguaggio. Bologna: Luigi Beltrami. Trombetti, Alfredo. 1922-1923. Elementi di glottologia, 2 volumes. Bologna: Zanichelli. Wells, Spencer. 2007. Deep Ancestry: Inside the Genographic Project. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. White, Tim D., B. Asfaw, D. DeGusta, H. Gilbert, G.D. Richards, G. Suwa, and F.C. Howell. 2003. "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia." (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6941/abs/ nature01669.html) Nature 423:742747.

103

External links
Genetic Distance and Language Affinities (http://www.friesian.com/trees.htm) Babaev, Kirill. 2008. " Critics of the Nostratic theory (http://www.nostratic.ru/index.php?page=8)", in Nostratica: Resources on Distant Language Relationship (http://www.nostratic.ru/index.php?page=main).

Mythical origins of language

There have been many accounts of the origin of language in the world's mythologies and other stories pertaining to the origin of language, the development of language and the reasons behind the diversity in languages today. These myths have similarities, recurring themes, and differences, having been passed down through oral tradition. Some myths go further than just storytelling and are religious, with some even having a literal interpretation even today. Recurring themes in the myths of language dispersal are floods and catastrophes. Many stories tell of a great deluge or flood which caused the peoples of the Earth to scatter over the face of the planet. Punishment by a god or gods for perceived wrongdoing on the part of man is another recurring theme. Myths regarding the origins of language and languages are generally subsumed or footnoted into larger creation myths, although there are differences. Some tales say a creator endowed language from the beginning, others count language among later gifts, or curses.

Mythical origins of language

104

Hebrew Bible
Further information: Tower of Babel The Hebrew Bible attributes the origin of language per se to humans, with Adam being asked to name the creatures that God had created. One of the most well known examples in the West is the Tower of Babel passage from Genesis. The tells of God punishing humanity for arrogance and disobedience by means of the confusion of tongues. And the LORD said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech. (Genesis 11:5-6, KJVtranslation) This became the standard account in the European Middle Ages, reflected in medieval literature such as the tale of Fnius Farsaid.

India

The "confusion of tongues" by Gustave Dor, a woodcut depicting the Tower of Babel from Abrahamic myth.

Vc is the Hindu goddess of speech, or "speech personified". As brahman "sacred utterance", she has a cosmological role as the "Mother of the Vedas". She is presented as the consort of Prajapati, who is likewise presented as the origin of the Veda.[1] She became conflated with Sarasvatiin later Hindu mythology.

Americas
In common with the mythology of many other civilizations and cultures which tell of a Great Flood, certain Native American tribes tell of a deluge which came over the Earth. After the water subsides, various explanations are given for the new diversity in speech.

Mesoamerica
The Aztecs' story maintains that only a man, Coxcox, and a woman, Xochiquetzal, survive, having floated on a piece of bark. They found themselves on land and begot many children who were at first born unable to speak, but subsequently, upon the arrival of a dove were endowed with language, although each one was given a different speech such that they could not understand one another.[2]

North America
Dor's "The Deluge". Man and beast take refuge

A similar flood is described by the Kaska people from North America, on an isolated rock during the Great Flood, a feature of creation myths from around the world. however, like with the story of Babel, the people were now "widely scattered over the world". The narrator of the story adds that this explains the many different centres of population, the many tribes and the many languages, "Before the flood, there was but one centre; for all the people lived together in one country, and spoke one language."[3]

Mythical origins of language They did not know where the other people lived, and probably thought themselves the only survivors. Long afterwards, when in their wanderings they met people from another place, they spoke different languages, and could not understand one another. An Iroquois story tells of the god Taryenyawagon (Holder of the Heavens) guiding his people on a journey and directing them to settle in different places whence their languages changed. [4] A Salishan myth tells how an argument lead to the divergence of languages. Two people were arguing whether the high-pitched humming noise that accompanies ducks in flight is from air passing through the beak or from the flapping of wings. The argument is not settled by the chief, who then calls a council of all the leading people from nearby villages. This council breaks down in argument when nobody can agree, and eventually the dispute leads to a split where some people move far away. Over time they slowly began to speak differently, and eventually other languages were formed.[5] In the mythology of the Yuki, indigenous people of California, a creator, accompanied by Coyote creates language as he creates the tribes in various localities. He lays sticks which will transform into people upon daybreak. Then follows a long journey of the creator, still accompanied by Coyote, in the course of which he makes tribes in different localities, in each case by laying sticks in the house over night, gives them their customs and mode of life, and each their language.[6]

105

Amazonas, Brazil
The Ticuna people of the Upper Amazon tell that all the peoples were once a single tribe, speaking the same language until two hummingbird eggs were eaten, it is not told by whom. Subsequently the tribe split into groups and dispersed far and wide.[7]

Europe
In Ancient Greece there was a myth which told that for ages men had lived without law under the rule of Zeus and speaking one language. The god Hermes brought diversity in speech and along with it separation into nations and discord ensued. Zeus then resigned his position, yielding it to the first king of men, Phoroneus. In Norse mythology, the faculty of speech is a gift from the third son of Borr, who gave also hearing and sight. When the sons of Borr were walking along the sea-strand, they found two trees, and took up the trees and shaped men of them: the first gave them spirit and life; the second, wit and feeling; the third, form, speech, hearing, and sight.

Africa
The Wa-Sania, a Bantu people of East African origin have a tale that in the beginning, the peoples of the earth knew only one language, but during a severe famine, a madness struck the people, causing them to wander in all directions, jabbering strange words, and this is how different languages came about. A god who speaks all languages is a theme among African mythology, two examples being Eshu of the Yoruba, a trickster who is messenger of the gods. Eshu has a parallel in Legba from the Fob people of Benin. Another Yoruba god who speaks all the languages of the world is Orunmila, the god of divination.

Mythical origins of language

106

Southeast Asia and Oceania

Polynesia
A group of people on the island of Hao in Polynesia tell a very similar story to the Tower of Babel, speaking of a God who, "in anger chased the builders away, broke down the building, and changed their language, so that they spoke diverse tongues".[8]

Australia
In South Australia, a people of Encounter Bay tell a story of how diversity in language came about from cannibalism: In remote time an old woman, named Wurruri lived towards the east and generally walked with a large stick in her hand, to scatter the fires around which others were sleeping, Wurruri at length died. Greatly delighted at this circumstance, they sent messengers in all directions to give notice of her death; men, women and children came, not to lament, but to show their joy. The Raminjerar were the first who fell upon the corpse and began eating the flesh, and immediately began to speak intelligibly. The other tribes to the eastward arriving later, ate the contents of the intestines, which caused them to speak a language slightly different. The northern tribes came last and devoured the intestines and all that remained, and immediately spoke a language differing still more from that of the Raminjerar.[9] Another group of Australian aboriginals, the Gunwinggu, tell of a goddess in dreamtime giving each of her children a language of their own to play with.

Andaman Islands
The traditional beliefs of the indigenous inhabitants of the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal describe language as being given by the god Pluga to the first man and woman at their union following a great deluge. The language given was called bojig-yb-, which is the language spoken to this day, according to their belief, by the tribe inhabiting the south and south-eastern portion of middle Andaman. This language is described by the inhabitants as the "mother tongue" from which all other dialects have been made. Their beliefs hold that even before the death of the first man, ... his offspring became so numerous that their home could no longer accommodate them. At Pluga's bidding they were furnished with all necessary weapons, implements, and fire, and then scattered in pairs all over the country. When this exodus occurred Puluga- provided each party with a distinct dialect.[10] Thus explaining the diversity of language.

Notes
[1] "Veda, Prajpati and Vc" in Barbara A. Holdrege, 'Veda in the Brahmanas', in: Laurie L. Patton (ed.) Authority, anxiety, and canon: essays in Vedic interpretation, 1994, ISBN 9780791419373. [2] Turner, P. and Russell-Coulter, C. (2001) Dictionary of Ancient Deities (Oxford: OUP) [3] Teit, J. A. (1917) "Kaska Tales" in Journal of American Folklore, No. 30 [4] Johnson, E. Legends, Traditions, and Laws of the Iroquois, or Six Nations, and History of the Tuscarora Indians (http:/ / www. library. jbsheets. com/ america/ LegendsTraditionsandLawsoftheIroquois. htm) (Access date: 4 June 2009) [5] Boas, F. (ed.) (1917) "The Origin of the Different Languages". Folk-Tales of Salishan and Sahaptin Tribes (New York: American Folk-Lore Society) [6] Kroeber, A. L. (1907) "Indian Myths of South Central California" in American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 4, No. 4 [7] Carneiro, R. (2000) "Origin Myths" in California Journal of Science Education [8] Williamson, R. W. (1933) Religious and Cosmic Beliefs of Central Polynesia (Cambridge), vol. I, p. 94. [9] Meyer, H. E. A., (1879) "Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Encounter Bay Tribe", published in Wood, D., et al., The Native Tribes of South Australia, (Adelaide: E.S. Wigg & Son) (available online here (http:/ / digital. library. adelaide. edu. au/ coll/ special/ / SAhistory/ Meyer. pdf))

Mythical origins of language

[10] Man, E. H. (1883) "On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands. (Part II.)" in The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 12, pp. 117175.

107

External links
Wayne L. Allison - In The Beginning Was The Word: (The Genesis of Language) (http://w2.byuh.edu/ academics/domckay/Speeches/Mckay/W_Allison.htm) Dickson-White, A. (1995) The Warfare of Science With Theology - Chapter XVII - From Babel To Comparative Philology (http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter17.html#I) (Access date: 4 June 2009) Velikovsky, I. The Confusion of Languages (http://www.varchive.org/itb/confus.htm) (Access date: 4 June 2009) A Lexicon of Mythical Pantheons of Gods and Heroes (http://gerryforster.netfirms.com/MarsFlash/ A_Lexicon_2.doc) (Access date: 4 June 2009) God Checker - Waramurungundju (http://www.godchecker.com/pantheon/australian-mythology. php?deity=WARAMURUNGUNDJU) (Access date: 4 June 2009)

Language of the birds

In mythology, medieval literature and occultism, the language of the birds is postulated as a mystical, perfect divine language, green language, adamic language, enochian language, angelic language or a mythical or magical language used by birds to communicate with the initiated.

History
In Indo-European religion, the behavior of Huginn and Muninn sit on Odin's shoulders in this illustration from an 18th century birds has long been used for the purposes of Icelandic manuscript. divination by augurs. According to a suggestion by Walter Burkert, these customs may have their roots in the Paleolithic when, during the Ice Age, early humans looked for carrion by observing scavenging birds.[1] There are also examples of contemporary bird-human communication and symbiosis. In North America, ravens have been known to lead wolves (and native hunters) to prey they otherwise would be unable to consume.[2][3] In Africa, the Greater Honeyguide is known to guide humans to beehives in the hope that the hive will be incapacitated and opened for them. Dating to the Renaissance, birdsong was the inspiration for some magical engineered languages, in particular musical languages. Whistled languages based on spoken natural languages are also sometimes referred to as the language of the birds.

Language of the birds

108

Mythology
Norse mythology In Norse mythology, the power to understand the language of the birds was a sign of great wisdom. The god Odin had two ravens, called Hugin and Munin, who flew around the world and told Odin what happened among mortal men. The legendary king of Sweden Dag the Wise was so wise that he could understand what birds said. He had a tame house sparrow which flew around and brought back news to him. Once, a farmer in Reidgotaland killed Dag's sparrow, which brought on a terrible retribution from the Swedes. The ability could also be acquired by tasting dragon blood. According to the Poetic Edda and the Vlsunga saga, Sigurd accidentally tasted dragon blood while roasting the heart of Fafnir. This gave him the ability to understand the language of birds, and his life was saved as the birds were discussing Regin's plans to kill Sigurd. Through the same ability slaug, Sigurd's daughter, found out the betrothment of her husband Ragnar Lodbrok, to another woman. The 11th century Ramsund carving in Sweden depicts how Sigurd learnt the language of birds, in the Poetic Edda and the Vlsunga saga. 1. Sigurd is sitting naked in front of the fire preparing the dragon heart, from Fafnir, for his foster-father Regin, who is Fafnir's brother. The heart is not finished yet, and when Sigurd touches it, he burns himself and sticks his finger into his mouth. As he has tasted dragon blood, he starts to understand the birds' song.

2. The birds say that Regin will not keep his promise of reconciliation and will try to kill Sigurd, which causes Sigurd to cut off Regin's head. 3. Regin is dead beside his own head, his smithing tools with which he reforged Sigurd's sword Gram are scattered around him, and 4. Regin's horse is laden with the dragon's treasure. 5. is the previous event when Sigurd killed Fafnir, and 6. shows tr from the saga's beginning.

The 11th century Ramsund carving in Sweden depicts how Sigurd learnt the language of birds, in the Poetic Edda and the Vlsunga saga

In an eddic poem loosely connected with the Sigurd tradition which is named Helgakvia Hjrvarssonar, the reason why a man named Atli once had the ability is not explained. Atli's lord's son Helgi would marry what was presumably Sigurd's aunt, the Valkyrie Svfa. Greek mythology According to Apollonius Rhodius, the figurehead of Jason's ship, the Argo, was built of oak from the sacred grove at Dodona and could speak the language of birds. Tiresias was also said to have been given the ability to understand the language of the birds by Athena. The language of birds in Greek mythology may be attained by magical means. Democritus, Anaximander, Apollonius of Tyana, Melampus and Aesopus were all said to have understood the birds.

Afro-Asiatic mythologies
In Sufism, the language of birds is a mystical language of angels. The Conference of the Birds (mantiq at-tair) is a mystical poem of 4647 verses by the 12th century Persian poet Farid al-Din Attar[4] In the Jerusalem Talmud (Louis Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, 1909), Solomon's proverbial wisdom was due to his being granted understanding of the language of birds by God.

Language of the birds In Egyptian Arabic, hieroglyphic writing is called "the alphabet of the birds". In Ancient Egyptian itself, the hieroglyphic form of writing was given the name medu-netjer ("words of the gods" or "divine language").

109

Folklore
The concept is also known from many folk tales (including Welsh, Russian, German, Estonian, Greek, Romany), where usually the protagonist is granted the gift of understanding the language of the birds either by some magical transformation, or as a boon by the king of birds. The birds then inform or warn the hero about some danger or hidden treasure.

Alchemy
In Kabbalah, Renaissance magic, and alchemy, the language of the birds was considered a secret and perfect language and the key to perfect knowledge, sometimes also called the langue verte, or green language (Jean Julien Fulcanelli, Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa de occulta philosophia).

Literature and culture

Compare also the rather comical and satirical Birds of Aristophanes and Parliament of Fowls by Chaucer. In medieval France, the language of the birds (la langue des oiseaux) was a secret language of the Troubadours, connected with the Tarot, allegedly based on puns and symbolism drawn from homophony, e. g. an inn called au lion d'or "the Golden Lion" is allegedly "code" for au lit on dort "in the bed one sleeps"[5] (note that this particular pun cannot be medieval, since final t was pronounced until Middle French, c.f. e.g. the 14th century loanword 'bonnet'). The artificial language zaum of Russian Futurism was described as "language of the birds" by Velimir Khlebnikov. "The language of the birds" (Die Sprache der Vgel) is a 1991 German movie. Jean Sibelius composed a wedding march titled "The language of the birds" in 1911. The children's book author Rafe Martin has written "The Language of Birds" as an adaptation of a Russian folk tale; it was made into a children's opera by composer John Kennedy. In her first book, Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell, Susanna Clarke, in her faux footnotes, refers to a book called, "The Language of the Birds." It is among other things a reference to the fictional Raven King. A Bird in Your Ear [6] is a one act opera by British/American composer David Bruce [7] based on the Russian folk tale, The Language of the Birds, with a libretto by Alasdair Middleton. It was commissioned by Bard College, NY and first performed there in March 2008. Further extracts were performed by New York City Opera in 2009.

References
Notes
[1] Marzluff, John M.; Tony Angell (2007). In the Company of Crows and Ravens. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp.284287. ISBN0-3001-2255-1. [2] McDougall, Len (2004). The Encyclopedia of Tracks and Scats. Globe Pequot. p.296. ISBN1-5922-8070-6. [3] Tipton, Diane (2006-07-06). "Raven Myths May Be Real" (http:/ / fwp. mt. gov/ news/ article_4663. aspx). Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. . Retrieved 2008-02-08. [4] METmuseum.org (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ safa/ ho_63. 210. 67. htm) [5] Letarot.com (http:/ / letarot. com/ dossiers-chauds/ langue-des-oiseaux/ ) [6] http:/ / www. davidbruce. net/ works/ a-bird-in-your-ear. asp [7] http:/ / www. davidbruce. net

Language of the birds

110

Bibliography
Animal Symbolism in Celtic Mythology (http://www-personal.umich.edu/~lars/rel375.html), by Lars Noodn (1992) Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Syracuse University Press: Syracuse, NY, USA, 1988. Richard Khaitzine, La Langue des Oiseaux - Quand sotrisme et littrature se rencontrent, France-spiritualites.com (http://www.france-spiritualites.com/PFPLalanguedesoiseaux.htm) Ren Gunon, The Language of the Birds, Australia's Sufi Magazine "The Treasure" 2 (1998). (French) Le verland des oiseaux (The Verlan of the Birds) (http://www.zanzibart.com/motus/poesie/verlan/ index.htm) Collection "Pommes Pirates Papillons", Pomes de Michel Besnier. Illustrations de Boiry, Editions Mtus (French) Definition of Verlan English fr:Verlan

External links
Sacred Texts (http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/ftr/chap03.htm) - Russian folk tales Jewish Heritage Online Magazine (http://www.jhom.com/topics/birds/solomon.htm) - Ellen Frankel Le Tarot (http://letarot.com/dossiers-chauds/langue-des-oiseaux/pages/the-language-of-the-birds.html) The Society of Inner Light (http://www.innerlight.org.uk/journals/Vol24No4/langbird.htm) Beln Gache (http://www.findelmundo.com.ar/pajaros/introeng.htm)

Linguistic relativity
The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its speakers are able to conceptualize their world, i.e. their world view. Popularly known as the SapirWhorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined as having two versions: (i) the strong version that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories and (ii) the weak version that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior. The idea was first clearly expressed by 19th century thinkers, such as Wilhelm von Humboldt, who saw language as the expression of the spirit of a nation. The early 20th century school of American Anthropology headed by Franz Boas and Edward Sapir also embraced the idea. Sapir's student Benjamin Lee Whorf came to be seen as the primary proponent as a result of his published observations of how he perceived linguistic differences to have consequences in human cognition and behavior. Harry Hoijer, one of Sapir's students, introduced the term "SapirWhorf hypothesis",[1] even though the two scholars never actually advanced any such hypothesis.[2] Whorf's principle of linguistic relativity was reformulated as a testable hypothesis by Roger Brown and Eric Lenneberg who conducted experiments designed to find out whether color perception varies between speakers of languages that classified colors differently. As the study of the universal nature of human language and cognition came into focus in the 1960s the idea of linguistic relativity fell out of favour among linguists. A 1969 study by Brent Berlin and Paul Kay claimed to demonstrate that color terminology is subject to universal semantic constraints, and hence to discredit the SapirWhorf hypothesis. From the late 1980s a new school of linguistic relativity scholars have examined the effects of differences in linguistic categorization on cognition, finding broad support for weak versions of the hypothesis in experimental contexts.[3] Some effects of linguistic relativity have been shown in several semantic domains, although they are generally weak. Currently, a balanced view of linguistic relativity is espoused by most linguists holding that language influences certain kinds of cognitive processes in non-trivial ways, but that other processes are better seen as subject to universal factors. Research is focused on exploring the ways and extent to which language influences

Linguistic relativity thought.[3] The principle of linguistic relativity and the relation between language and thought has also received attention in varying academic fields from philosophy to psychology and anthropology, and it has also inspired and colored works of fiction and the invention of constructed languages.

111

History
The idea that language and thought are intertwined goes back to the classical civilizations, but in the history of European philosophy the relation was not seen as fundamental. St. Augustine, for example, held the view that language was merely labels applied to already existing concepts.[4] Others held the opinion that language was but a veil covering up the eternal truths hiding them from real human experience. For Immanuel Kant, language was but one of several tools used by humans to experience the world. In the late 18th and early 19th century the idea of the existence of different national characters, or "Volksgeister", of different ethnic groups was the moving force behind the German school of national romanticism and the beginning ideologies of ethnic nationalism. In 1820, Wilhelm von Humboldt connected the study of language to the national romanticist program by proposing the view that language is the very fabric of thought. That is, thoughts are produced as a kind of inner dialog using the same grammar as the thinker's native language.[5] This view was part of a larger picture in which the world view of an ethnic nation, their "Weltanschauung", was seen as being faithfully reflected in the grammar of their language. Von Humboldt argued that languages with an inflectional morphological type, such as German, English and the other Indo-European languages were the most perfect languages and that accordingly this explained the dominance of their speakers over the speakers of less perfect languages. Wilhelm von Humboldt declared in 1820: The diversity of languages is not a diversity of signs and sounds but a diversity of views of the world.[5] The idea that some languages were naturally superior to others and that the use of primitive languages maintained their speakers in intellectual poverty was widespread in the early 20th century. The American linguist William Dwight Whitney, for example, actively strove to eradicate the Native American languages arguing that their speakers were savages and would be better off abandoning their languages and learning English and adopting a civilized way of life.[6] The first anthropologist and linguist to challenge this view was Franz Boas who was educated in Germany in the late 19th century where he received his doctorate in physics.[7] While undertaking geographical research in northern Canada he became fascinated with the Inuit people and decided to become an ethnographer. In contrast to von Humboldt, Boas always stressed the equal worth of all cultures and languages, and argued that there was no such thing as primitive languages, but that all languages were capable of expressing the same content albeit by widely differing means. Boas saw language as an inseparable part of culture and he was among the first to require of ethnographers to learn the native language of the culture being studied, and to document verbal culture such as myths and legends in the original language. According to Franz Boas: It does not seem likely [...] that there is any direct relation between the culture of a tribe and the language they speak, except in so far as the form of the language will be moulded by the state of the culture, but not in so far as a certain state of the culture is conditioned by the morphological traits of the language."[8] Boas' student Edward Sapir reached back to the Humboldtian idea that languages contained the key to understanding the differing world views of peoples. In his writings he espoused the viewpoint that because of the staggering differences in the grammatical systems of languages no two languages were ever similar enough to allow for perfect translation between them. Sapir also thought because language represented reality differently, it followed that the speakers of different languages would perceive reality differently. According to Edward Sapir: No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.[9]

Linguistic relativity On the other hand, Sapir explicitly rejected pure linguistic determinism by stating, "It would be nave to imagine that any analysis of experience is dependent on pattern expressed in language."[10] While Sapir never made a point of studying how languages affected the thought processes of their speakers, the notion of linguistic relativity lay inherent in his basic understanding of language, and it would be taken up by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf.

112

Benjamin Lee Whorf

More than any other linguist, Benjamin Lee Whorf has become associated with what he himself called "the principle of linguistic relativity". Instead of merely assuming that language influences the thought and behavior of its speakers (after Humboldt and Sapir) he looked at Native American languages and attempted to account for the ways in which differences in grammatical systems and language use affected the way their speakers perceived the world. Whorf has been criticized by various scholars in linguistics and psychology, who often point to his 'amateur' status, thereby insinuating that he was unqualified and could thereby be dismissed. However, his not having a degree in linguistics cannot be taken to mean that he was linguistically incompetent. Indeed, John Lucy writes "despite his 'amateur' status, Whorf's work in linguistics was and still is recognized as being of superb professional quality by linguists".[11] Still, detractors such as Eric Lenneberg, Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker have criticized him for not being sufficiently clear in his formulation of how he meant language influences thought, and for not providing actual proof of his assumptions. Most of his arguments were in the form of examples that were anecdotal or speculative in nature, and functioned as attempts to show how "exotic" grammatical traits were connected to what were apparently equally exotic worlds of thought. In Whorf's words: We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscope flux of impressions which has to be organized by our mindsand this means largely by the linguistic systems of our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this wayan agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language [...] all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar, or can in some way be calibrated.[12] Among Whorf's well known examples of linguistic relativity are examples of instances where an indigenous language has several terms for a concept that is only described with one word in English and other European languages (Whorf used the acronym SAE "Standard Average European" to allude to the rather similar grammatical structures of the well-studied European languages in contrast to the greater diversity of the less-studied languages). One of Whorf's examples of this was the supposedly many words for 'snow' in the Inuit language, which has later been shown to be a misrepresentation[13] but also for example how the Hopi language describes water with two different words for drinking water in a container versus a natural body of water. These examples of polysemy served the double purpose of showing that indigenous languages sometimes made more fine grained semantic distinctions than European languages and that direct translation between two languages, even of seemingly basic concepts like snow or water, is not always possible. Another example in which Whorf attempted to show that language use affects behavior came from his experience in his day job as a chemical engineer working for an insurance company as a fire inspector.[13] On inspecting a chemical plant he once observed that the plant had two storage rooms for gasoline barrels, one for the full barrels and one for the empty ones. He further noticed that while no employees smoked cigarettes in the room for full barrels no-one minded smoking in the room with empty barrels, although this was potentially much more dangerous due to the highly flammable vapors that still existed in the barrels. He concluded that the use of the word empty in connection to the barrels had led the workers to unconsciously regard them as harmless, although consciously they were probably aware of the risk of explosion from the vapors. This example was later criticized by Lenneberg[14] as

Linguistic relativity not actually demonstrating the causality between the use of the word empty and the action of smoking, but instead being an example of circular reasoning. Steven Pinker in The Language Instinct ridiculed this example, claiming that this was a failing of human insight rather than language. Whorf's most elaborate argument for the existence of linguistic relativity regarded what he believed to be a fundamental difference in the understanding of time as a conceptual category among the Hopi.[15] He argued that in contrast to English and other SAE languages, the Hopi language does not treat the flow of time as a sequence of distinct, countable instances, like "three days" or "five years" but rather as a single process and consequentially it does not have nouns referring to units of time. He proposed that this view of time was fundamental in all aspects of Hopi culture and explained certain Hopi behavioral patterns. Whorf died in 1941 at age 44 and left behind him a number of unpublished papers. His line of thought was continued by linguists and anthropologists such as Harry Hoijer and Dorothy D. Lee who both continued investigations into the effect of language on habitual thought, and George L. Trager who prepared a number of Whorf's left-behind papers for publishing. The most important event for the dissemination of Whorf's ideas to a larger public was the publication in 1956 of his major writings on the topic of linguistic relativity in a single volume titled "Language, Thought and Reality" edited by J. B. Carroll.

113

Eric Lenneberg
In 1953 psychologist Eric Lenneberg published a detailed criticism of the line of thought that had been fundamental for Sapir and Whorf. He criticized Whorf's examples from an objectivist view of language holding that languages are principally meant to represent events in the real world and that even though different languages express these ideas in different ways, the meanings of such expressions and therefore the thoughts of the speaker are equivalent. He argued that when Whorf was describing in English how a Hopi speaker's view of time was different, he was in fact translating the Hopi concept into English and therefore disproving the existence of linguistic relativity. He did not address the fact that Whorf was not principally concerned with translatability, but rather with how the habitual use of language influences habitual behavior. Whorf's point was that while English speakers may be able to understand how a Hopi speaker thinks, they are not actually able to think in that way.[16] Lenneberg's main criticism of Whorf's works was that he had never actually shown the causality between a linguistic phenomenon and a phenomenon in the realm of thought or behavior, but merely assumed it to be there. Together with his colleague, Roger Brown, Lenneberg proposed that in order to prove such a causality one would have to be able to directly correlate linguistic phenomena with behavior. They took up the task of proving or disproving the existence of linguistic relativity experimentally and published their findings in 1954. Since neither Sapir nor Whorf had ever stated an actual hypothesis, Brown and Lenneberg formulated one based on a condensation of the different expressions of the notion of linguistic relativity in their works. They identified the two tenets of the Whorf thesis as (i) "the world is differently experienced and conceived in different linguistic communities" and (ii) "language causes a particular cognitive structure".[17] These two tenets were later developed by Roger Brown into the so-called "weak" and "strong" formulation respectively: 1. Structural differences between language systems will, in general, be paralleled by nonlinguistic cognitive differences, of an unspecified sort, in the native speakers of the language. 2. The structure of anyone's native language strongly influences or fully determines the worldview he will acquire as he learns the language.[18] It is these two formulations of Roger Brown's which have become widely known and attributed to Whorf and Sapir while in fact the second formulation, verging on linguistic determinism, was never advanced by either of them. Since Brown and Lenneberg believed that the objective reality denoted by language was the same for speakers of all languages, they decided to test how different languages codified the same message differently and whether differences in codification could be proven to affect behavior.

Linguistic relativity They designed a number of experiments involving the codification of colors. In their first experiment, they investigated whether it was easier for speakers of English to remember color shades for which they had a specific name than to remember colors that were not as easily definable by words. This allowed them to correlate the linguistic categorization directly to a non-linguistic task, that of recognizing and remembering colors. In a later experiment, speakers of two languages that categorize colors differently (English and Zuni) were asked to perform tasks of color recognition. In this way, it could be determined whether the differing color categories of the two speakers would determine their ability to recognize nuances within color categories. Brown and Lenneberg in fact found that Zui speakers who classify green and blue together as a single category did have trouble recognizing and remembering nuances within the green/blue category.[19] Brown and Lenneberg's study became the beginning of a tradition of investigation of the linguistic relativity through color terminology (see below).

114

The universalist period

Lenneberg was also one of the first cognitive scientists to begin development of the Universalist theory of language which was finally formulated by Noam Chomsky in the form of Universal Grammar, effectively arguing that all languages share the same underlying structure. The Chomskyan school also holds the belief that linguistic structures are largely innate and that what are perceived as differences between specific languages the knowledge acquired by learning a language are merely surface phenomena and do not affect cognitive processes that are universal to all human beings. This theory became the dominant paradigm in American linguistics from the 1960s through the 1980s and the notion of linguistic relativity fell out of favor and became even the object of ridicule.[20] An example of the influence of universalist theory in the 1960s is the studies by Brent Berlin and Paul Kay who continued Lenneberg's research in color terminology. Berlin and Kay studied color terminology formation in languages and showed clear universal trends in color naming. For example, they found that even though languages have different color terminologies, they generally recognize certain hues as more focal than others. They showed that in languages with few color terms, it is predictable from the number of terms which hues are chosen as focal colors, for example, languages with only three color terms always have the focal colors black, white and red.[21] The fact that what had been believed to be random differences between color naming in different languages could be shown to follow universal patterns was seen as a powerful argument against linguistic relativity.[22] Berlin and Kay's research has since been criticized by relativists such as John A. Lucy, who has argued that Berlin and Kay's conclusions were skewed by their insistence that color terms should encode only color information.[23] This, Lucy argues, made them blind to the instances in which color terms provided other information that might be considered examples of linguistic relativity. For more information regarding the universalism and relativism of color terms, see Universalism and relativism of color terminology. Other universalist researchers dedicated themselves to dispelling other notions of linguistic relativity, often attacking specific points and examples given by Whorf. For example, Ekkehart Malotki's monumental study of time expressions in Hopi presented many examples that challenged Whorf's interpretation of Hopi language and culture as being "timeless".[24] Today many followers of the universalist school of thought still oppose the idea of linguistic relativity. For example, Steven Pinker argues in his book The Language Instinct that thought is independent of language, that language is itself meaningless in any fundamental way to human thought, and that human beings do not even think in "natural" language, i.e. any language that we actually communicate in; rather, we think in a meta-language, preceding any natural language, called "mentalese." Pinker attacks what he calls "Whorf's radical position," declaring, "the more you examine Whorf's arguments, the less sense they make."[25] Pinker and other universalist opponents of the linguistic relativity hypothesis have been accused by relativists of misrepresenting Whorf's views and arguing against strawmen put up by themselves.[26]

Linguistic relativity

115

Fishman's 'Whorfianism of the third kind'

Joshua Fishman argued that Whorf's true position was for a long time largely overlooked by most linguists. In 1978, he suggested that Whorf was a 'neo-Herderian champion'[27] and in 1982, he proposed his 'Whorfianism of the third kind' in an attempt to refocus linguists' attention on what he claimed was Whorf's real interest, namely the intrinsic value of 'little peoples' and 'little languages'.[28] Whorf himself had expressed the sentiment thus: But to restrict thinking to the patterns merely of English [] is to lose a power of thought which, once lost, can never be regained. It is the 'plainest' English which contains the greatest number of unconscious assumptions about nature. [] We handle even our plain English with much greater effect if we direct it from the vantage point of a multilingual awareness.[29] Where Brown's weak version of the linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that language influences thought and the strong version that language determines thought, Fishman's 'Whorfianism of the third kind' proposes that language is a key to culture.

Cognitive linguistics
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, advances in cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics renewed interest in the SapirWhorf hypothesis.[30] One of those who adopted a more Whorfian approach was George Lakoff. He argued that language is often used metaphorically and that different languages use different cultural metaphors that reveal something about how speakers of that language think. For example, English employs metaphors likening time with money, whereas other languages may not talk about time in that fashion. Other linguistic metaphors may be common to most languages because they are based on general human experience, for example, metaphors likening up with good and bad with down. Lakoff also argues that metaphor plays an important part in political debates where it matters whether one is arguing in favor of the "right to life" or against the "right to choose"; whether one is discussing "illegal aliens" or "undocumented workers". In his book Women, Fire and Dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind,[16] Lakoff reappraised the hypothesis of linguistic relativity and especially Whorf's views about how linguistic categorization reflects and/or influences mental categories. He concluded that the debate on linguistic relativity had been confused and resultingly fruitless. He identified four parameters on which researchers differed in their opinions about what constitutes linguistic relativity. One parameter is the degree and depth of linguistic relativity. Some scholars believe that a few examples of superficial differences in language and associated behavior are enough to demonstrate the existence of linguistic relativity, while others contend that only deep differences that permeate the linguistic and cultural system suffice as proof. A second parameter is whether conceptual systems are to be seen as absolute or whether they can be expanded or exchanged during the lifetime of a human being. A third parameter is whether translatability is accepted as a proof of similarity or difference between concept systems or whether it is rather the actual habitual use of linguistic expressions that is to be examined. A fourth parameter is whether to view the locus of linguistic relativity as being in the language or in the mind. Lakoff concluded that since many of Whorf's critics had criticized him using definitions of linguistic relativity that Whorf did not himself use, their criticisms were often ineffective. The publication of the 1996 anthology Rethinking linguistic relativity edited by sociolinguist John J. Gumperz and psycholinguist Stephen C. Levinson marked the entrance to a new period of linguistic relativity studies and a new way of defining the concept that focused on cognitive as well as social aspects of linguistic relativity. The book included studies by cognitive linguists sympathetic to the hypothesis as well as some working in the opposing universalist tradition. In this volume, cognitive and social scientists laid out a new paradigm for investigations in linguistic relativity. Levinson presented research results documenting rather significant linguistic relativity effects in the linguistic conceptualization of spatial categories between different languages. Two separate studies by Melissa Bowerman and Dan I. Slobin treated the role of language in cognitive processes. Bowerman showed that certain cognitive processes did not use language to any significant extent and therefore could not be subject to effects of linguistic relativity. Slobin on the other hand, described another kind of cognitive process that he named "thinking

Linguistic relativity for speaking" the kind of processes in which perceptional data and other kinds of prelinguistic cognition are translated into linguistic terms for the purpose of communicating them to others. These, Slobin argues, are the kinds of cognitive process that are at the root of linguistic relativity.

116

Present status
Current researchers such as Lera Boroditsky, John A. Lucy and Stephen C. Levinson believe that language influences thought, but in more limited ways than the broadest early claims. Exploring these parameters has sparked novel research that increases both scope and precision of prior examinations. Current studies of linguistic relativity are neither marked by the naive approach to exotic linguistic structures and their often merely presumed effect on thought that marked the early period, nor are they ridiculed and discouraged as in the universalist period. Instead of proving or disproving a theory, researchers in linguistic relativity now examine the interface between thought (or cognition), language and culture, and describe the degree and kind of interrelatedness or influence. Following the tradition of Lenneberg, they use experimental data to back up their conclusions. These psycholinguistic studies have since gone far beyond color perception (although that is still studied), having explored motion perception, emotion perception, object representation, and memory. The gold standard of psycholinguistic studies on linguistic relativity is now finding cognitive differences in speakers of different language when no language is involved in an experimental task (thus rendering inapplicable Pinker's claim that linguistic relativity is absurd because it is "circular"). Recent work with bilingual speakers attempts to tease apart the effects of language from the effects of culture on various aspects of bilingual cognition including perceptions of time, space, motion, colors, and emotion.[31] Researchers have described differences between bilinguals and monolinguals in perception of color,[32] representations of time,[33] or other elements of cognition.

Empirical research
John Lucy has identified three main strands of research into linguistic relativity.[34] The first is what he calls the "structure centered" approach. This approach starts with observing a structural peculiarity in a language and goes on to examine its possible ramifications for thought and behavior. The first example of this kind of research is Whorf's observation of discrepancies between the grammar of time expressions in Hopi and English. More recent research in this vein is the research made by John Lucy describing how usage of the categories of grammatical number and of numeral classifiers in the Mayan language Yucatec result in Mayan speakers classifying objects according to material rather than to shape as preferred by speakers of English.[35] The second strand of research is the "domain centered" approach, in which a semantic domain is chosen and compared across linguistic and cultural groups for correlations between linguistic encoding and behavior. The main strand of domain centered research has been the research on color terminology, although this domain according to Lucy and admitted by color terminology researchers such as Paul Kay, is not optimal for studying linguistic relativity, because color perception, unlike other semantic domains, is known to be hard wired into the neural system and as such subject to more universal restrictions than other semantic domains. Since the tradition of research on color terminology is by far the largest area of research into linguistic relativity it is described below in its own section. Another semantic domain which has proven fruitful for studies of linguistic relativity is the domain of space.[36] Spatial categories vary greatly between languages and recent research has shown that speakers rely on the linguistic conceptualization of space in performing many quotidian tasks. Research carried out by Stephen C Levinson and other cognitive scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics has reported three basic kinds of spatial categorization and while many languages use combinations of them some languages exhibit only one kind of spatial categorization and corresponding differences in behavior. For example the Australian language Guugu Yimithirr only uses absolute directions when describing spatial relations the position of everything is described by using the cardinal directions. A speaker of Guugu yimithirr will define a person as being "north of the

Linguistic relativity house", while a speaker of English may say that he is "in front of the house" or "to the left of the house" depending on the speaker's point of view. This difference makes Guugu yimithirr speakers better at performing some kinds of tasks, such as finding and describing locations in open terrain, whereas English speakers perform better in tasks regarding the positioning of objects relative to the speaker (for example telling someone to set a round table putting forks to the right of the plate and knives to the left would be extremely difficult in Guugu yimithirr).[37] The third strand of research is the "behavior centered" approach which starts by observing different behavior between linguistic groups and then proceeds to search for possible causes for that behavior in the linguistic system. This kind of approach was used by Whorf when he attributed the occurrence of fires at a chemical plant to the workers' use of the word 'empty' to describe the barrels containing only explosive vapors. One study in this line of research has been conducted by Bloom who noticed that speakers of Chinese had unexpected difficulties answering counter-factual questions posed to them in a questionnaire. After a study he concluded that this was related to the way in which counter-factuality is marked grammatically in the Chinese language. Another line of study by Frode Strmnes examined why Finnish factories had a higher occurrence of work related accidents than similar Swedish ones. He concluded that cognitive differences between the grammatical usage of Swedish prepositions and Finnish cases could have caused Swedish factories to pay more attention to the work process where Finnish factory organizers paid more attention to the individual worker.[38] Other research of importance to the study of linguistic relativity has been Daniel Everett's studies of the Pirah people of the Brazilian Amazon. Everett observed several peculiarities in Pirah culture that corresponded with linguistically rare features. The Pirah for example have neither numbers nor color terms in the way those are normally defined, and correspondingly they don't count or classify colors in the way other cultures do. Furthermore when Everett tried to instruct them in basic mathematics they proved unresponsive. Everett did not draw the conclusion that it was the lack of numbers in their language that prevented them from grasping mathematics, but instead concluded that the Pirah had a cultural ideology that made them extremely reluctant to adopt new cultural traits, and that this cultural ideology was also the reason that certain linguistic features that were otherwise believed to be universal did not exist in their language. Critics have argued that if the test subjects are unable to count for some other reason (perhaps because they are nomadic hunter/gatherers with nothing to count and hence no need to practise doing so) then one should not expect their language to have words for such numbers.[39] That is, it is the lack of need which explains both the lack of counting ability and the lack of corresponding vocabulary.

117

Color terminology research

The tradition of using the semantic domain of color names as an object for investigation of linguistic relativity began with Lenneberg and Roberts' 1953 study of Zuni color terms and color memory, and Brown and Lenneberg's 1954 study of English color terms and color memory. The studies showed a correlation between the availability of color terms for specific colors and the ease with which those colors were remembered in both speakers of Zuni and English. Researchers concluded that this had to do with properties of the focal colors having higher codability than less focal colors, and not with linguistic relativity effects. Berlin and Kay's 1969 study of color terms across languages concluded that there are universal typological principles of color naming that are determined by biological factors with little or no room for relativity related effects.[40] This study sparked a long tradition of studies in to the typological universals of color terminology. Some researchers such as John A Lucy,[41] Barbara Saunders[42] and Stephen C Levinson[43] have argued that Berlin and Kay's study does not in fact show that linguistic relativity in color naming is impossible, because of a number of basic unsupported assumptions in their study (such as whether all cultures in fact have a category of "color" that can be unproblematically defined and equated with the one found in Indo-European languages) and because of problems with their data stemming from those basic assumptions. Other researchers such as Robert E. Maclaury have continued investigation into the evolution of color names in specific languages, refining the possibilities of basic color term inventories. Like Berlin and Kay, Maclaury found no significant room for linguistic relativity in this domain, but rather concluded as did Berlin and Kay that the domain is governed mostly by physical-biological universals of human color perception.[44][45]

Linguistic relativity

118

Linguistic relativity and artificial languages

The SapirWhorf hypothesis influenced the development and standardization of Interlingua during the first half of the 20th Century, but this was largely due to Sapir's direct involvement.

Programming languages
Kenneth E. Iverson, the originator of the APL programming language, believed that the SapirWhorf hypothesis applied to computer languages (without actually mentioning the hypothesis by name). His Turing award lecture, "Notation as a tool of thought", was devoted to this theme, arguing that more powerful notations aided thinking about computer algorithms.[46] The essays of Paul Graham explore similar themes, such as a conceptual hierarchy of computer languages, with more expressive and succinct languages at the top. Thus, the so-called blub paradox (after a hypothetical programming language of average complexity called 'Blub') says that anyone preferentially using some particular programming language will 'know' that it is more powerful than some, but not that it is less powerful than others. The reason is that writing in some language means thinking in that language. Hence the paradox, because typically programmers are satisfied with whatever language they happen to use, because it dictates the way they think about programs.[47] In a 2003 presentation at an open source convention, Yukihiro Matsumoto, creator of the programming language Ruby, said that one of his inspirations for developing the language was the science fiction novel Babel-17, based on the SapirWhorf Hypothesis.[48]

Experimental languages
An experimental language is a constructed language designed for the purpose of exploring some element in the theory of linguistics. Many experimental languages are concerned with the relation between language and thought. In particular, much work has been done in science fiction.

Notes
[1] "The SapirWhorf hypothesis", in Hoijer 1954:92105 [2] This usage is now generally seen as a misnomer. As Jane Hill and Bruce Mannheim write: Yet, just as the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire the "SapirWhorf Hypothesis" is neither consistent with the writings of Sapir and Whorf, nor a hypothesis (Hill & Mannheim 1992) [3] Koerner, E.F.K."Towards a full pedigree of the SapirWhorf Hypothesis:from Locke to Lucy" Chapter in Ptz & Verspoor 2000:17" [4] Gumperz & Levinson 1997:2 [5] Trabant, Jrgen."How relativistic are Humboldts "Weltansichten"?" chapter in Ptz & Verspoor 2000 [6] Seuren 1998:180 [7] Seuren 1998:181 [8] Boas, Franz (1911), Handbook of American Indian languages (Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).) 1 [9] Sapir, Edward (1929), "The status of linguistics as a science", Language 5 [10] Edward Sapir & Morris Swadesh (1946) American Indian Grammatical Categories. Word 2:103112. Reedited for Dell Hymes in Language in Culture and Society, Harper and Row, 1964:100107. [11] Lucy (1982b:25) [12] Whorf (Carroll; Ed.); 1956: pp. 212214 [13] Pullum 1991 [14] Lenneberg 1953 [15] Whorf, B. L. "The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language" in Carrol (ed.) 1956 [16] Lakoff 1987 [17] Brown and Lenneberg, 1954:455,457 [18] Brown 1976:128 [19] [20] [21] [22] D'Andrade, Roy G. The Development of Cognitive Anthropology 1995: 185 Gumperz & Levinson 1997:3 & 6 Berlin & Kay 1969 Gumperz & Levinson 1997:6

Linguistic relativity
[23] Lucy 1992a [24] Malotki 1983 [25] Pinker 1994:60 [26] Casasanto 2008, Lucy 1992a, Lakoff 1987 [27] Fishman, 1978 [28] Fishman, 1982, p. 5 [29] Whorf, 1956, p. 244 (criticizing Ogden's Basic English). [30] Seidner, Stanley S., Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective. Bruxelles: Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguisme, 1982. [31] E.g. Pavlenko 1999, Cook and Bassetti 2010, Athanasopoulos 2009, Phillips & Boroditsky 2003 inter alia [32] Andrews 1994 [33] Boroditsky, Ham & Ramscar 2002 [34] Lucy 1997 [35] Lucy 1992b [36] Lucy 1997:301 [37] Levinson 1996 [38] Lucy 1997:304 [39] Frank, Michael C.; Everett, Daniel L.; Fedorenko, Evelina; Gibson, Edward (2008), "Number as a cognitive technology: Evidence from Pirah language and cognition" (http:/ / tedlab. mit. edu/ tedlab_website/ researchpapers/ Frank et al. InPress Cog. pdf), Cognition 108 (3): 81924, doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.04.007, PMID18547557, , retrieved 14 May 2009 [40] Berlin, Brent & Kay, Paul (1969). Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. [41] Lucy, J. A. (1997). The linguistics of "color". In C.L. Hardin & L. Maffi (Eds.), Color categories in thought and language (pp. 320436). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [42] Saunders, Barbara (2000). Revisiting Basic Color Terms. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 6, 8199 [43] Levinson, Stephen C. (2000). Yeli Dnye and the Theory of Basic Color Terms, Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 10:1 (pp. 355). [44] MacLaury, Robert E. (1992). From Brightness to Hue: An Explanatory Model of Color-Category Evolution. Current Anthropology, 33(2), pp. 137186. [45] MacLaury, Robert E. (1997). Color and Cognition in Mesoamerica: Constructing Categories as Vantages. Austin: University of Texas Press. [46] Iverson K.E.," Notation as a tool of thought (http:/ / elliscave. com/ APL_J/ tool. pdf)", Communications of the ACM, 23: 444465 (August 1980). [47] Graham, Paul (2004), Hackers & painters: Big ideas from the computer age (http:/ / www. paulgraham. com/ avg. html), O'Reilly, pp.174178, [48] "The Power and Philosophy of Ruby (or how to create Babel-17" http:/ / www. rubyist. net/ ~matz/ slides/ oscon2003/ mgp00001. html

119

References
Andrews, David (1994), "The Russian color categories sinij and goluboj: An experimental analysis of their interpretation in the standard and emigr languages", Journal of Slavic Linguistics 2: 928 Athanasopoulos, Panos (2009), "Cognitive representation of colour in bilinguals: The case of Greek blues", Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 12 (1): 8395, doi:10.1017/S136672890800388X Berlin, Brent & Paul Kay (1969), Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, Berkeley: University of California Press Boroditsky, Lera, Wendy Ham & Michael Ramscar (2002), "What is universal in event perception? Comparing English & Indonesian speakers", in W. D. Gray & C. D. Schunn, Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Brown, R. & Eric Lenneberg (1954), "A study in language and cognition", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49 (3): 454462, doi:10.1037/h0057814 Brown, R. (1976), "In Memorial doi:10.1016/0010-0277(76)90001-9 Tribute to Eric Lenneberg", Cognition 4 (2): 125153,

Casasanto, Daniel (2008), "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Whorf? Crosslinguistic Differences in Temporal Language and Thought", Language Learning 58 (1): 79 Cook, Vivian & Benedetta Bassetti (2010), Language and Bilingual Cognition, Hove: Psychology Press

Linguistic relativity Drivonikou, G. V., P. Kay,T. Regier, R. B. Ivry, A. L. Gilbert, A. Franklin & I. R. L. Davies (2007), "Further evidence that Whorfian effects are stronger in the right visual field than the left", Proceedings of the National Academy of the Sciences USA. 104 (3): 10971102, doi:10.1073/pnas.0610132104, PMC1783370, PMID17213312 Fishman, Joshua A. (1978), "Positive bilingualism: Some overlooked rationales and forefathers", in J. E. Alatis (Ed.), International dimensions of bilingual education, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, pp.4252. Fishman, Joshua A. (1982), "Whorfianism of the third kind: Ethnolinguistic diversity as a worldwide societal asset", Language in Society 11: 114, doi:10.1017/S0047404500009015 Gilbert, Aubrey L., Terry Regier, Paul Kay & Richard B. Ivry (2008), "Support for lateralization of the Whorf effect beyond the realm of color discrimination" (http:/ / www. icsi. berkeley. edu/ ~kay/ cats-dogs-in-press. pdf), Brain and Language 105 (2): 9198, doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.06.001, PMID17628656 Graham, Paul (April 2003), "Beating the Averages" (http:/ / www. paulgraham. com/ avg. html), Essays, retrieved 2009-05-15 Gumperz, John, & Stephen Levinson eds. (1996), Rethinking Linguistic Relativity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Hill, Jane H & Bruce Mannheim (1992), "Language and World view", Annual Review of Anthropology 21: 381406, doi:10.1146/annurev.an.21.100192.002121 Hoijer, Harry, ed. (1954), Language in culture: Conference on the interrelations of language and other aspects of culture, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Lakoff, George (1987), Women, fire, and dangerous things, University Of Chicago Press Lenneberg, Eric (1953), "Cognition in Ethnolinguistics", Language (Linguistic Society of America) 29 (4): 463471, doi:10.2307/409956, JSTOR409956 Levinson, Stephen C. (1996), "Language and Space", Annual review of Anthropology 25: 35382, doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.25.1.353 Levinson, Stephen C. (2000), "Yeli Dnye and the Theory of Basic Color Terms", Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 10 (1): 355, doi:10.1525/jlin.2000.10.1.3 Lucy, John A. (1992a), Grammatical Categories and Cognition: A Case Study of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Lucy, John A. (1992b), Language Diversity and Thought: A Reformulation of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Lucy, John A. (1997), "Linguistic Relativity", Annual Review of Anthropology 26: 291312, doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.291 Malotki, Ekkehart (1983), Werner Winter, ed., "Hopi Time: A Linguistic Analysis of the Temporal Concepts in the Hopi Language", Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: Mouton Publishers) 20 Pavlenko, Aneta (1999), "New approaches to concepts in bilingual memory", Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 2 (3): 209230, doi:10.1017/S1366728999000322 Phillips, Webb, & Lera Boroditsky (2003), "Can quirks of grammar affect the way you think? Grammatical gender and object concepts", in R. Alterman & D. Kirsh, Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Boston: Cognitive Science Society Pinker, Steven (1994), The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language, Perennial

120

Linguistic relativity Pullum, Geoffrey (1991), The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax and other Irreverent Essays on the Study of Language (http://users.utu.fi/freder/Pullum-Eskimo-VocabHoax.pdf), Chicaco University Press Ptz, Martin & Marjolyn Verspoor (eds) (2000), Explorations in linguistic relativity, John Benjamins Publishing Company, ISBN9027237069 Sapir, Edward (1983), David G. Mandelbaum, ed., Selected Writings of Edward Sapir in Language, Culture, and Personality, University of California Press Seidner, Stanley S. (1982), Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective, Bruxelles: Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguismePress Seuren, Pieter A. M. (1998), Western linguistics: An historical introduction, Wiley-blackwell, ISBN0631208917 Trager, George L. (1959), "The Systematization of the Whorf Hypothesis", Anthropological Linguistics 1, No. 1, Operational Models in Synchronic Linguistics: A Symposium Presented at the 1958 Meetings of the American Anthropological Association: 31-35 Whorf, Benjamin (1956), John B. Carroll (ed.), ed., Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, MIT Press

121

Further reading
Deutscher, Guy (2010), Does Your Language Shape How You Think? (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 08/ 29/ magazine/ 29language-t. html?pagewanted=1& ref=general& src=me), New York Times Magazine, Aug 26, 2010 Everett, Dan (2005), "Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirah: Another Look at the Design Features of Human Language" (http:/ / ldc. upenn. edu/ myl/ llog/ EverettPiraha. pdf), Current Anthropology 46 (4) Kay, Paul & Willet Kempton (1984), "What is the SapirWhorf Hypothesis?", American Anthropologist 86 (1): 6579, doi:10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050 Kay, Paul & Chad K. McDaniel (1978), "The Linguistic Significance of Meanings of Basic Color Terms", Language (Linguistic Society of America) 54 (3): 610646, doi:10.2307/412789, JSTOR412789 Lee, Penny (1996), The Whorf Theory Complex A Critical Reconstruction, John Benjamins Lenneberg, Eric; A. M. Brown (1956), "The Language of Experience: a Study in Methodology", Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics (Baltimore: Waverly Press) Niemeier, Susanne & Ren Dirven (eds) (2000), Evidence for linguistic relativity, John Benjamins Publishing Company, ISBN9027237050 O'Neill, Sean (2008), Cultural Contact and Linguistic Relativity Among the Indians of Northwestern California, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN0806139226

Linguistic relativity

122

External links
The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relativism/supplement2.html) entry by Chris Swoyer in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Babies think before they speak says Harvard professor (http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/07.22/ 21-think.html) The Great Whorf Hypothesis Hoax by Dan Moonhawk Alford (http://www.enformy.com/dma-Chap7.htm). Language and Thought (http://www.unc.edu/~jdumas/projects/languagethought.htm) How Does Our Language Shape The Way We Think? (http://edge.org/3rd_culture/boroditsky09/ boroditsky09_index.html) Effects of grammatical gender on human thought (http://www-psych.stanford.edu/~lera/papers/gender.pdf)

Pirah language

123

Pirah language
Pirah
xapaitiso Pronunciation Spoken in Region Ethnicity Native speakers [pits] Brazil Amazon River Pirah people 250-380 (date missing)

Language family Muran Pirah

Language codes ISO 639-3 myp

Pirah (also spelled Pirah, Pirahn) is a language spoken by the Pirah. The Pirah are an indigenous people of Amazonas, Brazil, living along the Maici River, a tributary of the Amazon. Pirah is believed to be the only surviving member of the Mura language family, all other members having become extinct in the last few centuries. It is therefore a language isolate, without any known connection to other living languages. It is estimated to have between 250 and 380 speakers.[1] It is not in immediate danger of extinction, as its use is vigorous and the Pirah community is mostly monolingual. The Pirah language is most notable as the subject of various controversial claims;[1] for example, that it provides evidence for the SapirWhorf hypothesis.[2] The controversy is compounded by the sheer difficulty of learning the language; the number of linguists with field experience in Pirah is very small.

Recent controversy
Daniel Everett, over the course of more than two dozen papers and one book about the language, has ascribed various surprising features to the language, including: One of the smallest phoneme inventories of any known language and a correspondingly high degree of allophonic variation, including two very rare sounds, [] and [t]. An extremely limited clause structure, not allowing for nested recursive sentences like "Mary said that John thought that Henry was fired". No abstract color words other than terms for light and dark (though this is disputed in commentaries by Paul Kay and others on Everett (2005)). The entire set of personal pronouns appears to have been borrowed from Nheengatu, a Tupi-based lingua franca. Although there is no documentation of a prior stage of Pirah, the close resemblance of the Pirah pronouns to those of Nheengatu makes this hypothesis plausible. Pirah can be whistled, hummed, or encoded in music. In fact, Keren Everett believes that current research on the language misses much of its meaning by paying little attention to the language's prosody. Consonants and vowels may be omitted altogether and the meaning conveyed solely through variations in pitch, stress, and rhythm. She says that mothers teach their children the language through constantly singing the same musical patterns.[3] Everett claims that the absence of recursion, if real, falsifies the basic assumption of modern Chomskian linguistics. This claim is contested by many linguists, who claim that recursion has been observed in Pirah by Everett himself, while Everett argues that those utterances that superficially seemed recursive to him at first were misinterpretations

Pirah language caused by his earlier lack of familiarity with the language. Furthermore, some linguists, including Noam Chomsky himself, argue that even if Pirah lacked recursion, that would have no implications for Chomskian linguistics.[1][4][5]

124

Phonology
The Pirah language is one of the phonologically simplest languages known, comparable to Rotokas (New Guinea) and Hawaiian. There is a claim that Pirah has as few as ten phonemes, one fewer than Rotokas, but this requires analysing [k] as an underlying /hi/. Although such a phenomenon is odd cross-linguistically, Ian Maddieson has found in researching Pirah data that /k/ does indeed exhibit an unusual distribution in the language. The 'ten phoneme' claim also does not consider the tones of Pirah, at least two of which are phonemic (marked by an acute accent and either unmarked or marked by a grave accent in Everett), bringing the number of phonemes to at least twelve. Sheldon (1988) claims three tones, high (), mid () and low ().

Phoneme inventory
When languages have inventories as small and allophonic variation as great as in Pirah and Rotokas, different linguists may have very different ideas as to the nature of their phonological systems. Vowels
Front Back Close Mid Open a i o

Consonants The segmental phonemes are:

Bilabial Alveolar Velar Glottal Stop Voiceless Voiced Fricative Voiceless p b~m t ~n s~h h (k)

// is written x. [k] has been claimed to be an allophone of the sequence /hi/. Women sometimes substitute /h/ for /s/.

Pirah language

125

Pirah consonants with example words

Phoneme /p/ /t/ Phone [p] [t] [t] before /i/ /k/ // /b/ [k] [] [b] [m] initially // [] [n] initially [*] (see below) /s/ [s] [] before /i/ /h/ [h] Word piba otter taahoasi sand tii residue kaaxai macaw kaaxai macaw xsoobi down (noun) boopai throat, neck xopogi inga (fruit) gataha can (noun) toogixi hoe sahaxai should not xsiis fat (noun) xapahai bird arrow

The number of phonemes is thirteen, matching Hawaiian, if [k] is counted as a phoneme and there are just two tones; if [k] is not phonemic, there are twelve phonemes, one more than the number found in Rotokas. (English, by comparison, has thirty to forty-five, depending on dialect.) However, many of these sounds show a great deal of allophonic variation. For instance, vowels are nasalized after the glottal consonants h and // (written h and x). Also, /b/ [b, , m]: the nasal [m] after a pause, the trill [] before /o/. // [, n, ]: the nasal [n] (an apical alveolar nasal) after a pause; [] is a lateral alveolarlinguolabial double flap that has only been reported for this language, where the tongue strikes the upper gum ridge and then strikes the lower lip. However, it is only used in certain special types of speech performances, and so might not be considered a normal speech sound. /s/ [s, h]: in women's speech, /s/ occurs as [h] before [i], and "sometimes" elsewhere. /k/ [k, p, h, ]: in men's speech, word-initial [k] and [] are interchangeable. For many people, [k] and [p] may be exchanged in some words. The sequences [hoa] and [hia] are said to be in free variation with [ka] and [ka], at least in some words. Because of its variation, Everett states that /k/ is not a stable phoneme. By analysing it as /hi/, he is able to theoretically reduce the number of consonants to seven. Pirah is sometimes said to be one of the few languages without nasals, with the voiced stops analyzed as underlyingly /b/ and //:

Pirah language

126

No-nasal analysis
Bilabial Alveolar Velar Glottal Stop Voiceless plosive Voiced plosive Fricative Voiceless p b s t (k) h

However, an alternate analysis is possible. By analysing the voiced stops as underlyingly /m/ and /n/, and the [k] as /hi/, it could also be claimed to be one of the very few languages without velars:

No-velar analysis
Bilabial Alveolar Glottal Plosive Nasal stop Fricative p m t n s h

The bilabially trilled affricate

In 2004, Everett discovered that the language uses a voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop, [t]. He conjectures that the Pirah had not used that phone in his presence before because they were ridiculed whenever non-Pirah heard the sound. The occurrence of [t] in Pirah is all the more remarkable considering that the only other languages known to use it are the unrelated ChapacuraWanham languages Oro Win and Wari, spoken some 500km west of the Pirah area. Oro Win too is a nearly extinct language (surviving only as the second language of a dozen or so members of the Wari tribe) which was discovered by Everett in 1994.[6]

Lexicon
Pirah has a few loan words, mainly from Portuguese. Pirah "kpo" ("cup") is from the Portuguese word "copo", and "bikagogia" ("business") comes from Portuguese "mercadoria" ("merchandise").

Kinship terms
Everett (2005) claims that the Pirah culture has the simplest known kinship system of any human culture. A single word, baxi (pronounced [m]), is used for both mother and father (like English "parent" although Pirah has no alternative), and they appear not to keep track of relationships any more distant than biological siblings.

Numerals and grammatical number

According to Everett in 1986, Pirah has words for 'one' (hi) and 'two' (ho), distinguished only by tone. In his 2005 analysis, however, Everett claimed that Pirah has no words for numerals at all, and that hi and ho actually mean "small quantity" and "larger quantity". Frank et al. (2008) describes two experiments on four Pirah speakers that were designed to test these two hypotheses. In one, ten batteries were placed on a table one at a time and the Pirah were asked how many were there. All four speakers answered in accordance with the hypothesis that the language has words for 'one' and 'two' in this experiment, uniformly using hi for one battery, ho for two batteries, and a mixture of the second word and 'many' for more than two batteries. The second experiment, however, started with ten batteries on the table, and batteries were subtracted one at a time. In this experiment, one speaker used hi (the word previously supposed to mean 'one') when there were six batteries left, and all four speakers used that word consistently when there were as many as three batteries left. Though Frank and his colleagues do not attempt to

Pirah language explain their subjects' difference in behavior in these two experiments, they conclude that the two words under investigation "are much more likely to be relative or comparative terms like 'few' or 'fewer' than absolute terms like 'one' ". There is no grammatical distinction between singular and plural, even in pronouns.

127

Color terms
There is also a claim that Pirah lacks any color terminology, being one of the few cultures (mostly in the Amazon basin and New Guinea) that only have specific words for light and dark.[7] Although the Pirah glossary in D. L. Everett's Ph.D. thesis includes a list of color words (page 346), Everett (2006) now claims that the items listed in this glossary are not in fact words but descriptive phrases, based on his subsequent additional twenty years of field research.

Syntax
Pronouns
The basic Pirah personal pronouns are ti "I", gxai [n] "you (singular)", hi "(s)he, they". These can be serially combined: ti gxai or ti hi to mean "we" (inclusive and exclusive), and gxai hi to mean "you (plural)". There are several other pronouns reported, such as 'she', 'it' (animal), 'it' (aquatic animal), and 'it' (inanimate), but these may actually be nouns. The fact that different linguists come up with different lists of such pronouns suggests that they are not basic to the grammar. In two recent papers, Everett cites Sheldon as agreeing with his (Everett's) analysis of the pronouns. Sheldon (1988) gives the following list of pronouns: ti "I" gixai "you" (sing.) hi "he" (human) i "she" (human) ik "it", "they" (animated non-human non-aquatic) si "it", "they" (animated non-human aquatic) a "it", "they" (non-animated) tiatiso "we" gixaitiso "you" (pl.) hiaitiso "they" (human?) Pronouns are prefixed to the verb, in the order SUBJECT-INDOBJECT-OBJECT where INDOBJECT includes a preposition "to", "for", etc. They may all be omitted, e.g., hi-ti-gixai-biib-ihai "he will send you to me". For possession, a pronoun is used in apposition (zero-marking):
pait hi xithoi

Paita s/he testicles

"Paita's testicles"
ti kaii I house

"my house"

Pirah language

128

Verbs
Pirah is agglutinative, using a large number of affixes to communicate grammatical meaning. Even the 'to be' verbs of existence or equivalence are suffixes in Pirah. For instance, the Pirah sentence "there is a paca there" uses just two words; the copula is a suffix on "paca":
kixihxao-xaag gih paca-exists there

"There's a paca there" Pirah also uses suffixes which communicate evidentiality, a category which English grammar lacks. One such suffix, -xagah, means that the speaker actually observed the event in question:
hoagaxai hi pxai kaoppi-sai-xagah

Hoaga'oai s/he [sp. fish] catch-ing- (I saw it)

"Hoaga'oai caught a pa'ai fish (I know because I saw it)" (The suffix -sai turns a verb into a noun, like English '-ing'.) Other verbal suffixes indicate that an action is deduced from circumstantial evidence, or based on hearsay. Unlike in English, in Pirah speakers must state their source of information: they cannot be ambiguous. There are also verbal suffixes that indicate desire to perform an action, frustration in completing an action, or frustration in even starting an action. There are also a large number of verbal aspects: perfective (completed) vs. imperfective (uncompleted), telic (reaching a goal) vs. atelic, continuing, repeated, and commencing. However, despite this complexity, there appears to be little distinction of transitivity. For example, the same verb, xobai, can mean either 'look' or 'see', and xoab can mean either 'die' or 'kill'. The verbs are, however, zero-marked, with no grammatical agreement with the arguments of the verb.[8]
ti xbogi ti-ba I milk drink-INTENSIFIER

"I really drink milk."

ti g kapiigaxitoii hoa- give-PROX

I you pencil

"I give the pencil to you." According to Sheldon (1988), the Pirah verb has eight main suffix-slots, and a few sub-slots: Slot A: intensive bai Slot B: causative/incompletive boi causative/completive boga inchoative/incompletive hoi inchoative/completive hoaga future/somewhere aip.

Pirah language future/elsewhere aop past aob Slot C: negative/optative sai + C1 Slot C1: preventive haxa opinionated ha possible positive/optative aati negative/indicative hiab + C2 positive/indicative + C2 Slot C2: declarative a probabilistic/certain ihai probabilistic/uncertain/beginning abagai probabilistic/uncertain/execution abai probabilistic/uncertain/completion aa stative ixi interrogative1/progressive ihiai interrogative2/progressive oxoihiai interrogative1 ihi interrogative2 oxoihi Slot D: continuative xiig repetitive ta Slot E: immediate aha intentive ii Slot F: durative ab Slot G: desiderative sog Slot H:

129

Pirah language causal taio conclusive sibiga emphatic/reiterative koi + H1 emphatic koi + H1 reiterative isa + H1 + H1 Slot H1: present ihiai past ixaaga pastImmediate agaha These suffixes undergo some phonetic changes depending on context. For instance, the continuative xiig reduces to iig after a consonant, e.g., ait-ab-xiig-a aitabiiga "he is still sleeping". Also an epenthetic vowel gets inserted between two suffixes if necessary to avoid a consonant-cluster; the vowel is either i (before or after s, p, or t) or a (other cases), e.g., ogai sog-sai ogai sogisai "he possibly may not want a field". Conversely, when the junction of two morphemes creates a double vowel (ignoring tones), the vowel with the lower tone is suppressed: si-ba-bo-ga-a sibaboga "he caused the arrow to wound it". For further details, see Sheldon's 1988 paper.

130

Embedding
Everett originally claimed that in order to embed one clause within another, the embedded clause is turned into a noun with the -sai suffix seen above:
hi ob-axi kaha kai-sai

(s)he knows-really arrow make-ing

"(S)he really knows how to make arrows" (literally, '(S)he really knows arrow-making')
ti xog-i-ba gxai kaha kai-sai arrow make-ing

I want-this-very.much you

The examples of embedding were limited to one level of depth, so that to say "He really knows how to talk about making arrows", you would need to use more than one sentence. Everett has also concluded that because Pirah does not have number-words for counting, does not allow recursive adjective-lists like "the green wealthy hunchbacked able golfer", and does not allow recursive possessives like "The child's friend's mother's house", a Pirah sentence must have a length limit. This leads to the additional conclusion that there is only a finite number of different possible sentences in Pirah with any given vocabulary, as there is a finite number of chess moves. Everett has also recently reinterpreted even the limited form of embedding in the example above as parataxis. He now states that Pirah does not admit any embedding at all, not even one level deep. He says that words that appear to form a clause in the example are actually a separate unembedded sentence which, in context, expresses the same thought that would be expressed by a clause in English. He gives evidence for this based on the lack of specialized words for clause-formation, the pattern of coreferring tokens in the purported clause-constructions, and examples where the purported clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by other complete sentences.

Pirah language Everett stated that Pirah cannot say, "John's brother's house" but must say, "John has a brother. This brother has a house." in two separate sentences.[9] According to Everett the statement that Pirah is a finite language without embedding and without recursion presents a challenge for proposals by Noam Chomsky and others concerning universal grammaron the grounds that if these proposals are correct, all languages should show evidence of recursive (and similar) grammatical structures. Noam Chomsky has replied that he considers recursion to be an innate cognitive capacity that is available for use in language, but that the capacity may or may not manifest itself in any one particular language.[10] However, as Everett points out, the language can have recursion in ideas, with some ideas in a story being less important than others. He also mentions a paper from a recursion conference in 2005 describing recursive behaviors in deer as they forage for food. So to him, recursion can be a brain property that humans have developed more than other animals. He points out that the criticism of his conclusions uses his doctoral thesis to refute his knowledge and conclusions after a further twenty-nine years of research.[9] Everett's observation that the language does not allow recursion has also been vigorously disputed by other linguists,[1] who call attention to data and arguments from Everett's own previous publications, which interpreted the "-sai" construction as embedding. Everett has responded that his earlier understanding of the language was incomplete and slanted by theoretical bias. He now says that the morpheme -sai attached to the main verb of a clause merely marks the clause as 'old information', and is not a nominalizer at all (or a marker of embedding).[4] More recently, the German linguist Uli Sauerland of the Zentrum fr Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft at Humboldt University (Berlin) has performed a phonetic reanalysis of experimental data in which Pirah speakers were asked to repeat utterances by Everett. Sauerland reports that these speakers make a tonal distinction in their use of "-sai" that "provides evidence for the existence of complex clauses in Piraha".[11]

131

Pirah and the SapirWhorf hypothesis

The SapirWhorf hypothesis claims that there is a relationship between the language a person speaks and how that person understands the world. The conclusions about the significance of Pirah numeracy and the SapirWhorf hypothesis in Frank et al. (2008) are quoted below. In short, in this study the Pirah were by and large able to match exact quantities of objects set before them (even larger quantities), but had difficulty matching exact quantities when larger quantities were set before them and then hidden from view before they were asked to match them. A total lack of exact quantity language did not prevent the Pirah from accurately performing a task which relied on the exact numerical equivalence of large sets. This evidence argues against the strong Whorfian claim that language for number creates the concept of exact quantity. [] Instead, the case of Pirah suggests that languages that can express large, exact cardinalities have a more modest effect on the cognition of their speakers: They allow the speakers to remember and compare information about cardinalities accurately across space, time, and changes in modality. [] Thus, the Pirah understand the concept of one (in spite of having no word for the concept). Additionally, they appear to understand that adding or subtracting one from a set will change the quantity of that set, though the generality of this knowledge is difficult to assess without the ability to label sets of arbitrary cardinality using number words. (emphasis added)[2] Being concerned that, because of this cultural gap, they were being cheated in trade, the Pirah people asked Daniel Everett, a linguist who was working with them, to teach them basic numeracy skills. After eight months of enthusiastic but fruitless daily study with Everett, the Pirah concluded that they were incapable of learning the material and discontinued the lessons. Not a single Pirah had learned to count up to ten or even to add 1 + 1.[12] Everett argues that test-subjects are unable to count for two cultural reasons and one formal linguistic reason. First, they are nomadic hunter-gatherers with nothing to count and hence no need to practice doing so. Second, they have a cultural constraint against generalizing beyond the present which eliminates number-words. Third, since, according to some researchers, numerals and counting are based on recursion in the language, the absence of recursion in their

Pirah language language entails a lack of counting. That is, it is the lack of need which explains both the lack of counting-ability and the lack of corresponding vocabulary. Everett does not claim that the Pirahs are cognitively incapable of counting.

132

Knowledge of other languages

Everett, who worked with Pirah for thirty years, states that most of the remaining Pirah speakers are monolingual, knowing only a few words of Portuguese. The anthropologist Marco Antonio Gonalves, who lived with the Pirah for 18 months over several years, writes that "Most men understand Portuguese, though not all of them are able to express themselves in the language. Women have little understanding of Portuguese and never use it as a form of expression. The men developed a contact language allowing them to communicate with regional populations, mixing words from Pirah, Portuguese and the Amazonian Lngua Geral known as Nheengatu."[13] In recent work, Jeanette Sakel of the University of Manchester is studying the use of Portuguese by Pirah speakers. Everett states that the Pirah use a very rudimentary Portuguese lexicon with Pirah grammar when speaking Portuguese and that their Portuguese is so limited to very specific topics that they are rightly called monolingual, without contradicting Gonalves (since they can communicate on a very narrow range of topics using a very restricted lexicon). Although Gonalves quotes whole stories told by the Pirah, Everett (2009) claims that the Portuguese in these stories is not a literal transcription of what was said, but a free translation from the pidgin Portuguese of the Pirah.

References
[1] Nevins, Andrew, David Pesetsky and Cilene Rodrigues (2009). " Piraha Exceptionality: a Reassessment (http:/ / www. people. fas. harvard. edu/ ~nevins/ npr09. pdf)", Language", 85.2, 355404. [2] Michael C. Frank, Daniel L. Everett, Evelina Fedorenko and Edward Gibson (2008), Number as a cognitive technology: Evidence from Pirah language and cognition (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6T24-4SR081F-2& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=afa3cc0668c467625ea0595f07ec4686). Cognition, Volume 108, Issue 3, September 2008, Pages 819824. [3] John Colapinto (2007), The Interpreter (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ reporting/ 2007/ 04/ 16/ 070416fa_fact_colapinto?currentPage=all). New Yorker, 2007-04-16 [4] Daniel Everett (2009), " Pirah Culture and Grammar: a Response to some criticism (http:/ / www. llc. ilstu. edu/ dlevere/ docs/ Reply in Language 2009. pdf)", Language", 85.2, 405442. [5] Nevins, Andrew, David Pesetsky and Cilene Rodrigues (2009), " Evidence and Argumentation: a Reply to Everett (2009) (http:/ / www. people. fas. harvard. edu/ ~nevins/ npr09b. pdf)", Language", 85.3, 671681. [6] University Times VOLUME 27 NUMBER 4 OCTOBER 13, 1994 (http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ utimes/ issues/ 27/ 101394/ 16. html) [7] Linguistics and English Language (http:/ / ling. man. ac. uk/ Info/ staff/ DE/ culturalgrammar. pdf) [8] Piraha at WALS (http:/ / wals. info/ languoid/ lect/ wals_code_prh) [9] Recursion and Human Thought: Why the Pirah Don't Have Numbers (http:/ / www. edge. org/ 3rd_culture/ everett07/ everett07_index. html) [10] Noam Chomsky: You Ask The Questions, interview in The Independent, 28 August 2006 (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ people/ profiles/ noam-chomsky-you-ask-the-questions-413678. html) [11] Sauerland, Uli. Experimental evidence for complex syntax in Pirah (http:/ / ling. auf. net/ lingBuzz/ 001095) [12] Everett, Daniel L. (2005) Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirah (http:/ / www. pnglanguages. org/ americas/ brasil/ PUBLCNS/ ANTHRO/ PHGrCult. pdf). Current Anthropology, volume 46 issue 4. Page 11 [13] Encyclopedia Indigenous Peoples of Brazil (http:/ / www. socioambiental. org/ pib/ epienglish/ piraha/ ling. shtm)

Pirah language

133

Bibliography
Dixon, R. M. W. and Alexandra Aikhenvald, eds., (1999) The Amazonian Languages. Cambridge University Press. Everett, D. L. (1992) A Lngua Pirah e a Teoria da Sintaxe: Descrio, Perspectivas e Teoria (The Pirah Language and Syntactic Theory: Description, Perspectives and Theory). Ph.D. thesis. (in Portuguese). Editora Unicamp, 400 pages; ISBN 85-268-0082-5. Everett, Daniel, (1986) "Piraha". In the Handbook of Amazonian Languages, vol I. Desmond C. Derbyshire and Geoffrey K. Pullum (eds). Mouton de Gruyter. Everett, Daniel (1988) On Metrical Constituent Structure in Piraha Phonology. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 6: 207246 Everett, Daniel and Keren Everett (1984) On the Relevance of Syllable Onsets to Stress Placement. Linguistic Inquiry 15: 705711 Everett, Daniel 2005. Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirah: Another Look at the Design Features of Human Language. Current Anthropology 46:621646 Keren Everett (1998) Acoustic Correlates of Stress in Pirah. The Journal of Amazonian Languages: 104162. (Published version of University of Pittsburgh M.A. thesis.) Nevins, Andrew, David Pesetsky and Cilene Rodrigues (2009) " Piraha Exceptionality: a Reassessment (http:// www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~nevins/npr09.pdf)", Language", 85.2, 355404. 2009, a response to Everett (2005). Everett, Daniel (2009) " Pirah Culture and Grammar: a Response to some criticism (http://www.llc.ilstu.edu/ dlevere/docs/Reply in Language 2009.pdf)", Language", 85.2, 405442, reply to previous article. Nevins, Andrew, David Pesetsky and Cilene Rodrigues (2009) " Evidence and Argumentation: a Reply to Everett (2009) (http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~nevins/npr09b.pdf)", Language", 85.3, 671681. 2009, reply to previous article Sauerland, Uli. (2010). " Experimental evidence for complex syntax in Pirah" (http://ling.auf.net/lingBuzz/ 001095)". Sheldon, Steven N. (1974) Some morphophonemic and tone perturbation rules in Mura-Pirah. International Journal of American Linguistics, v. 40 279282. Sheldon, Steven N. (1988) Os sufixos verbais Mura-Pirah (= Mura-Pirah verbal suffixes). SIL International, Srie Lingstica N 9, Vol. 2: 147175 PDF (http://www.sil.org/americas/brasil/PUBLCNS/LING/ PHVbSf.pdf). Thomason, Sarah G. and Daniel L. Everett (2001) Pronoun borrowing. Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistic Society 27. PDF (http://www-personal.umich.edu/~thomason/papers/pronborr.pdf). Michael Frank (2008) "Number as a cognitive technology: Evidence from Pirah language and cognition". PDF (http://tedlab.mit.edu/~mcfrank/papers/FEFG-cognition.pdf).

External links
Piraha Alphabet (http://omniglot.com/writing/piraha.php) (at Omniglot) Everett, Daniel. Home page (http://www.llc.manchester.ac.uk/subjects/lel/staff/Daniel Everett/) Pirah language (http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/piraha/803) - by Professor Marco Antonio Gonalves (UFRJ) in Encyclopedia of Indigenous People in Brazil SIL Ethnologue Report (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=myp) Pirah Dictionary/ Dicionrio Mura-Pirah (http://orbita.starmedia.com/~i.n.d.i.o.s/piraha1.htm) Etnolinguistica.Org: discussion list on native South American languages (http://www.etnolinguistica.org) NPR: Tribe Helps Linguist Argue with Prevailing Theory (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. php?storyId=9458681)

Pirah language Unlocking the secret sounds of language: Life without time or numbers (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/ science/unlocking-the-secret-sounds-of-language-life-without-time-or-numbers-477061.html) article in The Independent Brazil's Pirah Tribe: Living without Numbers or Time (http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/ 0,1518,414291,00.html) Spiegel New Yorker article 'The Interpreter' (abstract) (http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/ 070416fa_fact_colapinto) Audio sample of sung Pirah two boys singing about a day's events (http://www.llc.ilstu.edu/dlevere/ Audio/song.mov) BBC Radio 4, The Material World: The Language of the Piraha (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/ thematerialworld_20060622.shtml) Prof. Daniel Everett discusses the linguistic significance of the language with Prof. Ian Roberts. Daniel Everett: Endangered Languages and Lost Knowledge (http://fora.tv/2009/03/20/ Daniel_Everett_Endangered_Languages_and_Lost_Knowledge#chapter_10) (video), presentation for the Rosetta Project Sample1 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v7Spzjh9QgA) and Sample2 (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=SHv3-U9VPAs) of Pirah, spoken by native speakers.

134

Neurolinguistics
Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. As an interdisciplinary field, neurolinguistics draws methodology and theory from fields such as neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive science, neurobiology, communication disorders, neuropsychology, and computer science. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in Surface of the human brain, with Brodmann areas psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on numbered investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modeling.

Neurolinguistics

135

An image of neural pathways in the brain taken using diffusion tensor imaging

History
Further information: History of the brain, History of neuroscience, History of neuroimaging, and History of cognitive science Neurolinguistics is historically rooted in the development in the 19th century of aphasiology, the study of linguistic deficits (aphasias) occurring as the result of brain damage.[1] Aphasiology attempts to correlate structure to function by analyzing the effect of brain injuries on language processing.[2] One of the first people to draw a connection between a particular brain area and language processing was Paul Broca,[1] a French surgeon who conducted Broca's area and Wernicke's area autopsies on numerous individuals who had speaking deficiencies, and found that most of them had brain damage (or lesions) on the left frontal lobe, in an area now known as Broca's area. Phrenologists had made the claim in the early 19th century that different brain regions carried out different functions and that language was mostly controlled by the frontal regions of the brain, but Broca's research was possibly the first to offer empirical evidence for such a relationship,[3][4] and has been described as "epoch-making"[5] and "pivotal"[3] to the fields of neurolinguistics and cognitive science. Later, Carl Wernicke, after whom Wernicke's area is named, proposed that different areas of the brain were specialized for different linguistic tasks, with Broca's area handling the motor production of speech, and Wernicke's area handling auditory speech comprehension.[1][2] The work of Broca and Wernicke established the field of aphasiology and the idea that language can be studied through examining physical characteristics of the brain.[4] Early work in aphasiology also benefited from the early twentieth-century work of Korbinian Brodmann, who "mapped" the surface of the brain, dividing it up into numbered areas based on each area's cytoarchitecture (cell structure) and function;[6] these areas, known as Brodmann areas, are still widely used in neuroscience today.[7] The coining of the term "neurolinguistics" has been attributed to Harry Whitaker, who founded the Journal of Neurolinguistics in 1985.[8][9] Although aphasiology is the historical core of neurolinguistics, in recent years the field has broadened considerably, thanks in part to the emergence of new brain imaging technologies (such as PET and fMRI) and time-sensitive electrophysiological techniques (EEG and MEG), which can highlight patterns of brain activation as people engage in various language tasks;[1][10][11] electrophysiological techniques, in particular, emerged as a viable method for the

Neurolinguistics study of language in 1980 with the discovery of the N400, a brain response shown to be sensitive to semantic issues in language comprehension.[12][13] The N400 was the first language-relevant brain response to be identified, and since its discovery EEG and MEG have become increasingly widely used for conducting language research.[14]

136

Neurolinguistics as a discipline
Interaction with other fields
Neurolinguistics is closely related to the field of psycholinguistics, which seeks to elucidate the cognitive mechanisms of language by employing the traditional techniques of experimental psychology; today, psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic theories often inform one another, and there is much collaboration between the two fields.[13][15] Much work in neurolinguistics involves testing and evaluating theories put forth by psycholinguists and theoretical linguists. In general, theoretical linguists propose models to explain the structure of language and how language information is organized, psycholinguists propose models and algorithms to explain how language information is processed in the mind, and neurolinguists analyze brain activity to infer how biological structures (such as neurons) carry out those psycholinguistic processing algorithms.[16] For example, experiments in sentence processing have used the ELAN, N400, and P600 brain responses to examine how physiological brain responses reflect the different predictions of sentence processing models put forth by psycholinguists, such as Janet Fodor and Lyn Frazier's "serial" model,[17] and Theo Vosse and Gerard Kempen's "Unification model."[15] Neurolinguists can also make new predictions about the structure and organization of language based on insights about the physiology of the brain, by "generalizing from the knowledge of neurological structures to language structure."[18] Neurolinguistics research is carried out in all the major areas of linguistics; the main linguistic subfields, and how neurolinguistics addresses them, are given in the table below.
Subfield Phonetics Description the study of speech sounds Research questions in neurolinguistics how the brain extracts speech sounds from an acoustic signal, how the brain separates speech sounds from background noise how the phonological system of a particular language is represented in the brain

Phonology

the study of how sounds are organized in a language the study of how words are structured and stored in the mental lexicon the study of how multiple-word utterances are constructed the study of how meaning is encoded in language

Morphology and lexicology Syntax

how the brain stores and accesses words that a person knows

how the brain combines words into constituents and sentences; how structural and semantic information is used in understanding sentences

Semantics

Topics considered
Neurolinguistics research investigates several topics, including where language information is processed, how language processing unfolds over time, how brain structures are related to language acquisition and learning, and how neurophysiology can contribute to speech and language pathology. Localizations of language processes Much work in linguistics has, like Broca's and Wernicke's early studies, investigated the locations of specific language "modules" within the brain. Research questions include what course language information follows through the brain as it is processed,[19] whether or not particular areas specialize in processing particular sorts of information,[20] how different brain regions interact with one another in language processing,[21] and how the

Neurolinguistics locations of brain activation differs when a subject is producing or perceiving a language other than his or her first language.[22][23][24] Time course of language processes Another area of neurolinguistics literature involves the use of electrophysiological techniques to analyze the rapid processing of language in time.[1] The temporal ordering of specific peaks in brain activity may reflect discrete computational processes that the brain undergoes during language processing; for example, one neurolinguistic theory of sentence parsing proposes that three brain responses (the ELAN, N400, and P600) are products of three different steps in syntactic and semantic processing.[25] Language acquisition Another topic is the relationship between brain structures and language acquisition.[26] Research in first language acquisition has already established that infants from all linguistic environments go through similar and predictable stages (such as babbling), and some neurolinguistics research attempts to find correlations between stages of language development and stages of brain development,[27] while other research investigates the physical changes (known as neuroplasticity) that the brain undergoes during second language acquisition, when adults learn a new language.[28] Language pathology Neurolinguistic techniques are also used to study disorders and breakdowns in languagesuch as aphasia and dyslexiaand how they relate to physical characteristics of the brain.[23][27]

137

Brain imaging

Images of the brain recorded with PET (top) and fMRI (bottom). The red areas and the orange areas, respectively, are the most active in these recordings.

Since one of the focuses of this field is the testing of linguistic and psycholinguistic models, the technology used for experiments is highly relevant to the study of neurolinguistics. Modern brain imaging techniques have contributed greatly to a growing understanding of the anatomical organization of linguistic functions.[1][23] Brain imaging methods used in neurolinguistics may be classified into hemodynamic methods, electrophysiological methods, and methods that stimulate the cortex directly.

Neurolinguistics

138

Hemodynamic
Hemodynamic techniques take advantage of the fact that when an area of the brain works at a task, blood is sent to supply that area with oxygen (in what is known as the Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent, or BOLD, response).[29] Such techniques include PET and fMRI. These techniques provide high spatial resolution, allowing researchers to pinpoint the location of activity within the brain;[1] temporal resolution (or information about the timing of brain activity), on the other hand, is poor, since the BOLD response happens much more slowly than language processing.[11][30] In addition to demonstrating which parts of the brain may subserve specific language tasks or computations,[20][25] hemodynamic methods have also been used to demonstrate how the structure of the brain's language architecture and the distribution of language-related activation may change over time, as a function of linguistic exposure.[22][28] In addition to PET and fMRI, which show which areas of the brain are activated by certain tasks, researchers also use diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), which shows the neural pathways that connect different brain areas,[31] thus providing insight into how different areas interact.

Electrophysiological
Electrophysiological techniques take advantage of the fact that when a group of neurons in the brain fire together, they create an electric dipole or current. The technique of EEG measures this electrical current using sensors on the scalp, while MEG measures the magnetic fields that are generated by these currents.[32] These techniques are able to measure brain activity from one millisecond to the next, providing excellent temporal resolution, which is important in studying processes that take place as quickly as language comprehension and production.[32] On the other hand, the location of brain activity can be difficult to identify in EEG;[30][33] consequently, this technique is used primarily to how language processes are carried out, rather than where. Research using EEG and MEG generally focuses on event-related Brain waves recorded using EEG potentials (ERPs),[30] which are distinct brain responses (generally realized as negative or positive peaks on a graph of neural activity) elicited in response to a particular stimulus. Studies using ERP may focus on each ERP's latency (how long after the stimulus the ERP begins or peaks), amplitude (how high or low the peak is), or topography (where on the scalp the ERP response is picked up by sensors).[34] Some important and common ERP components include the N400 (a negativity occurring at a latency of about 400 milliseconds),[30] the mismatch negativity,[35] the early left anterior negativity (a negativity occurring at an early latency and a front-left topography),[36] the P600,[14][37] and the lateralized readiness potential.[38]

Neurolinguistics

139

Experimental design
Experimental techniques
Neurolinguists employ a variety of experimental techniques in order to use brain imaging to draw conclusions about how language is represented and processed in the brain. These techniques include the mismatch design, violation-based studies, various forms of priming, and direct stimulation of the brain. Mismatch paradigm The mismatch negativity (MMN) is a rigorously documented ERP component frequently used in neurolinguistic experiments.[35][39] It is an electrophysiological response that occurs in the brain when a subject hears a "deviant" stimulus in a set of perceptually identical "standards" (as in the sequence s s s s s s s d d s s s s s s d s s s s s d).[40][41] Since the MMN is elicited only in response to a rare "oddball" stimulus in a set of other stimuli that are perceived to be the same, it has been used to test how speakers perceive sounds and organize stimuli categorically.[42][43] For example, a landmark study by Colin Phillips and colleagues used the mismatch negativity as evidence that subjects, when presented with a series of speech sounds with acoustic parameters, perceived all the sounds as either /t/ or /d/ in spite of the acoustic variability, suggesting that the human brain has representations of abstract phonemesin other words, the subjects were "hearing" not the specific acoustic features, but only the abstract phonemes.[40] In addition, the mismatch negativity has been used to study syntactic processing and the recognition of word category.[35][39][44] Violation-based Many studies in neurolinguistics take advantage of anomalies or violations of syntactic or semantic rules in experimental stimuli, and analyzing the brain responses elicited when a subject encounters these violations. For example, sentences beginning with phrases such as *the garden was on the worked,[45] which violates an English phrase structure rule, often elicit a brain response called the early left anterior negativity (ELAN).[36] Violation techniques have been in use since at least 1980,[36] when Kutas and Hillyard first reported ERP evidence that semantic violations elicited an N400 effect.[46] Using similar methods, in 1992, Lee Osterhout first reported the P600 response to An event-related potential syntactic anomalies.[47] Violation designs have also been used for hemodynamic studies (fMRI and PET): Embick and colleagues, for example, used grammatical and spelling violations to investigate the location of syntactic processing in the brain using fMRI.[20] Another common use of violation designs is to combine two kinds of violations in the same sentence and thus make predictions about how different language processes interact with one another; this type of crossing-violation study has been used extensively to investigate how syntactic and semantic processes interact while people read or hear sentences.[48][49] Priming In psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics, priming refers to the phenomenon whereby a subject can recognize a word more quickly if he or she has recently been presented with a word that is similar in meaning[50] or morphological makeup (i.e., composed of similar parts).[51] If a subject is presented with a "target" word such as doctor and then a "prime" word such as nurse, if the subject has a faster-than-usual response time to nurse then the experimenter may assume that word nurse in the brain had already been accessed when the word doctor was accessed.[52] Priming is used to investigate a wide variety of questions about how words are stored and retrieved in the brain[51][53] and how structurally complex sentences are processed.[54]

Neurolinguistics Stimulation Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a new noninvasive[55] technique for studying brain activity, uses powerful magnetic fields that are applied to the brain from outside the head.[56] It is a method of exciting or interrupting brain activity in a specific and controlled location, and thus is able to imitate aphasic symptoms while giving the researcher more control over exactly which parts of the brain will be examined.[56] As such, it is a less invasive alternative to direct cortical stimulation, which can be used for similar types of research but requires that the subject's scalp be removed, and is thus only used on individuals who are already undergoing a major brain operation (such as individuals undergoing surgery for epilepsy).[57] The logic behind TMS and direct cortical stimulation is similar to the logic behind aphasiology: if a particular language function is impaired when a specific region of the brain is knocked out, then that region must be somehow implicated in that language function. Few neurolinguistic studies to date have used TMS;[1] direct cortical stimulation and cortical recording (recording brain activity using electrodes placed directly on the brain) have been used with macaque monkeys to make predictions about the behavior of human brains.[58]

140

Subject tasks
In many neurolinguistics experiments, subjects do not simply sit and listen to or watch stimuli, but also are instructed to perform some sort of task in response to the stimuli.[59] Subjects perform these tasks while recordings (electrophysiological or hemodynamic) are being taken, usually in order to ensure that they are paying attention to the stimuli.[60] At least one study has suggested that the task the subject does has an effect on the brain responses and the results of the experiment.[61] Lexical decision The lexical decision task involves subjects seeing or hearing an isolated word and answering whether or not it is a real word. It is frequently used in priming studies, since subjects are known to make a lexical decision more quickly if a word has been primed by a related word (as in "doctor" priming "nurse").[50][51][52] Grammaticality judgment, acceptability judgment Many studies, especially violation-based studies, have subjects make a decision about the "acceptability" (usually grammatical acceptability or semantic acceptability) of stimuli.[61][62][63][64][65] Such a task is often used to "ensure that subjects [are] reading the sentences attentively and that they [distinguish] acceptable from unacceptable sentences in the way [the experimenter] expect[s] them to do."[63] Experimental evidence has shown that the instructions given to subjects in an acceptability judgment task can influence the subjects' brain responses to stimuli. One experiment showed that when subjects were instructed to judge the "acceptability" of sentences they did not show an N400 brain response (a response commonly associated with semantic processing), but that they did show that response when instructed to ignore grammatical acceptability and only judge whether or not the sentences "made sense."[61] Probe verification Some studies use a "probe verification" task rather than an overt acceptability judgment; in this paradigm, each experimental sentence is followed by a "probe word," and subjects must answer whether or not the probe word had appeared in the sentence.[52][63] This task, like the acceptability judgment task, ensures that subjects are reading or listening attentively, but may avoid some of the additional processing demands of acceptability judgments, and may be used no matter what type of violation is being presented in the study.[52]

Neurolinguistics Truth-value judgment Subjects may be instructed not to judge whether or not the sentence is grammatically acceptable or logical, but whether the proposition expressed by the sentence is true or false. This task is commonly used in psycholinguistic studies of child language.[66][67] Active distraction and double-task Some experiments give subjects a "distractor" task to ensure that subjects are not consciously paying attention to the experimental stimuli; this may be done to test whether a certain computation in the brain is carried out automatically, regardless of whether the subject devotes attentional resources to it. For example, one study had subjects listen to non-linguistic tones (long beeps and buzzes) in one ear and speech in the other ear, and instructed subjects to press a button when they perceived a change in the tone; this supposedly caused subjects not to pay explicit attention to grammatical violations in the speech stimuli. The subjects showed a mismatch response (MMN) anyway, suggesting that the processing of the grammatical errors was happening automatically, regardless of attention[35]or at least that subjects were unable to consciously separate their attention from the speech stimuli. Another related form of experiment is the double-task experiment, in which a subject must perform an extra task (such as sequential finger-tapping or articulating nonsense syllables) while responding to linguistic stimuli; this kind of experiment has been used to investigate the use of working memory in language processing.[68]

141

Further reading
Ahlsn, Elisabeth (2006). Introduction to Neurolinguistics [69]. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp.212. ISBN9027232334. Moro, Andrea (2008). The Boundaries of Babel. The Brain and the Enigma of Impossible Languages [70]. MIT Press. pp.257. ISBN978-0-262-13498-9. Stemmer, Brigitte; Harry A. Whitaker (1998). Handbook of Neurolinguistics [71]. Academic Press. pp.788. ISBN0126660557. Some relevant journals include the Journal of Neurolinguistics [72] and Brain and Language subscription access journals, though some abstracts may be generally available.
[73]

. Both are

Notes
[1] Phillips, Colin; Kuniyoshi L. Sakai (2005). "Language and the brain" (http:/ / mind. c. u-tokyo. ac. jp/ Sakai_Lab_files/ Staff/ KLS_Paper/ KLS2005. pdf). Yearbook of Science and Technology. McGraw-Hill Publishers. pp.166169. . [2] Winiewski, Kamil (12 August 2007). "Neurolinguistics" (http:/ / www. tlumaczenia-angielski. info/ linguistics/ neurolinguistics. htm). Jzyk angielski online. . Retrieved 31 January 2009. [3] Dronkers, N.F.; O. Plaisant; M.T. Iba-Zizen; E.A. Cabanis (2007). "Paul Broca's historic cases: high resolution MR imaging of the brains of Leborgne and Lelong" (http:/ / brain. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 130/ 5/ 1432). Brain 130 (Pt 5): 14323, 1441. doi:10.1093/brain/awm042. PMID17405763. . Retrieved 25 January 2009. [4] Teter, Theresa (May 2000). "Pierre-Paul Broca" (http:/ / www. muskingum. edu/ ~psych/ psycweb/ history/ broca. htm). Muskingum College. . Retrieved 25 January 2009. [5] "Pierre Paul Broca" (http:/ / www. whonamedit. com/ doctor. cfm/ 1982. html). Who Named It?. . Retrieved 25 January 2009. [6] McCaffrey, Patrick (2008). "CMSD 620 Neuroanatomy of Speech, Swallowing and Language" (http:/ / www. csuchico. edu/ ~pmccaffrey/ syllabi/ CMSD 320/ 362unit4. html). Neuroscience on the Web. California State University, Chico. . Retrieved 22 February 2009. [7] Garey, Laurence. "Brodmann's" (http:/ / www. springer. com/ biomed/ neuroscience/ book/ 978-0-387-26917-7). . Retrieved 22 February 2009. [8] Ingram (2007), p. 3. [9] Peng, F.C.C. (1985). "What is neurolinguistics?". Journal of Neurolinguistics 1 (1): 7. doi:10.1016/S0911-6044(85)80003-8. [10] Brown, Colin M.; and Peter Hagoort (1999). "The cognitive neuroscience of language." in Brown & Hagoort, The Neurocognition of Language. p. 6. [11] Weisler (1999), p. 293. [12] Hagoort, Peter (2003). "How the brain solves the binding problem for language: a neurocomputational model of syntactic processing". NeuroImage 20: S1829. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.013. PMID14597293.

Neurolinguistics
[13] Hall, Christopher J (2005). An Introduction to Language and Linguistics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RWspkUKj274C& pg=PA69& lpg=PA69& dq=neurolinguistics+ and+ psycholinguistics). Continuum International Publishing Group. p.274. ISBN0826487343. . [14] Hagoort, Peter; Colin M. Brown; Lee Osterhout (1999). "The neurocognition of syntactic processing." in Brown & Hagoort. The Neurocognition of Language. p. 280. [15] Hagoort, Peter (2003). "How the brain solves the binding problem for language: a neurocomputational model of syntactic processing". NeuroImage 20: S19S20. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.013. PMID14597293. [16] Pylkknen, Liina. "What is neurolinguistics?" (http:/ / www. psych. nyu. edu/ pylkkanen/ Neural_Bases/ 01_Intro. pdf). p.2. . Retrieved 31 January 2009. [17] See, for example, Friederici, Angela D. (2002). "Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing". TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 6 (2): 78. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01839-8., which discusses how three brain responses reflect three stages of Fodor and Frazier's model. [18] Weisler (1999), p. 280. [19] Hickock, Gregory; David Poeppel (2007). "Opinion: The cortical organization of speech processing" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nrn/ journal/ v8/ n5/ abs/ nrn2113. html). Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8 (5): 393402. doi:10.1038/nrn2113. PMID17431404. . [20] Embick, David; Alec Marantz; Yasushi Miyashita; Wayne O'Neil; Kuniyoshi L. Sakai (2000). "A syntactic specialization for Broca's area" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 97/ 11/ 6150. abstract?ck=nck). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (11): 61506154. doi:10.1073/pnas.100098897. PMC18573. PMID10811887. . [21] Brown, Colin M.; and Peter Hagoort (1999). "The cognitive neuroscience of language." in Brown & Hagoort. The Neurocognition of Language. p. 7. [22] Wang Yue; Joan A. Sereno; Allard Jongman; and Joy Hirsch (2003). "fMRI evidence for cortical modification during learning of Mandarin lexical tone". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (7): 10191027. doi:10.1162/089892903770007407. PMID14614812. [23] Menn, Lise. "Neurolinguistics" (http:/ / www. lsadc. org/ info/ ling-fields-neuro. cfm). Linguistic Society of America. . Retrieved 18 December 2008. [24] "The Bilingual Brain" (http:/ / www. sfn. org/ index. cfm?pagename=brainBriefings_thebilingualbrain). Brain Briefings. Society for Neuroscience. February 2008. . Retrieved 1 February 2009. [25] Friederici, Angela D. (2002). "Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing". TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 6 (2): 7884. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01839-8. [26] Caplan (1987), p. 11. [27] Caplan (1987), p. 12. [28] Sereno, Joan A; Yue Wang (2007). "Behavioral and cortical effects of learning a second language: The acquisition of tone". In Ocke-Schwen Bohn and Murray J. Munro. Language Experience in Second Language Speech Learning. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. [29] Ward, Jamie (2006). "The imaged brain". The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience. Psychology Press. ISBN1841695343. [30] Kutas, Marta; Kara D. Federmeier (2002). "Electrophysiology reveals memory use in language comprehension". TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 4 (12). [31] Filler AG, Tsuruda JS, Richards TL, Howe FA: Images, apparatus, algorithms and methods. GB 9216383, UK Patent Office, 1992. [32] Pylkknen, Liina; Alec Marantz (2003). "Tracking the time course of word recognition with MEG". TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 7 (5): 187189. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00092-5. [33] Van Petten, Cyma; Luka, Barbara (2006). "Neural localization of semantic context effects in electromagnetic and hemodynamic studies". Brain and Language (96): 281. [34] Coles, Michael G.H.; Michael D. Rugg (1996). "Event-related brain potentials: an introduction" (http:/ / l3d. cs. colorado. edu/ ~ctg/ classes/ lib/ cogsci/ Rugg-ColesChp1. pdf). Electrophysiology of Mind. Oxford Scholarship Online Monographs. pp.127. ISBN0198521359. . [35] Pulvermller, Friedemann; Yury Shtyrov; Anna S. Hasting; Robert P. Carlyon (2008). "Syntax as a reflex: neurophysiological evidence for the early automaticity of syntactic processing". Brain and Language 104 (3): 244253. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.05.002. PMID17624417. [36] Frisch, Stefan; Anja Hahne; Angela D. Friederici (2004). "Word category and verbargument structure information in the dynamics of parsing". Cognition 91 (3): 191219. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.009. PMID15168895. [37] Kaan, Edith; Swaab, Tamara (2003). "Repair, revision, and complexity in syntactic analysis: an electrophysiological differentiation". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (1): 98110. doi:10.1162/089892903321107855. PMID12590846. [38] van Turrenout, Miranda; Hagoort, Peter; Brown, Colin M (1998). "Brain activity during speaking: from syntax to phonology in 40 milliseconds". Science 280 (5363): 5724. doi:10.1126/science.280.5363.572. PMID9554845. [39] Pulvermller, Friedemann; Yury Shtyrov (2003). "Automatic processing of grammar in the human brain as revealed by the mismatch negativity". NeuroImage 20 (1): 159172. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00261-1. PMID14527578. [40] Phillips, Colin; T. Pellathy; A. Marantz; E. Yellin; K. Wexler; M. McGinnis; D. Poeppel; T. Roberts (2001). "Auditory cortex accesses phonological category: an MEG mismatch study". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (6): 10381055. doi:10.1162/08989290051137567. [41] Shtyrov, Yury; Olaf Hauk; Friedmann Pulvermller (2004). "Distributed neuronal networks for encoding category-specific semantic information: the mismatch negativity to action words". European Journal of Neuroscience 19 (4): 10831092. doi:10.1111/j.0953-816X.2004.03126.x. PMID15009156. [42] Ntnen, Risto et al.; Lehtokoski, Anne; Lennes, Mietta; Cheour, Marie; Huotilainen, Minna; Iivonen, Antti; Vainio, Martti; Alku, Paavo et al (1997). "Language-specific phoneme representations revealed by electric and magnetic brain responses". Nature 385 (6615): 432434. doi:10.1038/385432a0. PMID9009189.

142

Neurolinguistics
[43] Kazanina, Nina; Colin Phillips; William Idsardi (2006). "The influence of meaning on the perception of speech sounds". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (30): 1138111386. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604821103. PMC3020137. PMID16849423. [44] Hasing, Anna S.; Sonja A. Kotz; Angela D. Friederici (2007). "Setting the stage for automatic syntax processing: the mismatch negativity as an indicator of syntactic priming". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19 (3): 386400. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.3.386. PMID17335388. [45] Example from Frisch et al. (2004: 195). [46] Kutas, M.; S.A. Hillyard (1980). "Reading senseless sentences: brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity". Science 207 (4427): 203205. doi:10.1126/science.7350657. PMID7350657. [47] Osterhout, Lee; Phillip J. Holcomb (1992). "Event-related Potentials Elicited by Grammatical Anomalies". Psychophysiological Brain Research: 299302. [48] Martn-Loeches, Manuel; Roland Nigbura; Pilar Casadoa; Annette Hohlfeldc; Werner Sommer (2006). "Semantics prevalence over syntax during sentence processing: a brain potential study of nounadjective agreement in Spanish". Brain Research 6 (1): 178189. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.03.094. PMID16678138. [49] Frisch, Stefan; Anja Hahne; Angela D. Friederici (2004). "Word category and verbargument structure information in the dynamics of parsing". Cognition 91 (3): 191219. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.009. PMID15168895. [50] "Experiment Description: Lexical Decision and Semantic Priming" (http:/ / psych. athabascau. ca/ html/ Psych355/ Exp/ lexical. shtml?sso=true). Athatbasca University. 27 June 2005. . Retrieved 14 December 2008. [51] Fiorentino, Robert; David Poeppel (2007). "Processing of compound words: an MEG study". Brain and Language 103: 8249. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.07.009. [52] Friederici, Angela D.; Karsten Steinhauer; Stefan Frisch (1999). "Lexical integration: sequential effects of syntactic and semantic information". Memory & Cognition 27 (3): 438453. doi:10.3758/BF03211539. [53] Devlin, Joseph T.; Helen L. Jamison; Paul M. Matthews; Laura M. Gonnerman (2004). "Morphology and the internal structure of words". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101 (41): 1498414988. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403766101. PMC522020. PMID15358857. [54] Zurif, E.B.; D. Swinney; P. Prather; J. Solomon; C. Bushell (1993). "An on-line analysis of syntactic processing in Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia". Brain and Language 45 (3): 448464. doi:10.1006/brln.1993.1054. PMID8269334. [55] "Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation - Risks" (http:/ / www. mayoclinic. com/ health/ transcranial-magnetic-stimulation/ MY00185/ DSECTION=risks). Mayo Clinic. . Retrieved 15 December 2008. [56] "Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)" (http:/ / www. nami. org/ Content/ ContentGroups/ Helpline1/ Transcranial_Magnetic_Stimulation_(rTMS). htm). National Alliance on Mental Illness. . Retrieved 15 December 2008. [57] A.R. Wyler; A.A. Ward, Jr (1981). "Neurons in human epileptic cortex. Response to direct cortical stimulation". Journal of Neurosurgery 55 (6): 9048. doi:10.3171/jns.1981.55.6.0904. PMID7299464. [58] Hagoort, Peter (2005). "On Broca, brain, and binding: a new framework". TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 9 (9): 41623. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.07.004. PMID16054419. [59] One common exception to this is studies using the mismatch paradigm, in which subjects are often instructed to watch a silent movie or otherwise not pay attention actively to the stimuli. See, for example: Pulvermller, Friedemann; Ramin Assadollahi (2007). "Grammar or serial order?: discrete combinatorial brain mechanicsms reflected by the syntactic mismatch negativity". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19 (6): 971980. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.6.971. PMID17536967. Pulvermller, Friedemann; Yury Shtyrov (2003). "Automatic processing of grammar in the human brain as revealed by the mismatch negativity". NeuroImage 20 (1): 159172. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00261-1. PMID14527578. [60] Van Petten, Cyma (1993). "A comparison of lexical and sentence-level context effects in event-related potentials". Language and Cognitive Processes 8 (4): 49091. [61] Hahne, Anja; Angela D. Friederici (2002). "Differential task effects on semantic and syntactic processes as revealed by ERPs". Cognitive Brain Research 13 (3): 339356. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(01)00127-6. [62] Zheng Ye; Yue-jia Luo; Angela D. Friederici; Xiaolin Zhou (2006). "Semantic and syntactic processing in Chinese sentence comprehension: evidence from event-related potentials". Brain Research 1071 (1071): 186196. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2005.11.085. PMID16412999. [63] Frisch, Stefan; Anja Hahne; Angela D. Friederici (2004). "Word category and verbargument structure information in the dynamics of parsing". Cognition 91 (3): 200201. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.009. PMID15168895. [64] Osterhout, Lee (1997). "On the brain response to syntactic anomalies: manipulations of word position and word class reveal individual differences". Brain and Language 59 (3): 494522. doi:10.1006/brln.1997.1793. PMID9299074. [65] Hagoort, Peter (2003). "Interplay between syntax and semantics during sentence comprehension: ERP effects of combining syntactic and semantic violations". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (6): 883899. doi:10.1162/089892903322370807. PMID14511541. [66] Gordon, Peter. "The Truth-Value Judgment Task" (http:/ / faculty. tc. columbia. edu/ upload/ pg328/ TRUTHVALUECHAPT. pdf). In D. McDaniel, C. McKee, H. Cairns. Methods for assessing children's syntax. Cambridge: MIT Press. p.1. . [67] Crain, Stephen, Luisa Meroni, and Utako Minai. " If Everybody Knows, then Every Child Knows (http:/ / www. maccs. mq. edu. au/ ~scrain/ papers/ GALA'04. pdf)." University of Maryland at College Park. Retrieved on 14 December 2008. [68] Rogalsky, Corianne; William Matchin; Gregory Hickok (2008). "Broca's Area, Sentence Comprehension, and Working Memory: An fMRI Study". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2: 14. doi:10.3389/neuro.09.014.2008. PMC2572210. PMID18958214. [69] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=jVR1AAAACAAJ& dq=Introduction+ to+ Neurolinguistics

143

Neurolinguistics
[70] [71] [72] [73] http:/ / mitpress. mit. edu/ catalog/ item/ default. asp?ttype=2& tid=11488 http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4tkFAAAACAAJ& dq=Handbook+ of+ Neurolinguistics http:/ / www. elsevier. com/ wps/ find/ journaldescription. cws_home/ 866/ description#description http:/ / www. elsevier. com/ wps/ find/ journaldescription. cws_home/ 622799/ description#description

144

References
Colin M. Brown and Peter Hagoort, ed. (1999). The Neurocognition of Language. New York: Oxford University Press. Caplan, David (1987). Neurolinguistics and Linguistic Aphasiology: An Introduction (http://books.google.com/ ?id=E3XrTCsU7bkC). Cambridge University Press. pp.498. ISBN0521311950. Ingram, John C.L. (2007). Neurolinguistics: An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing and Its Disorders (http://books.google.com/?id=CQ8agSNL9MYC). Cambridge University Press. pp.420. ISBN0521791901. Weisler, Stephen; Slavoljub P. Milekic (1999). "Brain and Language" (http://books.google.com/ ?id=wIaGLUFHtxsC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273&dq=what+is+neurolinguistics). Theory of Language. MIT Press. pp.344. ISBN0262731258.

External links
Society for Neuroscience (SfN) (http://www.sfn.org/) Talking Brains (http://talkingbrains.blogspot.com/), blog by neurolinguists Greg Hickock and David Poeppel

Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter's focus is on the language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently.[1] It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies. The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by Gauchat in Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of a 1939 paper.[2] Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK.

Sociolinguistics

145

Applications of sociolinguistics
For example, a sociolinguist might determine through study of social attitudes that a particular vernacular would not be considered appropriate language use in a business or professional setting. Sociolinguists might also study the grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, and other aspects of this sociolect much as dialectologists would study the same for a regional dialect. The study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual environment. Code-switching is the term given to the use of different varieties of language in different social situations. William Labov is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics. He is especially noted for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and change,[3] making the sociology of language into a scientific discipline.

Traditional sociolinguistic interview

Sociolinguistic interviews are an integral part of collecting data for sociolinguistic studies. There is an interviewer, who is conducting the study, and a subject, or informant, who is the interviewee. In order to get a grasp on a specific linguistic form and how it is used in the dialect of the subject, a variety of methods are used to elicit certain registers of speech. There are five different styles, ranging from formal to casual. The most formal style would be elicited by having the subject read a list of minimal pairs (MP). Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ in only one phoneme, such as cat and bat. Having the subject read a word list (WL) will elicit a formal register, but generally not as formal as MP. The reading passage (RP) style is next down on the formal register, and the interview style (IS) is when an interviewer can finally get into eliciting a more casual speech from the subject. During the IS the interviewer can converse with the subject and try to draw out of them an even more casual sort of speech by asking him to recall childhood memories or maybe a near death experience, in which case the subject will get deeply involved with the story since strong emotions are often attached to these memories. Of course, the most sought after type of speech is the casual style (CS). This type of speech is difficult if not impossible to elicit because of the Observer's Paradox. The closest one might come to CS in an interview is when the subject is interrupted by a close friend or family member, or perhaps must answer the phone. CS is used in a completely unmonitored environment where the subject feels most comfortable and will use their natural vernacular without overtly thinking about it.

Fundamental concepts in sociolinguistics

While the study of sociolinguistics is very broad, there are a few fundamental concepts on which many sociolinguistic inquiries depend.

Speech community
Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a more or less discrete group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves. This is sometimes referred to as a Sprechbund. Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon, distinct social groups like high school students or hip hop fans, or even tight-knit groups like families and friends. Members of speech communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities.

Sociolinguistics

146

High prestige and low prestige varieties

Crucial to sociolinguistic analysis is the concept of prestige; certain speech habits are assigned a positive or a negative value which is then applied to the speaker. This can operate on many levels. It can be realised on the level of the individual sound/phoneme, as Labov discovered in investigating pronunciation of the post-vocalic /r/ in the North-Eastern USA, or on the macro scale of language choice, as realised in the various diglossias that exist throughout the world, where Swiss-German/High German is perhaps most well known. An important implication of sociolinguistic theory is that speakers 'choose' a variety when making a speech act, whether consciously or subconsciously.

Social network
Understanding language in society means that one also has to understand the social networks in which language is embedded. A social network is another way of describing a particular speech community in terms of relations between individual members in a community. A network could be loose or tight depending on how members interact with each other.[4] For instance, an office or factory may be considered a tight community because all members interact with each other. A large course with 100+ students would be a looser community because students may only interact with the instructor and maybe 1-2 other students. A multiplex community is one in which members have multiple relationships with each other.[4] For instance, in some neighborhoods, members may live on the same street, work for the same employer and even intermarry. The looseness or tightness of a social network may affect speech patterns adopted by a speaker. For instance, Sylvie Dubois and Barbara Horvath found that speakers in one Cajun Louisiana community were more likely to pronounce English "th" [] as [t] (or [] as [d]) if they participated in a relatively dense social network (i.e. had strong local ties and interacted with many other speakers in the community), and less likely if their networks were looser (i.e. fewer local ties).[5] A social network may apply to the macro level of a country or a city, but also to the inter-personal level of neighborhoods or a single family. Recently, social networks have been formed by the Internet, through chat rooms, MySpace groups, organizations, and online dating services.

Internal vs. external language

In Chomskian linguistics, a distinction is drawn between I-language (internal language) and E-language (external language). In this context, internal language applies to the study of syntax and semantics in language on the abstract level; as mentally represented knowledge in a native speaker. External language applies to language in social contexts, i.e. behavioral habits shared by a community. Internal language analyses operate on the assumption that all native speakers of a language are quite homogeneous in how they process and perceive language. External language fields, such as sociolinguistics, attempt to explain why this is in fact not the case. Many sociolinguists reject the distinction between I- and E-language on the grounds that it is based on a mentalist view of language. On this view, grammar is first and foremost an interactional (social) phenomenon (e.g. Elinor Ochs, Emanuel Schegloff, Sandra Thompson).

Differences according to class

Further information: Linguistic insecurity Sociolinguistics as a field distinct from dialectology was pioneered through the study of language variation in urban areas. Whereas dialectology studies the geographic distribution of language variation, sociolinguistics focuses on other sources of variation, among them class. Class and occupation are among the most important linguistic markers found in society. One of the fundamental findings of sociolinguistics, which has been hard to disprove, is that class and language variety are related. Members of the working class tend to speak less standard language, while the

Sociolinguistics lower, middle, and upper middle class will in turn speak closer to the standard. However, the upper class, even members of the upper middle class, may often speak 'less' standard than the middle class.The looseness or tightness of a social network may affect speech patterns adopted by a speaker. For instance, Sylvie Dubois and Barbara Horvath found that speakers in one Cajun Louisiana community were more likely to pronounce English "th" [] as [t] (or [] as [d]) if they participated in a relatively dense social network (i.e. had strong local ties and interacted with many other speakers in the community), and less likely if their networks were looser (i.e. fewer local ties) This is because not only class, but class aspirations, are important.

147

Class aspiration
Studies, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, have shown that social aspirations influence speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations. In the process of wishing to be associated with a certain class (usually the upper class and upper middle class) people who are moving in that direction socio-economically will adjust their speech patterns to sound like them. However, not being native upper class speakers, they often hypercorrect, which involves overcorrecting their speech to the point of introducing new errors. The same is true for individuals moving down in socio-economic status.

Social language codes

Basil Bernstein, a well-known British socio-linguist, devised in his book, 'Elaborated and restricted codes: their social origins and some consequences,' a social code system which he used to classify the various speech patterns for different social classes. He claimed that members of the middle class have ways of organizing their speech which are fundamentally very different from the ways adopted by the working class. Restricted code In Basil Bernstein's theory, the restricted code was an example of the speech patterns used by the working-class. He stated that this type of code allows strong bonds between group members, who tend to behave largely on the basis of distinctions such as 'male', 'female', 'older', and 'younger'. This social group also uses language in a way which brings unity between people, and members often do not need to be explicit about meaning, as their shared knowledge and common understanding often bring them together in a way which other social language groups do not experience. The difference with the restricted code is the emphasis on 'we' as a social group, which fosters greater solidarity than an emphasis on 'I'. The time when "restricted-code" matters is the day when children start school where the standart variety of language is used. Moreover, the written form of a language is already very different from the everyday form. Children with restricted-code, therefore, struggle at school more than those who speak an "elaborated-code". The type of communication used by the working class reminds Paivio's dual code theory. According to Paivio, there are two types of codes; verbal and non-verbal.The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing. Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal objects, events, and behaviors. Any representational theory must accommodate this dual functionality." (p 53). The use of context by members of working class to imply what they mean, therefore, may be a "non-verbal code". However, this type of communicative skills may not be understood by other children who belong to other classes. What's more, children with restricted-code may have difficulty in understanding the teacher, the only source of information for them at school. Therefore, it is suggested that working-class children should have pre-school training within their early childhood period. Early schooling may provide them with opportunities to acquire the way of speaking valid at school.

Sociolinguistics Elaborated code Basil Bernstein also studied what he named the 'elaborated code' explaining that in this type of speech pattern the middle and upper classes use this language style to gain access to education and career advancement. Bonds within this social group are not as well defined and people achieve their social identity largely on the basis of individual disposition and temperament. There is no obvious division of tasks according to sex or age and generally, within this social formation members negotiate and achieve their roles, rather than have them there ready-made in advance. Due to the lack of solidarity the elaborated social language code requires individual intentions and viewpoints to be made explicit as the 'I' has a greater emphasis with this social group than the working class.

148

Deviation from standard language varieties

The existence of differences in language between social classes can be illustrated by the following table:

A diagram showing variation in the English language by region (the bottom axis) and by social class (the side axis). The higher the social class, the less variation.

Bristolian Dialect (lower class) ... Standard English (higher class) I ain't done nothing I done it yesterday It weren't me that done it ... I haven't done anything ... I did it yesterday ... I didn't do it

Any native speaker of English would immediately be able to guess that speaker 1 was likely of a different social class than speaker 2, namely from a lower social class, probably from a working class pedigree. The differences in grammar between the two examples of speech is referred to as differences between social class dialects or sociolects. It is also notable that, at least in England and Australia, the closer to standard English a dialect gets, the less the lexicon varies by region, and vice-versa.

Covert prestige
It is generally assumed that non-standard language is low-prestige language. However, in certain groups, such as traditional working class neighborhoods, standard language may be considered undesirable in many contexts. This is because the working class dialect is a powerful in-group marker, and especially for non-mobile individuals, the use of non-standard varieties (even exaggeratedly so) expresses neighborhood pride and group and class solidarity. There will thus be a considerable difference in use of non-standard varieties when going to the pub or having a neighborhood barbecue (high), and going to the bank (lower) for the same individual.

Sociolinguistics

149

Sociolinguistic variables
Studies in the field of sociolinguistics typically take a sample population and interview them, assessing the realisation of certain sociolinguistic variables. A commonly studied source of variation is regional dialects. Dialectology studies variations in language based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated features. Sociolinguists concerned with grammatical and phonological features that correspond to regional areas are often called dialectologists. There are several different types of age-based variation one may see within a population. They are: vernacular of a subgroup with membership typically characterized by a specific age range, age-graded variation, and indications of linguistic change in progress. Variation may also be associated with gender. Men and women, on average, tend to use slightly different language styles. These differences tend to be quantitative rather than qualitative. That is, to say that women use a particular speaking style more than men do is akin to saying that men are taller than women (i.e., men are on average taller than women, but some women are taller than some men). Further information: Complimentary language and gender

References
[1] John J. Gumperz and Jenny Cook-Gumperz, "Studying language, culture, and society: Sociolinguistics or linguistic anthropology?". (http:/ / doi. wiley. com/ 10. 1111/ j. 1467-9841. 2008. 00378. x) Journal of Sociolinguistics 12(4), 2008: 532545. [2] T. C. Hodson and the Origins of British Socio-linguistics by John E. Joseph (http:/ / www. ncl. ac. uk/ ss15/ papers/ paper_details. php?id=304) Sociolinguistics Symposium 15, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, April 2004 [3] Paolillo, John C. Analyzing Linguistic Variation: Statistical Models and Methods CSLI Press 2001, Tagliamonte, Sali Analysing Sociolinguistic Variation Cambridge, 2006 [4] Wardhaugh, Ronald (2006), An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, New York: Wiley-Blackwell [5] Dubois, Sylvie and Horvath, Barbara. (1998). "Let's tink about dat: Interdental Fricatives in Cajun English." Language Variation and Change 10 (3), pp 245-61.

Further reading
Chambers, J.K. (2010). Sociolinguistic Theory. Linguistic Variation and its Social Significance. Malden, Ma: Blackwell Publishers. (A very elaborate book that brings the reader a detailed overview of the most important investigations that have been done in sociolinguistics, their results and the tendencies that can be derived from those. It also offers an overview of the structure vs. variability debate.) Labov, W. (2001). Principles of Linguistic Changes: Social Factors. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Lakoff, Robin T. (2000). The Language War. Berkely, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21666-0 Meyerhoff, Miriam. (2006). Introducing Sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-39948-3 Milroy, Lesley and Gordon. Matthew. (2003) Sociolinguistics: Method and Interpretation London: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22225-1. (More advanced, but has lots of good examples and describes research methodologies to use.) Paulston, Christina Bratt and G. Richard Tucker, editors. 1997. The early days of sociolinguistics: memories and reflections. (Publications in Sociolinguistics, 2.) Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Tagliamonte, S. (2006). Analysing Sociolinguistic Variation.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (An entry-level introduction to sociolinguistics that features a practical how-to guide for setting up an investigation.) Trudgill, Peter. (2000). Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society(4th Ed.). London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-028921-6 This book is a very readable, if Anglo-centric, introduction for the non-linguist. Watts, Richard J. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79406-0. A sociolinguistics book specializing in the research in politeness. It's a little tough at times, but very helpful and informational.

Sociolinguistics

150

External links
Applied Linguistics (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Applied_Linguistics/) at the Open Directory Project http://www.ncsu.edu/linguistics/ncllp/aboutfieldwork.php About sociolinguistic fieldwork Sociolinguistics: an interview with William Labov (http://www.revel.inf.br/site2007/_pdf/9/entrevistas/ revel_9_interview_labov.pdf) ReVEL, vol. 5, n. 9, 2007.

List of language families

This List of language families includes also language isolates, unclassified languages and other types of languages.

Major language families

By number of native speakers
Distribution of the major language families. For a legend, see language family. For more details, see Distribution of languages in the world. This is a list of the top ten families that are fairly often recognized as phylogenetic units, in terms of numbers of native speakers as a proportion of world population, listed with their core geographic areas. 1. Indo-European languages 46% (Europe, Southwest to South Asia, North Asia, North America, South America, Oceania) 2. Sino-Tibetan languages 21% (East Asia) 3. NigerCongo languages 6.4% (Sub-Saharan Africa) 4. Afro-Asiatic languages 6.0% (North Africa to Horn of Africa, Southwest Asia) 6. Dravidian languages 3.7% (South Asia) 7. Altaic languages (controversial combination of Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic families) 2.3% (Central Asia, Northern Asia, Anatolia, Siberia)[1] 8. Austro-Asiatic languages 1.7% (mainland Southeast Asia) 9. TaiKadai languages 1.3% (Southeast Asia) Phyla with historically wide geographical distributions but comparatively few contemporary speakers include EskimoAleut, Algic, Quechuan and Nilo-Saharan.

Pie chart of world languages by percentage of speakers

5. Austronesian languages 5.9% (Oceania, Madagascar, maritime Southeast Asia)

List of language families

151

By number of languages
According to the numbers in Ethnologue, the largest language families in terms of number of languages are the following. Some families are controversial, and in many the language count varies between researchers. 1. NigerCongo (1,532 languages) 2. Austronesian (1,257 languages) 3. TransNew Guinea (477 languages) 4. Sino-Tibetan (449 languages) 5. Indo-European (439 languages) 6. Afro-Asiatic (374 languages) 7. Nilo-Saharan (205 languages) (controversial) 8. PamaNyungan (178 languages) 9. Oto-Manguean (177 languages) (number varies; Lyle Campbell counts 27) 10. Austro-Asiatic (169 languages) 11. TaiKadai (92 languages) 12. Dravidian (85 languages) 13. Tupian (76 languages)

Language families
In the following, each numbered item is a known or suspected language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of a few hundred independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are not a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.

Africa and Southwest Asia

List of language families

152

1. Afro-Asiatic languages (formerly Hamito-Semitic) 2. NigerCongo languages (sometimes Niger-Kordofanian) 3. Nilo-Saharan languages 4. Khoe languages (part of the Khoisan proposal) 5. Tuu languages (part of Khoisan) 6. Kx'a languages (part of Khoisan) 7. Ubangian languages 8. Mande languages (perhaps NigerCongo) 9. Songhay languages (perhaps Nilo-Saharan) 10. Kadu languages (perhaps Nilo-Saharan) 11. Koman languages (perhaps Nilo-Saharan)

The language families of Africa.

Europe and North, West and South Asia

1. Indo-European languages 2. Tyrsenian languages (extinct) 3. Dravidian languages 4. Northwest Caucasian languages (often included in North Caucasian) 5. Northeast Caucasian languages (often included in North Caucasian) 6. Hurro-Urartian languages (extinct, perhaps related to Northeast Caucasian) 7. South Caucasian languages 8. Turkic languages (part of the Altaic proposal) 9. Mongolic languages (part of Altaic) 10. Tungusic languages (part of Altaic) 11. Uralic languages 12. Yukaghir languages 13. Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
Map of major European languages

List of language families 14. Yeniseian languages (part of proposed DenYeniseian family)

153

East Asia, Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Pacific

1. Austro-Asiatic languages 2. Austronesian languages (part of the Austro-Tai proposal) 3. Great Andamanese languages (part of the Andamanese proposal) 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Distribution of the Turkic languages across Eurasia

HmongMien languages Japonic languages (part of an expanded Altaic proposal) Ongan languages (part of the Andamanese proposal) Siangic ? (proposed, may be Sino-Tibetan) Sino-Tibetan languages

9. TaiKadai languages (part of Austro-Tai proposal)

New Guinea and neighboring islands

1. 2. 3. 4. Baining languages Border languages Central Solomons languages East Bird's Head Sentani languages

5. Eastern Trans-Fly languages (one in Australia) 6. Fas languages 7. East Geelvink Bay languages 8. Lakes Plain languages (upper Mamberamo River) 9. Left May languages 10. Kwomtari languages 11. Mairasi languages 12. Nimboran languages 13. North Bougainville languages 14. Piawi languages 15. Ramu Lower Sepik languages 16. Senagi languages 17. Sepik languages 18. Skou languages 19. South Bougainville languages 20. TorKwerba languages 21. Torricelli languages 22. Trans-Fly Bulaka River languages 23. TransNew Guinea (the largest family) 24. West New Britain languages

Area of the Papuan languages.

List of language families 25. West Papuan languages 26. Yuat languages

154

Australia
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Bunaban languages Daly languages Limilngan languages Djeragan languages Nyulnyulan languages Wororan languages Mirndi languages Arnhem Land languages (3 families and 2 isolates)

9. Gunwinyguan languages 10. PamaNyungan languages (the largest family)

Map of the Australian languages.

List of language families

155

North America and Mesoamerica

1. Algic languages (incl. Algonquian languages) (14) 2. Alsean languages (0) 3. Caddoan languages (4) 4. Chimakuan languages (1) 5. Chinookan languages (1) 6. Chumashan languages (0) 7. Comecrudan languages (0) 8. Coosan languages (0) 9. EskimoAleut languages (5) 10. Iroquoian languages (7) 11. Kalapuyan languages (0) 12. Keres languages (2) 13. Maiduan languages (3) 14. Mayan languages (Mesoamerica) (31) 15. MixeZoquean languages (Mesoamerica) (19) 16. Muskogean languages (5) 17. Na-Dene languages (44) (part of proposed DenYeniseian family) 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Oto-Manguean languages (Mesoamerica) (27) Palaihnihan languages (1) Plateau Penutian languages (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan) (3) Pomoan languages (5) Salishan languages (16) Shastan languages (0) SiouanCatawban languages (10) Tanoan languages (6) Tequistlatecan languages (Mesoamerica) (2) Totonacan languages (Mesoamerica) (2) Tsimshian languages (3) Utian languages (5) Uto-Aztecan languages (North America & Mesoamerica) (31) Wakashan languages (7) Wintuan languages (1) Yokutsan languages (1) Yukian languages (0) Yuman languages (10)
Distribution of language families and isolates north of Mexico at first contact.

List of language families

156

Central America and South America

1. Alacalufan languages (2) 2. Arauan languages (8) 3. Araucanian languages (2) 4. Arawakan languages (South America & Caribbean) (73) 5. ArutaniSape languages (2) 6. Aymaran languages (3) 7. Barbacoan languages (7) 8. Cahuapanan languages (2) 9. Carib languages (29) 10. Catacaoan languages (0) 11. Chapacuran languages (5) 12. Charruan languages (10) 13. Chibchan languages (Central & South America) (22) 14. Chimuan languages (0) 15. Choco languages (10) 16. Chon languages (2) 17. EsmereldaYaruro languages (2) 18. Guaicuruan languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8) 19. HibitoCholon languages (0) 20. Hod languages (2) 21. Ge languages (13) 22. Jicaquean languages (Central America) 23. Jirajaran languages (0) 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. Jivaroan languages (4) KatembriTaruma languages (0) Katukinan languages (3) Lencan languages (Central America) LuleVilela languages (1) Mascoian languages (5) Mashakalian languages Matacoan languages (4) Misumalpan languages (Central America) (9) Mosetenan languages (1) Mura languages (1) Nadahup languages (4) Nambiquaran languages (5) Otomakoan languages ? (3) PanoTacanan languages (36) PebaYaguan languages (2) Puinavean languages (Maku) (9) Quechuan languages (46)
The major South American language families.

42. Salivan languages (2) 43. TequiracaCanichana languages (2)

List of language families 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. Tucanoan languages (25) Tupian languages (70) UruChipaya languages (2) Witotoan languages (6) Xincan languages (Central America) Yabutian languages (2) Yanomam languages (4) Zamucoan languages (2) Zaparoan languages (7)

157

Language isolates
Central & South America
1. 2. 3. 4. Abishira Aikan (Brazil: Rondnia) Andoque (Colombia, Peru) Betoi (Colombia)

5. Cams (Colombia) 6. Candoshi-Shapra (Peru) 7. Cayubaba (Bolivia) 8. Cofn (Colombia, Ecuador) 9. Fulni 10. Guat (Brazil, Bolivia) 11. Huaorani (a.k.a. Sabela, Waorani, Waodani) (Ecuador, Peru) 12. Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso) 13. Itonama (Bolivia) 14. Kapixan (Brazil) 15. Koay (Brazil: Rondnia) 16. Leco (Bolivia) 17. Mapudungun (Chile, Argentina) 18. Movima (Bolivia) 19. Omurano (Peru) 20. Ot (Brazil: So Paulo) [extinct] 21. Paez (see also Paezan) 22. Puelche (Argentina,Chile) 23. Puquina (Bolivia) [extinct] 24. Taushiro (Peru) 25. Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) 26. Timote (Venezuela) 27. Tinwa (Colombia) 28. Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) 29. Wayuu (a.k.a Goajiro) (Colombia, Venezuela) 30. Ymana (a.k.a Yagan) (Chile) 31. Yuracare (Bolivia) 32. Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) 33. Yurumangu (Colombia)

List of language families

158

North America
1. Chimariko (US: California) [extinct] 2. Chitimacha (US: Louisiana) [extinct] 3. Coahuilteco (US: Texas, northeast Mexico) [extinct] 4. Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) [extinct] 5. Esselen (US: California) [extinct] 6. Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska) 7. Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca) 8. Karankawa (US: Texas) [extinct] 9. Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) (US: California) 10. Kootenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana) 11. Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana) (sometimes linked to Muskogean) 12. P'urhpecha (a.k.a. Tarascan) (Mexico: Michoacn) 13. Salinan (US: California) [extinct] 14. Seri (Mexico: Sonora) 15. Siuslaw (US: Oregon) [extinct] 16. Takelma (US: Oregon) [extinct] 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia) [extinct] Tonkawa (US: Texas) [extinct] Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas) [extinct] Washo (US: California, Nevada) Yana (US: California) [extinct] Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma) Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)

Australia
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Enindhilyagwa (AKA Andilyaugwa, Anindilyakwa) Laragiya Minkin [extinct; perhaps a member of Yiwaidjan or Tankic] Ngurmbur (perhaps a member of Macro-PamaNyungan) Tiwi (Melville and Bathurst Islands)

New Guinea
1. Abinomn (Baso, Foia) (north Irian) 2. Anm (New Britain) 3. Ata (Pele-Ata, Wasi) (New Britain) 4. Busa (Sandaun) 5. Isirawa (north Irian) 6. Kol (New Britain) 7. Kuot (Panaras) (New Ireland) 8. Massep 9. Pyu 10. Sulka (New Britain) 11. Taiap (Gapun) (Sepik) 12. Yal (Nagatman) (Sandaun) 13. Yawa (Geelvink Bay)

List of language families 14. Yl Dnye (Yele) (Rennell Island) 15. Yuri (Karkar) (Sandaun)

159

Asia
1. Ainu language or languages (Japan, Russia) (like Arabic or Japanese, the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity) 2. Nivkh or Gilyak (Russia) (sometimes linked to ChukchiKamchatkan) 3. Korean (North & South Korea, China, USA) (sometimes linked to Altaic) 4. Kusunda (Nepal) 5. Nihali (India) (sometimes linked to Munda) 6. Burushaski (Pakistan, India) (sometimes linked to Yeniseian) 7. Elamite (Iran) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Dravidian) 8. Sumerian (Iraq) [extinct] 9. Hattic (Turkey) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Northwest Caucasian)

Africa
1. Hadza (Tanzania) 2. Sandawe (Tanzania) (may be related to Khoe)

Europe
1. Basque (Spain, France) (related to extinct Aquitanian)

Unclassified languages
Languages are considered unclassified either because, for one reason or another, little effort has been made to compare them with other languages, or, more commonly, because they are too poorly documented to permit reliable classification. Most such languages are extinct and most likely will never be known well enough to classify.

Europe
1. 2. 3. 4. Iberian (Spain) [extinct] Tartessian (Spain, Portugal) [extinct] North Picene (Italy) [extinct] Pictish (Scotland) [extinct]

Africa
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Ongota (perhaps Afro-Asiatic) Gumuz (perhaps Nilo-Saharan) Kwadi (extinct; perhaps Khoe) Bangi-me (ethnically Dogon) Dompo Mpre Jalaa Laal

9. Meroitic (extinct; variously thought to be Nilo-Saharan or Afro-Asiatic) 10. Shabo

List of language families

160

Asia
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Quti [extinct] Kaskian [extinct] Cimmerian [extinct] Shompen (Nicobar Islands) Enggano (Sumatra)

Australia
1. Tasmanian languages [extinct]

South America
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Baenan (Brazil) [extinct] Culle (Peru) [extinct] Kunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) [extinct] Gamela (Brazil: Maranho) [extinct] Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) [extinct]

6. Huamo (Brazil: Pernambuco) [extinct] 7. Kukur (Brazil: Mato Grosso) [extinct] 8. Malibu languages (Colombia) [extinct] 9. Munichi (Peru) 10. Nat (Brazil: Pernambuco) [extinct] 11. Pankarar (Brazil: Pernambuco) 12. Sechura 13. Tarairi (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) 14. Tux (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) [extinct] 15. Xok (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) [extinct] 16. Xukur (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraba) [extinct] 17. Yurumangu (Colombia) [extinct]

North America
1. Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas) [extinct] 2. Alagilac (Guatemala) 3. Aranama-Tamique (US: Texas) [extinct] 4. Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas) [extinct] 5. Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland) [extinct] 6. Calusa (US: Florida) [extinct] 7. Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington) [extinct] 8. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) [extinct] 9. Maratino (northeastern Mexico) [extinct] 10. Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas) [extinct] 11. Quinigua (northeast Mexico) [extinct] 12. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas) [extinct]

List of language families

161

Mixed languages
Mixed languages do not fit easily into language families.

Creoles
Creole languages do not fit easily into language families.

Sign languages
The family relationships of sign languages are not well established, and many are isolates (cf. Wittmann 1991). BANZSL French Sign Language family

Proposed language stocks

Note that many of the listed proposals disagree with one another (for example Nostratic with Pontic, or Keresiouan with HokanSiouan). Proto-World Amerind AlmosanKeresiouan Almosan (= Sapir's AlgonkinWakashan) Mosan Keresiouan Macro-Siouan AlgonkianGulf Algonquin, Algonkin Andean Quechumaran ChibchanPaezan Central Amerind AztecTanoan Coahuiltecan Gulf HokanSiouan Hokan Macro-Carib JeTupiCarib Macro-Ge Macro-Mayan Macro-Panoan Macro-Tucanoan Penutian YukiWappo Borean Alarodian DeneDaic Sino-Austronesian

List of language families Austric Austro-Tai DeneCaucasian Karasuk Nostratic Eurasiatic Indo-Uralic languages UralAltaic UralicYukaghir Uralo-Siberian Pontic Ibero-Caucasian Indo-Pacific KongoSaharan Macro-Khoisan Na-Dene (Sapir's)

162

References
[1] Since the Mongolic and Tungusic language families have only a relatively small number of speakers, the majority of the Altaic percentage represents speakers of Turkic languages

External links
Ethnologue (http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp) MultiTree Project (http://multitree.linguistlist.org) Number of speakers by language (http://www.nicemice.net/amc/tmp/lang-pop.var) (Out of date) Comparative Swadesh list tables of various language families (http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ Appendix:Swadesh_lists) (from Wiktionary)

Linguistic anthropology

163

Linguistic anthropology
Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavor to document endangered languages, and has grown over the past 100 years to encompass almost any aspect of language structure and use.[1] Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.[2]

Historical development
As Alessandro Duranti has noted, three paradigms have emerged over the history of the subdiscipline. The first, now known as "anthropological linguistics," focuses on the documentation of languages. The second, known as "linguistic anthropology," engages in theoretical studies of language use. A third paradigm, developed over the past two or three decades, studies questions related to other subfields of anthropology with the tools of linguistic inquiry. Though they developed sequentially, all three paradigms are still practiced today.[3]

"Anthropological linguistics"
The first paradigm was originally referred to as "linguistics", although as it and its surrounding fields of study matured it came to be known as "anthropological linguistics". The field was devoted to themes unique to the subdisciplinelinguistic documentation of languages then seen as doomed to extinction (these were the languages of native North America on which the first members of the subdiscipline focused) such as: Grammatical description, Typological classification (see typology), and The unresolved issue of linguistic relativity (associated with Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf but actually brought to American linguistics by Franz Boas working within a theoretical framework going back to European thinkers from Vico to Herder to Humboldt). The so-called SapirWhorf Hypothesis is perhaps a misnomer insofar as the approach to science taken by these two differs from the positivist, hypothesis-driven model of science. In any case, it was Harry Hoijer (Sapir's student) who coined the term.[4]

"Linguistic anthropology"
Dell Hymes was largely responsible for launching the second paradigm that fixed the name "linguistic anthropology" in the 1960s, though he also coined the term "ethnography of speaking" (or "ethnography of communication") to describe the agenda he envisioned for the field. It would involve taking advantage of new developments in technology, including new forms of mechanical recording. A new unit of analysis was also introduced by Hymes. Whereas the first paradigm focused on ostensibly distinct "languages" (scare quotes indicate that contemporary linguistic anthropologists treat the concept of "a language" as an ideal construction covering up complexities within and "across" so-called linguistic boundaries), the unit of analysis in the second paradigm was newthe "speech event." (The speech event is an event defined by the speech occurring in ita lecture, for exampleso that a dinner is not a speech event, but a speech situation, a situation in which speech may or may not occur.) Much attention was devoted to speech events in which performers were held accountable for the form of their linguistic performance as such.[5][6] Hymes also pioneered a linguistic anthropological approach to ethnopoetics. Hymes had hoped to link linguistic anthropology more closely with the mother discipline. The name certainly stresses that the primary identity is with anthropology, whereas "anthropological linguistics" conveys a sense that the primary identity of its practitioners was with linguistics, which is a separate academic discipline on most university

Linguistic anthropology campuses today (not in the days of Boas and Sapir). However, Hymes' ambition in a sense backfired; the second paradigm in fact marked a further distancing of the subdiscipline from the rest of anthropology.

164

Anthropological issues studied via linguistic methods and data

In the third paradigm, which has emerged since the late 1980s, instead of continuing to pursue agendas that come from a discipline alien to anthropology, linguistic anthropologists have systematically addressed themselves to problems posed by the larger discipline of anthropologybut using linguistic data and methods. Popular areas of study in this third paradigm include investigations of social identities, broadly shared ideologies, and the construction and uses of narrative in interaction among individuals and groups.[3]

Areas of interest
Contemporary linguistic anthropology continues research in all three of the paradigms described above. Several areas related to the third paradigm, the study of anthropological issues, are particularly rich areas of study for current linguistic anthropologists.

Identity
A great deal of work in linguistic anthropology investigates questions of sociocultural identity linguistically. Linguistic anthropologist Don Kulick has done this in relation to identity, for example, in a series of settings, first in a village called Gapun in Papua New Guinea.[7] Kulick explored how the use of two languages with and around children in Gapun villagethe traditional language (Taiap) not spoken anywhere but in their own village and thus primordially "indexical" of Gapuner identity, and Tok Pisin (the widely circulating official language of New Guinea). (Linguistic anthropologists use "indexical" to mean indicative, though some indexical signs create their indexical meanings on the fly, so to speak.[8]) To speak the Taiap language is associated with one identitynot only local but "Backward" and also an identity based on the display of *hed* (personal autonomy). To speak Tok Pisin is to index a modern, Christian (Catholic) identity, based not on *hed* but on *save*, that is an identity linked with the will and the skill to cooperate. In later work, Kulick demonstrates that certain loud speech performances called *um escndalo*, Brazilian travesti (roughly, 'transvestite') sex workers shame clients. The travesti community, the argument goes, ends up at least making a powerful attempt to transcend the shame the larger Brazilian public might try to foist off on themagain, through loud public discourse and other modes of performance.[9]

Socialization
In a series of studies, linguistic anthropologists Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin addressed the important anthropological topic of socialization (the process by which infants, children, and foreigners become members of a community, learning to participate in its culture), using linguistic as well as ethnographic methods.[10] They discovered that the processes of enculturation and socialization do not occur apart from the process of language acquisition, but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Ochs and Schieffelin demonstrated that baby talk is not universal, that the direction of adaptation (whether the child is made to adapt to the ongoing situation of speech around it or vice versa) was a variable that correlated, for example, with the direction it was held vis--vis a caregiver's body. In many societies caregivers hold a child facing outward so as to orient it to a network of kin whom it must learn to recognize early in life. Ochs and Schieffelin demonstrated that members of all societies socialize children both to and through the use of language. Ochs and Taylor uncovered how, through naturally occurring stories told during dinners in white middle class households in southern California, both mothers and fathers participated in replicating male dominance (the "father knows best" syndrome) by the distribution of participant roles such as protagonist (often a child but sometimes mother and almost never the father) and "problematizer" (often the father, who raised uncomfortable questions or challenged the competence of the protagonist). When mothers collaborated with children to get their

Linguistic anthropology stories told they unwittingly set themselves up to be subject to this process. Schieffelin's more recent research has uncovered the socializing role of pastors and other fairly new Bosavi converts in the Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea community she studies.[11][12][13][14] Pastors have introduced new ways of conveying knowledge i.e. new linguistic epistemic markers[11]and new ways of speaking about time.[13] And they have struggled with and largely resisted those parts of the Bible that speak of being able to know the inner states of others (e.g. the gospel of Mark, chapter 2, verses 6-8).[14]

165

Ideologies
In a third example of the current (third) paradigm, since Roman Jakobson's student, Michael Silverstein opened the way, there has been an efflorescence of work done by linguistic anthropologists on the major anthropological theme of ideologies[15]in this case "language ideologies", sometimes defined as "shared bodies of commonsense notions about the nature of language in the world."[16] Silverstein has demonstrated that these ideologies are not mere false consciousness but actually influence the evolution of linguistic structures, including the dropping of "thee" and "thou" from everyday English usage.[17] Woolard, in her overview of "code switching", or the systematic practice of alternating linguistic varieties within a conversation or even a single utterance, finds the underlying question anthropologists ask of the practiceWhy do they do that?reflects a dominant linguistic ideology. It is the ideology that people should "really" be monoglot and efficiently targeted toward referential clarity rather than diverting themselves with the messiness of multiple varieties in play at a single time.[18] Attitudes toward languages such as Spanish and English in the U.S. are certainly informed by linguistic ideologies. This extends to the widespread impression, created by statements such as that by U.S. Senator Lamar Alexander, Republican of Tennessee (in regards to a recently passed measure making English the "official" language of the U.S.), that English is "part of our blood." To Horwitz, this invocation of blood implies that English reflects the deepest vein of the nation's ancestry, i.e., the oldest language spoken in what is now the United States. Such a claim, if made openly, would be doubly absurd, ignoring a) all of the Native American languages severely impacted by the arrival of Europeans, but also b) Spanish, the language of a rather sizable number of European explorers and settlers across the length and breadth of what is now the United States.[19] Thus Alexander is attempting to "naturalize" language and national identity via the metaphor of "blood." Much research on linguistic ideologies probes subtler influences on language, such as the pull exerted on Tewa a Kiowa-Tanoan language spoken in certain New Mexico Pueblos as well as on the Hopi Reservation in Arizona by "kiva speech," discussed in the next section.[20]

Social space
In a final example of this third paradigm, a group of linguistic anthropologists has done very creative work on the idea of social space. Duranti published a ground breaking article on Samoan greetings and their use and transformation of social space.[21] Prior to that, Indonesianist Joseph Errington making use of earlier work by Indonesianists not necessarily concerned with language issues per sebrought linguistic anthropological methods (and semiotic theory) to bear on the notion of the "exemplary center," or the center of political and ritual power from which emanated exemplary behavior.[22] Errington demonstrated how the Javanese *priyayi*, whose ancestors served at the Javanese royal courts, became emissaries, so to speak, long after those courts had ceased to exist, representing throughout Java the highest example of 'refined speech.' The work of Joel Kuipers further develops this theme vis-a-vis the island of Sumba, Indonesia. And, even though it pertains to Tewa Indians in Arizona rather than Indonesians, Paul Kroskrity's argument that speech forms originating in the Tewa kiva (or underground ceremonial space) forms the dominant model for all Tewa speech can be seen as a rather direct parallel. Silverstein tries to find the maximum theoretical significance and applicability in this idea of exemplary centers. He feels, in fact, that the exemplary center idea is one of linguistic anthropology's three most important findings. He generalizes the notion in the following manner, arguing that "there are wider-scale institutional 'orders of

Linguistic anthropology interactionality,' historically contingent yet structured. Within such large-scale, macrosocial orders, in-effect ritual centers of semiosis come to exert a structuring, value-conferring influence on any particular event of discursive interaction with respect to the meanings and significance of the verbal and other semiotic forms used in it."[23] Current approaches to such classic anthropological topics as ritual by linguistic anthropologists emphasize not static linguistic structures but the unfolding in realtime of a "'hypertrophic' set of parallel orders of iconicity and indexicality that seem to cause the ritual to create its own sacred space through what appears, often, to be the magic of textual and nontextual metricalizations, synchronized."[23][24]

166

References
[1] Duranti, Alessandro. ed. 2004. Companion to Linguistic Anthropology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3jMmmQjssaEC). Malden, MA: Blackwell. [2] Society for Linguistic Anthropology. n.d. About the Society for Linguistic Anthropology. (http:/ / www. linguisticanthropology. org/ about/ ) Accessed 7 July 2010. [3] Duranti, Alessandro. 2003. Language as Culture in U.S. Anthropology: Three Paradigms. Current Anthropology 44(3):323-348. [4] Hoijer, Harry. 1954. "The SapirWhorf hypothesis," in Language in culture: Conference on the interrelations of language and other aspects of culture. Edited by H. Hoijer, pp. 92105. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hill, Jane, and Bruce Mannheim. 1992. "Language and Worldview." Annual Reviews in Anthropology 21:381-406. [5] Bauman, Richard. 1977. Verbal Art as Performance. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1525/ aa. 1975. 77. 2. 02a00030) American Anthropologist 77:290-311. [6] Hymes, Dell. 1981 [1975] Breakthrough into Performance. In In Vain I Tried to Tell You: Essays in Native American Ethnopoetics. D. Hymes, ed. Pp. 79-141. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. [7] Kulick, Don. 1992. Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction: Socialization, Self and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinea Village. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [8] Silverstein, Michael. 1976. Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description. In Meaning in Anthropology. K. Basso and H.A. Selby, eds. Pp. pp. 11-56. Albuquerque: School of American Research, University of New Mexico Press. [9] Kulick, Don, and Charles H. Klein. 2003. Scandalous Acts: The Politics of Shame among Brazilian Travesti Prostitutes. In Recognition Struggles and Social Movements: Contested Identities, Agency and Power. B. Hobson, ed. Pp. 215-238. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [10] Ochs, Elinor. 1988. Culture and language development: Language acquisition and language socialization in a Samoan village. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ochs, Elinor, and Bambi Schieffelin. 1984. Language Acquisition and Socialization: Three Developmental Stories and Their Implications. In Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion. R. Shweder and R.A. LeVine, eds. Pp. 276-320. New York: Cambridge University. Ochs, Elinor, and Carolyn Taylor. 2001. The Father Knows Best Dynamic in Dinnertime Narratives. In Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. A. Duranti, ed. Pp. 431-449. Oxford. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Schieffelin, Bambi B. 1990. The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language Socialization of Kaluli Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [11] Schieffelin, Bambi B. 1995. Creating evidence: Making sense of written words in Bosavi. Pragmatics 5(2):225-244. [12] Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2000. Introducing Kaluli Literacy: A Chronology of Influences. In Regimes of Language. P. Kroskrity, ed. Pp. 293-327. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. [13] Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2002. Marking time: The dichotomizing discourse of multiple temporalities. Current Anthropology 43(Supplement):S5-17. [14] Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2006. PLENARY ADDRESS: Found in translating: Reflexive language across time and texts in Bosavi, PNG. Twelve Annual Conference on Language, Interaction, and Culture, University of California, Los Angeles, 2006. [15] Silverstein, Michael. 1979. Language Structure and Linguistic Ideology. In The Elements: A Parasession on Linguistic Units and Levels. R. Cline, W. Hanks, and C. Hofbauer, eds. Pp. pp. 193-247. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society. [16] Rumsey, Alan. 1990. Word, meaning, and linguistic ideology. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1525/ aa. 1990. 92. 2. 02a00060) American Anthropologist 92(2):346-361. [17] Silverstein, Michael. 1985. Language and the Culture of Gender: At the Intersection of Structure, Usage, and Ideology. In Semiotic Mediation: Sociocultural and Psychological Perspectives. E. Mertz and R. Parmentier, eds. Pp. 219-259. Orlando: Academic Press. [18] Woolard, Kathryn A. 2004. Codeswitching. In Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. A. Duranti, ed. Pp. 73-94. Malden: Blackwell. [19] Horwitz, Tony. 2006. Immigrationand the Curse of the Black Legend (Op-Ed). New York Times. Week in Review, July 9, 2006, p. 13. [20] Kroskrity, Paul V. 1998. Arizona Tewa Kiva Speech as a Manifestation of Linguistic Ideology. In Language ideologies: Practice and theory. B.B. Schieffelin, K.A. Woolard, and P. Kroskrity, eds. Pp. 103-122. New York: Oxford University Press. [21] Duranti, Alessandro. 1992. Language and Bodies in Social Space: Samoan Greetings. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1525/ aa. 1992. 94. 3. 02a00070) American Anthropologist 94:657-691.

Linguistic anthropology
[22] Errington, J. Joseph. 1988. Structure and Style in Javanese: A Semiotic View of Linguistic Etiquette. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. [23] Silverstein, Michael. 2004. "Cultural" Concepts and the Language-Culture Nexus. Current Anthropology 45(5):621-652. [24] Wilce, James M. 2006. Magical Laments and Anthropological Reflections: The Production and Circulation of Anthropological Text as Ritual Activity. Current Anthropology. 47(6):891-914.

167

Further reading
Ahearn, Laura M. 2011. Living Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Blount, Ben G. ed. 1995. Language, Culture, and Society: A Book of Readings. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland. Bonvillain, Nancy. 1993. Language, culture, and communication: The meaning of messages. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Brenneis, Donald; and Ronald K. S. Macaulay. 1996. The matrix of language: Contemporary linguistic anthropology. Boulder: Westview. Duranti, Alessandro. 1997. Linguistic Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Duranti, Alessandro. ed. 2001. Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Giglioli, Pier Paolo. 1972. Language and social context: Selected readings. Middlesex: Penguin Books. Salzmann, Zdenek. 1998. Language, culture, & society. Westview Press.

External links
Downloadable publications of authors cited in the article Alessandro Duranti's publications (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/duranti/publish.htm) Joel Kuipers' publications (http://home.gwu.edu/~kuipers/) Elinor Ochs' publications (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/ochs/publish.htm) Bambi Schieffelin's publications (http://homepages.nyu.edu/~bs4/) James Wilce's publications (http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jmw22/cv/index.html)

168

Known history
Big History
Big History is a field of historical study that examines history on large scales across long time frames through a multidisciplinary approach[1], focusing on both the history of the non-human world and on major adaptations and alterations in the human experience.[2] It arose as a distinct field in the late 1980s and is related to, but distinct from, world history,[2] as the field examines history from the beginning of time to the present day. In some respects, the field is thus similar to the older universal history.

Description
Big history looks at the past on all time scales, from the Big Bang to modernity, seeking out common themes and patterns. It draws on the latest findings from many disciplines, such as biology, astronomy, geology, climatology, prehistory, archeology, anthropology, economics, cosmology, natural history, and population and environmental studies. Big History arose from a desire to go beyond the specialized and self-contained fields that emerged in the 20th century and grasp history as a whole, looking for common themes across multiple time scales in history.[3][4] Conventionally, the study of history concerns only the period of time since the invention of writing, and is limited to past events relating directly to the human race; yet this only encompasses the past 5,000 years or so and covers only a small fraction of the period of time that humans have existed on Earth, and an even smaller fraction of the age of the universe. Big history evolved from interdisciplinary studies in the mid-20th century, during the Cold War and Space Race. Some of the first efforts were Cosmic Evolution at Harvard University (USA) and Universal History in the Soviet Union. The first actual courses in what is today called big history were experimental ones taught in the late 1980s by John Mears at Southern Methodist University (Dallas, Texas) and by David Christian at Macquarie University (Australia) and San Diego State University (USA).[5][6] Since then, other universities have offered similar courses. Major publications in big history include Fred Spier's 1996 book The Structure of Big History: From the Big Bang until Today, which offers an ambitious defense of the project and constructs a unified account of history across time scales. Another notable text in big history is David Christian's Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History, which explores the trajectory of history from the first microseconds after the Big Bang, to the creation of the Solar System, the origins of life on Earth, the evolution of humans, the agricultural revolution, modernity, and the 20th century. In his book and big history course available through The Teaching Company, Christian examines large-scale patterns and themes, and provides perspective on time scales. Graeme Snooks in The Dynamic Society, published in 1996, provided the first general dynamic theory to explain Big History over the past 4 billion years, and to make scientific predictions about its future course. Fred Spier's new text, Big History and the Future of Humanity, was published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2010. Currently in process is a textbook on big history for McGraw Hill by David Christian, Cynthia Stokes Brown and Craig Benjamin. Brown initiated big history at Dominican University of California and wrote Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present.[7] The Dominican University program in big history is part of the university's First Year Experience,[8] and is directed by Mojgan Behmand. Barry Rodrigue, at the University of Southern Maine, established the first Big History course in a general education curriculum, and then began the first online Big History course, which has drawn students from around the world. At the University of Queensland in Australia there is an undergraduate course entitled Global History, which is compulsory for all degrees majoring in history, and surveys how powerful forces and factors at work on large time-scales have shaped human history. As of 2011, about 50 professors are offering courses in big history around the world. There is a movement underway to

Big History make big history the basic course for students in higher education throughout the world. The International Big History Association (IBHA) was founded at the Coldigioco Geological Observatory [9] in Coldigioco, Marche, Italy, on 20 August 2010. Its headquarters is located at Grand Valley State University in Allendale, Michigan (USA).

169

Further reading
Books listed by date
Leonid E. Grinin, Andrey V. Korotayev, and Barry H. Rodrigue. (2011). (Eds.). Evolution: A Big History Perspective [10]. Volgograd: Uchitel Publishing House. ISBN 978-5-7057-2905-0. Roston, E. (2008). The Carbon Age: How Life's Core Element Has Become Civilization's Greatest Threat. New York: Walker & Co. Brown, Cynthia S. (2007). Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present. New York: The New Press Kurzweil, R. (2005). The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. : The Viking Press Bryson, B. (2005). A short history of nearly everything: [illustrated]. London: Transworld. Korotayev, A., Malkov, A., and Daria Khaltourina (2005). Introduction to Social Macrodynamics [11]. Moscow: KomKniga/URSS. Snooks, Graeme Donald (2003). The Collapse of Darwinism, Or The Rise of a Realist Theory of Life [12], Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield. Diamond, J. M. (2003). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Manning, P. (2003). Navigating world history: historians create a global past. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan. Stamhuis, I. H. (2002). The changing image of the science. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. Drees, Willem B. (2001). Creation: From Nothing Until Now. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25652-6 Berry, Thomas (1999). The Great Work: Our Way into the Future. New York: Bell Tower. Delsemme, Arnaud (1998). Our Cosmic Origins. Hawking, S. W. (1998). A brief history of time. London: Bantam. McSween, Harry, and Brian Swimme (1997). Fanfare for Earth. Swimme, Brian, and Thomas F. Berry (1992). The Universe Story: From the Primordial Flaring Forth to the Ecozoic EraA Celebration of the Unfolding of the Cosmos. San Francisco. Gonick, L. (1990). The cartoon history of the universe. New York: Doubleday. Asimov, Isaac (1987). Beginnings: The Story of Origins, of Mankind, Life, the Earth, the Universe. Kutter, Siegfried (1987). The Universe and Life. Cloud, Preston (1978). Cosmos, Earth and Man. Snooks, Graeme Donald (1998). The Laws of History [12], London & New York, Routledge. Snooks, Graeme Donald (1997). The Ephemeral Civilization. Exploding the Myth of Social Evolution [12], London & New York, Routledge. Snooks, Graeme Donald (1996). The Dynamic Society. Exploring the Sources of Global Change [12], London & New York, Routledge. Spier, Fred. (1996) The Structure of Big History: From the Big Bang Until Today, Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Press.

Big History

170

Essays and other publications

John Mears, "Connections and Continuities: Integrating World History into Larger Analytical Frameworks" Bruce Mazlish, "Big History, Little Critique" Markov A., Korotayev A. Hyperbolic growth of marine and continental biodiversity through the Phanerozoic and community evolution // Journal of General Biology. Volume 69, 2008. N 3, pp. 175194 [13]. Markov A., Korotayev A. Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a hyperbolic trend // Palaeoworld. Volume 16, Issue 4, December 2007, Pages 311-318 [14] Marnie Hughes-Warrington, Big History [15]. Social Evolution & History. Vol. 4 (2005). #1. P.7-21. David Christian, "Bridging the Two Cultures: History, Big History, and Science" Eric J. Chaisson, "Follow the Energy: The Relevance of Cosmic Evolution for Human History" Akop P. Nazaretyan, Big (Universal) History Paradigm: Versions and Approaches [15]. Social Evolution & History. Vol. 4 (2005). #1. P.61-86. Fred Spier, "What Drives Human History? A View from Big History" Fred Spier, How Big History Works [15]. Social Evolution & History. Vol. 4 (2005). #1. P.87-135. Barry Rodrigue and Daniel Stasko, Changing the Future with the Past: Global Enlightenment through Big History, The Journal of Globalization Studies 1, (2), Winter 2011, pp. 3047. Daniel Stasko and Barry Rodrigue, A Preliminary Look at Big History Today: The Instructors, the Students, & the Courses, pp. 135147, Russian Academy of Sciences: Social Evolution & History 9 (2), Fall 2010. Daniel Stasko and Barry Rodrigue, Courses of Big History in the Universities of the World, Russian Academy of Sciences: Historical Psychology & Sociology 3, 2 (Fall 2010). Barry Rodrigue: Big History, Civilization & Human Survival, Thought & Action 26, Fall 2010, pp. 139146. Barry Rodrigue and Daniel Stasko, A Big History Directory, 2009: An Introduction, in World History Connected 6 (3) Autumn 2009. Joseph Voros, Nesting Social-Analytical Perspectives: An Approach to Macro-Social Analysis, Journal of Futures Studies 11 (1), Aug 2006, pp. 1-21. [16] Joseph Voros, Macro-Perspectives Beyond the World System, Journal of Futures Studies 11 (3), Feb 2007, pp. 1-28. [16] Graeme Donald Snooks, Uncovering the laws of global history [17], Social Evolution & History, 1 (1), July 2002. Graeme Donald Snooks, Big History or Big Theory? Uncovering the laws of life [17] Social Evolution & History 4 (1), March 2005. Graeme Donald Snooks, Constructing a general theory of life [17], Evolution, Uchitel, Moscow, 2011.

External links
TED Video - Big History introduction by David Christian [18] The International Big History Association (IBHA) [19] ChronoZoom [20] is a timeline for Big History being developed for the International Big History Association by Microsoft Research and University of California, Berkeley[21] The structure of big history from the big bang until today [22] - the book in Google Book Search Big History [23] by Marnie Hughes-Warrington. bu.edu. David Christian David Christian: Big history [18]. 2011. TED Talk. Big History course [24]. 2007. 48 30-minute lectures on Big History, from The Teaching Company. Bill Gates talks about Big History and recommends Teaching Company course [25]. Inspiring Naturalism interview with David Christian, on Big History [26].

Maps of Time at InterSci Complexity wiki [27] Maps of Time: Introduction [28]. 2004. Introduction chapter from the book.

Big History World History in Context [29]. 2003. Christian makes the case that human history is significant across all time scales. "The Case for Big History" [30]. 1991. An early essay. Big History [31] Big History courses at the University of Amsterdam. Exploring the Horizons of Big History [15] - Special issue of the journal Social Evolution & History (Guest Editor Graeme Donald Snooks) Interview [32] with Fred Spier about Big History on New Books in History. And Then There Was You... [33]. 2010. A children's book by Erika K.H. Gronek [34] Big History, University of Southern Maine, Lewiston, Maine (USA). Institute of Global Dynamic Systems. [12]

171

References
General information David Christian (2004). Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History [35]. ISBN 0-520-23500-2 Fred Spier (1996). The Structure of Big History: From the Big Bang until Today. ISBN 90-5356-220-6 Graeme Donald Snooks (Ed.) (2005), Exploring the Horizons of Big History. [15] Special issue, SE&H. Citations and notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Christian, David. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. Stearns, Peter N.. Growing Up: The History of Childhood in a Global Context. p.9. Christian, David. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. p.441. Stamhuis, Ida H.. The Changing Image of the Sciences. p.146. SDSU Department of History - Homepage (http:/ / www-rohan. sdsu. edu/ dept/ histweb/ graduate_program/ documents/ FacultyAreasofSpecialization. doc) (Dead link) [6] San Diego State University (http:/ / www-rohan. sdsu. edu/ dept/ histweb/ course_syllabi/ 100_level_syllabi/ history100_christian. pdf) [7] "Dominican Professor Examines Big History" (http:/ / www. dominican. edu/ dominicannews/ dominican-professor-examines-big-history. html). Dominican University of California. . Retrieved 2011-04-12. [8] "General Education (GE) Requirements" (http:/ / www. dominican. edu/ academics/ advising/ firstyearprograms/ general-education-ge. html). Dominican University of California. 2011-04-12. . [9] http:/ / www. geosc. psu. edu/ ~dmb53/ OGC/ index. html [10] http:/ / www. socionauki. ru/ almanac/ issues/ evolution_2_en/ [11] http:/ / cliodynamics. ru/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=172& Itemid=70 [12] https:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ institutegds/ [13] http:/ / elementy. ru/ genbio/ abstracts?artid=177 [14] http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S1871174X07000030 [15] http:/ / www. socionauki. ru/ journal/ seh_en/ archive/ 2005_1/ [16] http:/ / www. jfs. tku. edu. tw/ sarticles. html [17] http:/ / www. socionauki. ru/ authors/ snooks_g/ [18] http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/ david_christian_big_history. html [19] http:/ / www. ibhanet. org/ [20] http:/ / www. chronozoomproject. com [21] "Visualizing a Universe of Data: ChronoZoom" (http:/ / research. microsoft. com/ en-us/ events/ fs2010/ agenda. aspx). Microsoft Research. Microsoft. . Retrieved 17 April 2011. [22] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5IYAgfKMG1oC& dq=9789053562208& ei=0cAvSsvxNoPcygSSsOmQBw [23] http:/ / www. bu. edu/ historic/ hs/ november02. html#hughes-warrington [24] http:/ / www. teach12. com/ ttcx/ CourseDescLong2. aspx?cid=8050 [25] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=lyQiS-QGRc8 [26] http:/ / inspiringnaturalism. libsyn. com/ 2_david_christian_big_history_ [27] http:/ / intersci. ss. uci. edu/ wiki/ index. php/ Maps_of_Time:_An_Introduction_to_Big_History [28] http:/ / www. ucpress. edu/ books/ pages/ 9249/ 9249. intro. html [29] http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jwh/ 14. 4/ christian. html [30] [31] [32] [33] http:/ / www. fss. uu. nl/ wetfil/ 96-97/ big. htm http:/ / www. communities. uva. nl/ bighistory http:/ / newbooksinhistory. com/ ?p=3121 http:/ / www. blurb. com/ bookstore/ detail/ 1235501

Big History
[34] http:/ / usm. maine. edu/ lac/ global/ bighistory/ [35] http:/ / www. ucpress. edu/ books/ pages/ 9249. php

172

Prehistory

Stonehenge, England, erected by Neolithic peoples ca. 4500-4000 years ago

Human history and prehistory

before Homo (Pliocene) Three-age system prehistory

Stone Age

Lower Paleolithic: Homo, Homo erectus, Middle Paleolithic: early Homo sapiens Upper Paleolithic: behavioral modernity Neolithic: civilization Near East India Europe China Korea Bronze Age collapse Ancient Near East India Europe China Japan Korea Nigeria

Bronze Age

Iron Age

Recorded History

Ancient history Earliest records Middle Ages

Early - High - Late Modern history Early - Late - Contemporary

see also: Modernity, Futurology Future

Prehistory (meaning "before history," from the Latin word for "before," pr) is the span of time before recorded history. Prehistory can refer to the period of human existence before the availability of those written records with which recorded history begins.[1] More broadly, it refers to all the time preceding human existence and the invention of writing. Archaeologist Paul Tournal originally coined the term ant-historique[2] in describing the finds he had made in the caves of southern France.[3] Thus, the term came into use in France in the 1830s to describe the time

Prehistory before writing, and the word "prehistoric" was later introduced into English by archaeologist Daniel Wilson in 1851.[4][5] The term "prehistory" can refer to the vast span of time since the beginning of the Universe, but more often it refers to the period since life appeared on Earth, or even more specifically to the time since human-like beings appeared.[6][7] In dividing up human prehistory, prehistorians typically use the three-age system, whereas scholars of pre-human time periods typically use the well defined geologic record and its internationally defined stratum base within the geologic time scale. The three-age system is the periodization of human prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for their respective predominant tool-making technologies: the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. Another division of history and prehistory can be made between those written events that can be precisely dated by use of a continuous calendar dating from current and those that can't. The loss of continuity of calendar date most often occurs when a civilization falls and the language and calendar fall into disuse. We therefore lose the ability to precisely date events written through primary sources to events dated to current calendar dating. The occurrence of written materials (and so the beginning of local "historic times") varies generally to cultures classified within either the late Bronze Age or within the Iron Age. Historians increasingly do not restrict themselves to evidence from written records and are coming to rely more upon evidence from the natural and social sciences, thereby blurring the distinction between the terms "history" and "prehistory". This view has recently been articulated by advocates of deep history. This article is primarily concerned with human prehistory, or the time since behaviorally and anatomically modern humans first appear until the beginning of recorded history. There are separate articles for the overall history of the Earth and the history of life before humans.

173

Definition
Because, by definition, there are no written records from human prehistory, dating of prehistoric materials is particularly crucial to the enterprise. Clear techniques for dating were not well-developed until the 19th century.[8] The primary researchers into human prehistory are prehistoric archaeologists and physical anthropologists who use excavation, geologic and geographic surveys, and other scientific analysis to reveal and interpret the nature and behavior of pre-literate and non-literate peoples.[6] Human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions.[7] Cultural anthropologists help provide context for marriage and trade, by which objects of human origin pass among people, allowing an analysis of any article that arises in a human prehistoric context.[7] Therefore, data about prehistory is provided by a wide variety of natural and social sciences, such as paleontology, biology, archaeology, palynology, geology, archaeoastronomy, comparative linguistics, anthropology, molecular genetics and many others. Prehistory is an important part of evolutionary psychology since it is argued that many human characteristics are adaptations to the prehistoric environment and in particular the environment during the long paleolithic period.[9] Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology but in the way it deals with the activities of archaeological cultures rather than named nations or individuals. Restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that prehistorians use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. The date marking the end of prehistory in a particular culture or region, that is the date when relevant written historical records become a useful academic resource, varies enormously from region to region. For example, in Egypt it is generally accepted that prehistory ended around 3200 BC, whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently, at around 1900 AD. In Europe the relatively well-documented classical cultures of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had neighbouring cultures, including the Celts and to a lesser extent the Etruscans, with little or no writing, and historians must decide how much weight to give to the often highly prejudiced accounts of the "prehistoric" cultures in Greek and Roman literature.

Prehistory

174

Stone Age
Paleolithic
"Paleolithic" means "Old Stone Age," and begins with the first use of stone tools. The Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Paleolithic is called the Lower Paleolithic , which predates Homo sapiens, beginning with Homo habilis (and related species) and with the earliest stone tools, dated to around 2.5 million years ago. Early homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Paleolithic. Anatomic changes indicating modern language capacity also arise during the Middle Map of early human migrations, according to mitochondrial population genetics. Numbers are millennia before the present (accuracy disputed). Paleolithic. The systematic burial of the dead, the music, early art, and the use of increasingly sophisticated multi-part tools are highlights of the Middle Paleolithic. Throughout the Paleolithic, humans generally lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. Hunter-gatherer societies tended to be very small and egalitarian, though hunter-gatherer societies with abundant resources or advanced food-storage techniques sometimes developed sedentary lifestyles with complex social structures such as chiefdoms, and social stratification. Long-distance contacts may have been established, as in the case of Indigenous Australian "highways."

Mesolithic
The "Mesolithic," or "Middle Stone Age" (from the Greek "mesos," "middle," and "lithos," "stone") was the period in the development of human technology between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age. The Mesolithic period began at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, some 10,000 BP, and ended with the introduction of agriculture, the date of which varied by geographic region. In some areas, such as the Near East, agriculture was already underway by the end of the Pleistocene, and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. In areas with limited glacial impact, the term "Epipaleolithic" is sometimes preferred. Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last ice age ended have a much more evident Mesolithic era, lasting millennia. In Northern Europe, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from Dugout canoe the marshlands fostered by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviours that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. These conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 4000 BC (6,000 BP) in northern Europe.

Prehistory Remains from this period are few and far between, often limited to middens. In forested areas, the first signs of deforestation have been found, although this would only begin in earnest during the Neolithic, when more space was needed for agriculture. The Mesolithic is characterized in most areas by small composite flint tools microliths and microburins. Fishing tackle, stone adzes and wooden objects, e.g. canoes and bows, have been found at some sites. These technologies first occur in Africa, associated with the Azilian cultures, before spreading to Europe through the Ibero-Maurusian culture of Northern Africa and the Kebaran culture of the Levant. Independent discovery is not always ruled out. Although Mesolithic culture is normally associated with Homo sapiens, there were other groups of humans alive at the same time, such as Neanderthals, and it is not certain that all Mesolithic remains belong to Homo sapiens.

175

Neolithic
"Neolithic" means "New Stone Age." This was a period of primitive technological and social development, toward the end of the "Stone Age". The Neolithic period saw the development of early villages, agriculture, animal domestication, tools and the onset of the earliest recorded incidents of warfare.[11] The Neolithic term is commonly used in the Old World, as its application to cultures in the Americas and Oceania that did not fully develop metal-working technology raises problems. Agriculture
Entrance to the gantija phase temple complex of [10] Hagar Qim, Malta

Forest gardening, originating in prehistory, is thought to be the world's oldest known form of agriculture.[12] Vere Gordon Childe then describes an "Agricultural Revolution" occurring about the 10th millennium BC with the adoption of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals. The Sumerians first began farming c. 9500 BC. By 7000 BC, agriculture had been developed in India and Peru separately; by 6000 BC, to Egypt; by 5000 BC, to China. About 2700 BC, agriculture had come to Mesoamerica. Although attention has tended to concentrate on the Middle East's Fertile Crescent, archaeology in the Americas, East Asia and Southeast Asia indicates that agricultural systems, using different crops and animals, may in some cases have developed there nearly as early. The development of organised irrigation, and the use of a specialised workforce, by the Sumerians, began about 5500 BC. Stone was supplanted by bronze and iron in implements of agriculture and warfare. Agricultural settlements had until then been almost completely dependent on stone tools. In Eurasia, copper and bronze tools, decorations and weapons began to be commonplace about 3000 BC. After bronze, the Eastern Mediterranean region, Middle East and China saw the introduction of iron tools and weapons.

Prehistory

176

The Americas may not have had metal tools until the Chavn horizon (900 BC). The Moche did have metal armor, knives and tableware. Even the metal-poor Inca had metal-tipped plows, at least after the conquest of Chimor. However, little archaeological research has so far been done in Peru, and nearly all the khipus (recording devices, in the form of knots, used by the Incas) were burned in the Spanish conquest of Peru. As late as 2004, entire cities were still being unearthed.

The cradles of early civilizations were river valleys, such as the Euphrates and Tigris valleys in Mesopotamia, the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus valley in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze and Yellow River valleys in China. Some nomadic peoples, such as the Indigenous Australians and the Bushmen of southern Africa, did not practice agriculture until relatively recent times. Agriculture made possible complex societies civilizations. States and markets emerged. Technologies enhanced people's ability to harness nature and to develop transport and communication."The city represented a new degree of human concentration, a new magnitude in settlement". [13]. Cities relied on agricultural surplus."since the inhabitants of a city do not produce their own food...cities cannot support themselves...thus exist only where agriculture is successful enough to produce agricultural surplus." [14]

The technological and social state of the world, circa 1000 BC. hunter-gatherersnomadnomadic pastoralismpastoralistsfarmingsimple farming societieschiefdomcomplex farming societies/chiefdomsSovereign statestate societiesuninhabited

Chalcolithic
In Old World archaeology, the "Chalcolithic", "Eneolithic" or "Copper Age" refers to a transitional period where early copper metallurgy appeared alongside the widespread use of stone tools.

Bronze Age
The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of ores, and then combining them to cast bronze. These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper/tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before 3000 BC. The Bronze Age forms part of the three-age system for prehistoric societies. In this system, it follows the Neolithic in some areas of the world.

Ox-drawn plow, Egypt, ca. 1200 BC.

The Bronze Age is the earliest period for which we have direct written accounts, since the invention of writing coincides with its early beginnings.

Prehistory

177

Iron Age
In archaeology, the Iron Age refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy. The adoption of iron coincided with other changes in some past cultures, often including more sophisticated agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles, which makes the archaeological Iron Age coincide with the "Axial Age" in the history of philosophy.

Timeline
Further information: Timeline of human evolutionandTimeline of the Stone Age All dates are approximate and conjectural, obtained through research in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, genetics, geology, or linguistics. They are all subject to revision due to new discoveries or improved calculations. BP stands for "Before Present." Lower and Middle Paleolithic c. 200,000 BP - Anatomically modern Homo sapiens appear in Africa. c. 300,000 BP to 30,000 BP. Mousterian (Neanderthal) culture in Europe.[15] c. 75,000 BP - Toba Volcano supereruption.[16] c. 70,000 - 50,000 BP - Homo sapiens move from Africa to Asia.[17] In the next millennia, these human groups' descendants move on to southern India, the Malay islands, Australia, Japan, China, Siberia, Alaska, and the northwestern coast of North America.[17] Upper Paleolithic c. 32,000 BP - Aurignacian culture begins in Europe. c. 30,000 BP / 28,000 BC - A herd of reindeer is slaughtered and butchered by humans in the Vezere Valley in what is today France.[18] c. 28,500 BCE - New Guinea is populated by colonists from Asia or Australia.[19] c. 28,000 BP - 20,000 BP - Gravettian period in Europe. Harpoons, needles, and saws invented. c. 26,000 BP / c. 24,000 BC - Women around the world use fibers to make baby-carriers, clothes, bags, baskets, and nets. c. 25,000 BP / 23,000 BC - A hamlet consisting of huts built of rocks and of mammoth bones is founded in what is now Dolni Vestonice in Moravia in the Czech Republic. This is the oldest human permanent settlement that has yet been found by archaeologists.[20] c. 20,000 BP or 18,000 BC - Chatelperronian culture in France.[21] c. 16,000 BP / 14,000 BC - Wisent sculpted in clay deep inside the cave now known as Le Tuc d'Audoubert in the French Pyrenees near what is now the border of Spain.[22] c. 14,800 BP / 12,800 BC - The Humid Period begins in North Africa. The region that would later become the Sahara is wet and fertile, and the Aquifers are full.[23] Mesolithic Neolithic c. 8000 BC / 7000 BC - In northern Mesopotamia, now northern Iraq, cultivation of barley and wheat begins. At first they are used for beer, gruel, and soup, eventually for bread.[24] In early agriculture at this time, the Planting stick is used, but it is replaced by a primitive Plow in subsequent centuries.[25] Around this time, a round stone tower, now preserved to about 8.5 meters high and 8.5 meters in diameter is built in Jericho.[26] c. 3700 BC - Cuneiform writing appears in Sumer, and records begin to be kept. According to the majority of specialists, the first Mesopotamian writing was a tool that had little connection to the spoken language. [27] c. 3000 BC - Stonehenge construction begins. In its first version, it consisted of a circular ditch and bank, with 56 wooden posts.[28]

Prehistory

178

By region
Old World Prehistoric Africa Predynastic Egypt Prehistoric Central North Africa Prehistoric Asia East Asia: Prehistoric China Prehistoric Thailand Prehistoric Korea Japanese Paleolithic East Asian Bronze Age Chinese Bronze Age South Asia Prehistory of India South Asian Stone Age Prehistory of Sri Lanka Prehistory of Central Asia Prehistoric Siberia Southwest Asia (Near East) Prehistory of Iran Aurignacian Natufian culture Ubaid period Uruk period Ancient Near East Prehistoric Europe Prehistoric Caucasus Prehistoric Georgia Prehistoric Armenia Paleolithic Europe Neolithic Europe Bronze Age Europe Iron Age Europe Atlantic fringe

Prehistoric Britain Prehistoric Ireland Prehistoric Iberia Prehistoric Balkans New World Pre-Columbian Americas Prehistoric Southwestern Cultural Divisions 2nd millennium BC in North American history 1st millennium BC in North American history

Prehistory 1st millennium in North American history Prehistoric Australia

179

References
[1] Renfrew, Colin. Prehistory The Making Of The Human Mind. New York: Modern Library,2008. Print. [2] pre-historic (french) [3] Bruno David, Bryce Barker, Ian J. McNiven (2006). The social archaeology of Australian indigenous societies. Page 55. (cf. "A parallel term ant-historique had earlier been coined by Paul Tournal.") [4] Simpson, Douglas (1963-11-30). "Sir Daniel Wilson and the Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, A Centennial Study" (http:/ / ads. ahds. ac. uk/ catalogue/ adsdata/ PSAS_2002/ pdf/ vol_096/ 96_001_008. pdf). Proceedings of the Society, 1963-1964. . Retrieved 2009-02-22. [5] Wilson, Daniel (1851). The archaeology and prehistoric annals of Scotland. p.xiv. [6] Fagan, Brian. 2007. World Prehistory: A brief introduction New York:Prentice-Hall, Seventh Edition, Chapter One [7] Renfrew, Colin. 2008. Prehistory: The Making of the Human Mind." New York: Modern Library [8] Graslund, Bo. 1987. The birth of prehistoric chronology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. [9] The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology (2005), David M. Buss, Chapter 1, pp. 5-67, Conceptual Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology, John Tooby and Leda Cosmides [10] http:/ / www. heritagemalta. org/ hagarqim. html [11] The Perfect Gift: Prehistoric Massacres. The twin vices of women and cattle in prehistoric Europe (http:/ / perfectirishgifts. com/ blog/ 2008/ 06/ prehistoric_massacres_the_twin. html) [12] Douglas John McConnell (2003). The Forest Farms of Kandy: And Other Gardens of Complete Design (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=QYBSfUJPQXcC& lpg=PP1& dq=the forest farms of kandy and other gardens of complete design& pg=PA1#v=onepage& q& f=false). p.1. . [13] Mumford, Lewis. The City In History Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects. New York: A Harvest Book Harcourt, Inc, 1961. Print. [14] Ziomkowski, Robert. The Best Test Preparation for the Western Civilization. New Jersey: Research & Educational Association, 2006. E book. [15] Shea, J. J. 2003. Neanderthals, competition and the origin of modern human behaviour in the Levant. Evolutionary Anthropology 12: 173-187. [16] "Mount Toba Eruption - Ancient Humans Unscathed, Study Claims" (http:/ / anthropology. net/ 2007/ 07/ 06/ mount-toba-eruption-ancient-humans-unscathed-study-claims/ ). . Retrieved 2008-04-20. [17] This is indicated by the M130 marker in the Y chromosome. "Traces of a Distant Past," by Gary Stix, Scientific American, July 2008, pages 56-63. [18] Gene S. Stuart, "Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages." In Mysteries of the Ancient World, a publication of the National Geographic Society, 1979. Pages 11-18. [19] James Trager, The People's Chronology, 1994, ISBN 0-8050-3134-0 [20] Stuart, Gene S. (1979). "Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages". Mysteries of the Ancient World. National Geographic Society. p.19. [21] Encyclopedia Americana, 2003 edition, volume 6, page 334. [22] Stuart, Gene S. (1979). "Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages". Mysteries of the Ancient World. National Geographic Society. pp.8-10. [23] "Shift from Savannah to Sahara was Gradual," by Kenneth Chang, New York Times, May 9, 2008. [24] Kiple, Kenneth F. and Ornelas, Kriemhild Cone, eds., The Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 83 [25] "No-Till: The Quiet Revolution," by David Huggins and John Reganold, Scientific American, July 2008, pages 70-77. [26] Fagan, Brian M, ed. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1996 ISBN 978-0-521-40216-3 p 363 [27] Glassner, Jean-Jacques. The Invention of Cuneiform: Writing In Sumer. Trans.Zainab,Bahrani. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 2003. Ebook. [28] Caroline Alexander, "Stonehenge," National Geographic, June 2008.

Prehistory

180

External links
Submerged Landscapes Archaeological Network (http://www.science.ulster.ac.uk/cma/slan/) The Neanderthal site at Veldwezelt-Hezerwater (http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www. geocities.com/patrickbringmans/veldwezelt-hezerwater.html&date=2009-10-26+00:15:13), Belgium. North Pacific Prehistory (http://www.northpacificprehistory.com) is an academic journal specialising in Northeast Asian and North American archaeology. Prehistory in Algeria and in Morocco (http://www.neolithique.eu/index.html) Early Humans (http://sd71.bc.ca/sd71/school/courtmid/Library/subject_resources/socials/early_humans. htm) a collection of resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library.

Early human migrations

Early human migrations began when Homo erectus first migrated out of Africa over the Levantine corridor and Horn of Africa to Eurasia about 1.8 million years ago, a migration probably sparked by the development of language (a former rudimentary language as argued by Fischer's hypothesis.[1]) The expansion of H. erectus out of Africa was followed by that of Homo antecessor into Europe around 800,000 years ago, followed by Homo heidelbergensis around 600,000 years ago, where they probably evolved to become the Neanderthals.[2]

Modern humans, Homo sapiens, evolved in Africa up to 200,000 years ago and reached the Near East around 125,000 years ago.[3] From the Near East, these populations spread east to South Asia by 50,000 years ago, and on to Australia by 40,000 years ago,[4] when for the first time H. sapiens reached territory never reached by H. erectus. H. sapiens reached Europe around 40,000 years ago, eventually replacing the Neanderthal population. East Asia was reached by 30,000 years ago. The date of migration to North America is disputed; it may have taken place around 30 millennia ago, or considerably later, around 14 millennia ago. Colonisation of the Pacific islands of Polynesia began around 1300 BC, and was completed by 900 AD. The ancestors of Polynesians left Taiwan around 5200 years ago. The study of early human migrations since the 1980s has developed significantly due to advances in archaeogenetics.

Map of early human migrations according to mitochondrial population genetics (numbers are millennia before present) [under discussion].

Early human migrations

181

Early humans (before Homo sapiens)

Further information: Yuanmou ManandLantian Man Early members of the Homo genus, i.e. Homo ergaster, Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis, migrated from Africa during the Early Pleistocene, possibly as a result of the operation of the Saharan pump, around 1.9 million years ago, and dispersed throughout most of the Old World, reaching as far as Southeast Asia. The date of original dispersal beyond Africa virtually coincides with the appearance of Homo ergaster in the fossil record, and the associated first emergence of full bipedalism, and about half a million years after the appearance of the Homo genus itself and the first stone tools of the Oldowan industry. Key sites for this early migration out of Africa are Riwat in Pakistan (1.9 Mya), Ubeidiya in the Levant (1.5 Mya) and Dmanisi in the Caucasus (1.7 Mya). China was populated more than a million years ago,[5] as early as 1.66 Mya based on stone artifacts found in the Nihewan Basin.[6] Stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site were dated to 1.36 million years ago.[7] The archaeological site of Xihoudu ( ) in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago.[5]

A reconstruction of Homo erectus. Anthropologists believe that H. erectus was the first hominid to control fire.

Southeast Asia (Java) was reached about 1.7 million years ago (Meganthropus). West Europe was first populated around 1.2 million years ago (Atapuerca).[8] Bruce Bower has suggested that Homo erectus may have built rafts and sailed oceans, a theory that has raised some controversy.[9]

Homo sapiens migrations

Homo sapiens is supposed to have appeared in East Africa around 200,000 years ago. The oldest individuals found left their marks by the Omo remains (195,000 years ago) and the Homo sapiens idaltu (160,000 years ago), that was found at site Middle Awash in Ethiopia [10]. Recent claims of remains of anatomically modern humans with 400.000 years, found at Qesem Cave (Israel) [11], are controversial. Some authors argue that these remains are from Neanderthals or their ancestors [12]. From there they spread around the world. An exodus from Africa over the Arabian Peninsula around 125,000 years ago brought modern humans to Eurasia, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and one group migrating north to steppes of Central Asia.[13] The migration path is a matter of debate and study. Genetics have shed some light on this matter.

Early human migrations

182

Within Africa
The matrilinear most recent common ancestor shared by all living human beings, dubbed Mitochondrial Eve, probably lived roughly 120-150 millennia ago,[14] the time of Homo sapiens idaltu, probably in East Africa. The broad study of African genetic diversity headed by Dr. Sarah Tishkoff found the San people to express the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters." The research also located the origin of modern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.[15] Around 100,000-80,000 years ago, three main lines of Homo sapiens diverged. Bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup L0 (mtDNA) / A (Y-DNA) colonized Southern Africa (the ancestors of the Khoisan (Capoid) peoples), bearers of haplogroup L1 (mtDNA) / B (Y-DNA) settled Central and West Africa (the ancestors of western pygmies), and bearers of haplogroups L2, L3, and others mtDNA remained in East Africa (the ancestors of NigerCongo- and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples). (see L-mtDNA)

Exodus from Africa

There is some evidence for the argument that modern humans left Africa at least 125,000 years before present (BP) using two different routes: the Nile Valley heading to the Middle East, at least into modern Israel (Qafzeh: 120,000100,000 years BP); and a second one through the present-day Bab el Mandeb Strait on the Red Sea (at that time, with a much lower sea level and narrower extension), crossing it into the Arabian Peninsula, settling in places like the present-day United Arab Emirates (125,000 years BP)[16] and Oman (106,000 years BP)[17] and then possibly going into the Indian Subcontinent (Jwalapuram: 75,000 years BP). Despite the fact that no human remains have yet been found in these three places, the apparent similarities between the stone tools found at Jebel Faya, the ones from Jwalapuram and some African Red sea crossing ones suggest that their creators were all modern humans [18]. These findings might give some support to the claim that modern humans from Africa arrived at southern China about 100,000 years BP (Zhiren Cave, Zhirendong, Chongzuo City: 100,000 years BP [19]; and the Liujiang hominid: controversially dated at 139,000111,000 years BP [20]). Since these previous exits from Africa didn't leave traces in the results of genetic analyses based on the Y chromosome and on MtDNA (which represent only a small part of the human genetic material), it seems that those modern humans didn't survive or survived in small numbers and were assimilated by our major antecessors, responsible for a determinant posterior exit. An explanation for their extinction (or small genetic imprint) may be the Toba catastrophe theory (74,000 years BP). However, some argue that its impact on human population wasnt dramatic [21]. According to the Recent African Origin hypothesis a small group of the L3 bearers living in East Africa migrated north east, possibly searching for food or escaping adverse conditions, crossing the Red Sea about 70 millennia ago, and in the process going on to populate the rest of the world. According to some authors, based in the fact that only descents of L3 are found outside Africa, only a few people left Africa in a single migration to a settlement in the Arabian peninsula.[22] From that settlement, some others point to the possibility of several waves of expansion close in time. For example, Wells says that the early travelers followed the southern coastline of Asia, crossed about 250 kilometers [155 miles] of sea (probably by simple boats or rafts[23]), and colonized Australia by around 50,000 years ago. The Aborigines of Australia, Wells says, are the descendants of the first wave of migration out of Africa.[24]

Early human migrations Around 50,000 years ago the world was entering the last ice age and water was trapped in the polar ice caps, so sea levels were much lower. Today at the Gate of Grief the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 metres lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached by simple rafts. Shell middens 125,000 years old indicate that the diet of early humans in Eritrea included sea food obtained by beachcombing. This has been seen as evidence that humans may have crossed the Red Sea in search of food sources on new beaches.

183

South Asia and Australia

Some genetic evidence points to migrations out of Africa along two routes. However, other studies suggest that a single migration occurred, followed by rapid northern migration of a subset of the group. Once in West Asia, the people who remained south (or took the southern route) spread generation by generation around the coast of Arabia and Persia until they reached India. One of the groups that went north (east Asians were the second group) ventured inland[25] and radiated to Europe, eventually displacing the Neanderthals. They also radiated to India from Central Asia. The former group headed along the southeast coast of Asia, reaching Australia between 55,000 and 30,000 years ago,[4] with most estimates placing it about 46,000 to 41,000 years ago. During that time, sea level was much lower and most of Maritime Southeast Asia was one land mass known as the lost continent of Sunda. The settlers probably continued on the coastal route southeast until they reached the series of straits between Sunda and Sahul, the continental land mass that was made up of present-day Australia and New Guinea. The widest gaps are on the Weber Line and are at least 90km wide,[26] indicating that settlers had knowledge of seafaring skills. Archaic humans such as Homo erectus never reached Australia, although they crossed the Lombok gap reaching as far as Flores. If these dates are correct, Australia was The map shows the probable extent of land and water at the time of the last glacial populated up to 10,000 years before maximum, 20,000 yrs BP and when the sea level was probably more than 110m lower Europe. This is possible because than today humans avoided the colder regions of the North favoring the warmer tropical regions to which they were adapted given their African homeland. Another piece of evidence favoring human occupation in Australia is that beginning about 46,000 years ago, all megafauna weighing more than 100kg became extinct. Tim Flannery and others argue new settlers were likely to be responsible for this extinction.[27] Many of the animals may have been accustomed to living without predators and become docile and vulnerable to attack (as occurred later in the Americas). While some settlers crossed into Australia, others may have continued eastwards along the coast of Sunda eventually turning northeast to China and finally reaching Japan, leaving a trail of coastal settlements. This coastal migration leaves its trail in the mitochondrial haplogroups descended from haplogroup M, and in Y-chromosome haplogroup C. Thereafter, it may have become necessary to venture inland possibly bringing modern humans into contact with archaic humans such as H. erectus. Recent genetic studies suggest that Australia and New Guinea were populated by

Early human migrations one single migration from Asia as opposed to several waves. The land bridge connecting New Guinea and Australia became submerged approximately 8,000 years ago, thus isolating the populations of the two land masses.[28][29]

184

Europe
Europe is thought to have been colonized by northwest bound migrants from Central Asia and the Middle East. When the first anatomically modern humans entered Europe, Neanderthals were already settled there. Debate exists whether modern human populations interbred with Neanderthal populations, most of the evidence suggesting that it happened to a small degree rather than complete absorption. Populations of modern man and Neanderthal overlapped in various regions such as in Iberian peninsula and in the Middle East and that interbreeding may have contributed Neanderthal genes to palaeolithic and ultimately modern Eurasians and Oceanians. An important difference between Europe and other parts of the inhabited world was the northern latitude. Archaeological evidence suggests humans, whether Neanderthal or Cro-Magnon, reached sites in Arctic Russia by 40,000 years ago.[30] Around 20,000 BC, 10,000 years after the Neanderthal extinction, the Last Glacial Maximum took place forcing northern hemisphere inhabitants to migrate to several shelters until the end of this period came. The resulting populations, whether interbred with Neanderthals or not, are then presumed to have resided in those hypothetical refuges during the LGM to ultimately reoccupy Europe where archaic historical populations are considered their descendents. An alternate view is that modern European populations have descended from Neolithic populations in the Middle East that have been well documented in this area. The debate surrounding the origin of Europeans has been worded in terms of cultural diffusion versus demic diffusion. Archeological evidence and genetic evidence strongly support demic diffusion, that a population spread from the Middle East over the last 12,000 years. A scientific genetic concept called the Time to Most Recent Common Ancestor or TMRCA has been used to refute the demic diffusion in favour of cultural diffusion.[31] Migration of the Cro-Magnons into Europe Cro-Magnon are considered the first anatomically modern humans in Europe. They entered Eurasia by the Arabian Peninsula around 60,000 years ago, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and one group migrating north to steppes of Central Asia.[13] A mitochondrial DNA sequence of two Cro-Magnons from the Paglicci Cave in Italy, dated to 23,000 and 24,000 years old (Paglicci 52 and 12), identified the mtDNA as Haplogroup N, typical of the latter group.[32] The inland group is the founder of both North- and East Asians (the "Mongol" people), Caucasoids and large sections of the Middle East and North African population. Migration from the Black Sea area into Europe started some around 45,000 years ago, probably along the Danubian corridor. By 20,000 years ago, the whole of Europe was settled. The first complete human remains that have been preserved is the mummy tzi, from 5300 BC, belonging to the K1 MitDNA.

Early human migrations

185

Migration of modern humans into Europe, based on simulation by Currat & Excoffier (2004)[33]

Up to 37500 YBP

Up to 35000 YBP

Up to 32500 YBP

Up to 30000 YBP

Competition with Neanderthals Further information: Neanderthal extinction hypothesesandNeanderthal admixture theory The expansion is thought to have begun 45,000 years ago and may have taken up to 15,000 years for Europe to be colonized.[25][34] During this time the Neanderthals were slowly being displaced. Because it took so long for Europe to be occupied, it appears that humans and Neanderthals may have been constantly competing for territory. The Neanderthals were larger and had a more robust or heavy built frame which may suggest that they were physically stronger than modern Homo sapiens. Having lived in Europe for 200,000 years they would have been better adapted to the cold weather. The anatomically modern humans known as the Cro-Magnons, with superior technology and language would eventually completely displace the Neanderthals, whose last refuge was in the Iberian peninsula. After about 30,000 years ago the fossil record of the Neanderthals ends, indicating that they had become extinct. The last known population lived around a cave system on the remote south-facing coast of Gibraltar from 30,000 to 24,000 years ago. Proponents of the multiregional hypothesis have long believed that Europeans were descended from Neanderthals and not from this homo-sapiens migration. Others believed the Neanderthals had interbred with modern humans. In 1997 researchers managed to extract mitochondrial DNA from a 40,000 year old specimen of a Neanderthal. On comparison with human DNA, its sequences differed significantly, indicating that based on the mitochondrial DNA, modern Europeans are not descended from the Neanderthals and that no interbreeding took place.[35] Some scientists continue to search autosomal DNA for traces of Neanderthal admixture.[36] A few alleles of some autosomal genes such as the H2 allele of the MAPT gene have been suggested, since they were only found among Europeans. In the absence of autosomal DNA from a Neanderthal, the scientists conclude that this hypothesis is speculative.[37] Some archaeologists suspect that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens were not interfertile. This is because Neanderthals and Europeans shared the same habitat for up to 20,000 years, yet no undisputed skeletal fossils have been found that show intermediate properties between the two species.[38] Current (as of 2010) genetic evidence suggests interbreeding took place with Homo sapiens sapiens (anatomically modern humans) between roughly 80,000 to 50,000 years ago in the Middle East, resulting in non-ethnic sub-Saharan Africans having no Neanderthal DNA and Caucasians and Asians having between 1% and 4% Neanderthal DNA.[39]

Early human migrations

186

Central and Northern Asia

Mitochondrial haplogroups A, B and G originated about 50,000 years ago, and bearers subsequently colonized Siberia, Korea and Japan, by about 35,000 years ago. Parts of these populations migrated to North America.

Americas
The specifics of Paleo-Indians migration to and throughout the American Continent, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion.[41] The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000 17,000 years ago,[42] when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the [40] A map of early human migrations Quaternary glaciation.[41][43] These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets.[44] Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America as far as Chile.[45] Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of a hundred meters following the last ice age.[46] Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indians migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago.[47][48][49] This time range is a hot source of debate and will be for years to come. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of America during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 16,000 13,000 years before present.[42][50]

References
[1] Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). A history of language (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC& pg=PA37). Globalities Series. Reaktion Books. ISBN186189080X. . [2] Finlayson, Clive (2005). "Biogeography and evolution of the genus Homo" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6VJ1-4GCXBFD-1& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _searchStrId=1155384170& _rerunOrigin=scholar. google& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=f8d1d91c6d2224388441285a8197a437). Trends in Ecology & Evolution (Elsevier) 20 (8): 457463. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.05.019. PMID16701417. . [3] "Hints Of Earlier Human Exit From Africa" (http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/ 69197/ title/ Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa). Science News. doi:10.1126/science.1199113.. . Retrieved 2011-05-01. [4] Bowler, James M. et al 2003, New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v421/ n6925/ abs/ nature01383. html) [5] Rixiang Zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Pott, Kenneth A. Hoffman (June 2003). "Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China" (http:/ / www. paleomag. net/ members/ rixiangzhu/ Earth-Sci Review. pdf) (PDF). Earth Science Reviews 61 (3-4): 191361. Bibcode2003ESRv...61..191A. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00110-1. . [6] R. Zhu et al. (2004), New evidence on the earliest human presence at high northern latitudes in northeast Asia. [7] "Earliest Presence of Humans in Northeast Asia" (http:/ / www. mnh. si. edu/ anthro/ humanorigins/ whatshot/ 2001/ wh2001-3. htm). Human Origins Program. Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2007-08-04. [8] Hopkin M (2008-03-26). "'Fossil find is oldest European yet'" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2008/ 080326/ full/ news. 2008. 691. html). Nature News. doi:10.1038/news.2008.691. .

Early human migrations

[9] Bednarik RG (2003). "Seafaring in the Pleistocene". Cambridge Archaeological Journal 13 (1): 4166. doi:10.1017/S0959774303000039. ScienceNews summary (http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ articles/ 20031018/ bob8. asp) [10] White, Tim D., Asfaw, B., DeGusta, D., Gilbert, H., Richards, G.D., Suwa, G. and Howell, F.C. (2003). "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature 423 (6491): 742747. doi:10.1038/nature01669. PMID12802332. [11] Israel Hershkovitz et al., Middle pleistocene dental remains from Qesem Cave (Israel), American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Volume 144, Issue 4, April 2011, pages 575592: http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ ajpa. 21446/ abstract; see also Ron Shimelmitz, Ran Barkai, Avi Gopher. Systematic blade production at late Lower Paleolithic (400200 kyr) Qesem Cave, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution, 2011; 61 (4): 458 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.06.003 [12] Estrin, Daniel (2010-12-27). "Researchers: Ancient human remains found in Israel" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ world/ middleeast/ articles/ 2010/ 12/ 27/ researchers_ancient_human_remains_found_in_israel/ ). The Boston Globe. . [13] "Atlas of human journey: 45 - 40,000" (https:/ / genographic. nationalgeographic. com/ genographic/ lan/ en/ atlas. html). The genographic project. National Geographic Society. 1996-2010. . Retrieved 31 March 2010. [14] Misconceptions Around Mitochondrial Eve (http:/ / www. evolutionpages. com/ Mitochondrial Eve. htm), Alec MacAndrew. [15] BBC World News "Africa's genetic secrets unlocked" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8027269. stm), 1 May 2009; the results were published in the online edition of the journal Science. [16] Andrew Lawler, Did Modern Humans Travel Out of Africa Via Arabia?, Science 28 January 2011: Vol. 331 no. 6016 p. 387, DOI: 10.1126/science.331.6016.387: http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 331/ 6016/ 387. [17] Trail of 'Stone Breadcrumbs' Reveals the Identity of One of the First Human Groups to Leave Africa ScienceDaily (Nov. 30, 2011): http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2011/ 11/ 111130171049. htm [18] Hints of earlier human exit from Africa, http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/ 69197/ title/ Hints_of_earlier_human_exit_from_Africa [19] Wu Liu, et al., Human remains from Zhirendong, South China, and modern human emergence in East Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2010; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1014386107: http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 107/ 45/ 19201. full?sid=85019dbd-bb2d-4816-a4a6-35399ddf4eeb (full text; the authors seem to accept that the individual has african recent ascentry, but with asian archaic human admixture). See also Robin Dennell, Two interpretations of the Zhirendong mandible described by Liu and colleagues, Nature, Volume: 468, 25 November 2010, pages: 512513, DOI: 10.1038/468512a: http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v468/ n7323/ fig_tab/ 468512a_F1. html; Brief comments at Modern Humans Emerged Far Earlier Than Previously Thought, Fossils from China Suggest, ScienceDaily (Oct. 25, 2010): http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2010/ 10/ 101025172924. htm; and Oldest Modern Human Outside of Africa Found: http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2010/ 10/ 101025-oldest-human-fossil-china-out-of-africa-science/ [20] Guanjun Shena, et al., U-Series dating of Liujiang hominid site in Guangxi, Southern China, Journal of Human Evolution, Volume 43, Issue 6, December 2002, Pages 817-829, doi:10.1006/jhev.2002.0601: http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S0047248402906019 [21] Michael Balter, Of Two Minds About Toba's Impact, Science 5 March 2010: Vol. 327 no. 5970 pp. 1187-1188 DOI: 10.1126/science.327.5970.1187-a http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 327/ 5970/ 1187. 1. summary) [22] "Both Australian Aborigines and Europeans Rooted in Africa" (http:/ / news. softpedia. com/ news/ Both-Aborigines-and-Europeans-Rooted-in-Africa-54225. shtml). News.softpedia.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [23] Evolution of modern humans (http:/ / anthro. palomar. edu/ homo2/ mod_homo_4. htm), , retrieved 2010-12-25 [24] Rincon, Paul (April 24, 2008). "Human line 'nearly split in two'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7358868. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2009-12-31. [25] Maca-Meyer N, Gonzlez AM, Larruga JM, Flores C, Cabrera VM (2001). "Major genomic mitochondrial lineages delineate early human expansions" (http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ 1471-2156/ 2/ 13). BMC Genet. 2 (1): 13. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-2-13. PMC55343. PMID11553319. . [26] "Pleistocene Sea Level Maps" (http:/ / www. fieldmuseum. org/ research_collections/ zoology/ zoo_sites/ seamaps/ mapindex1. htm). Fieldmuseum.org. . Retrieved 2010-09-23. [27] Flannery, Tim (2002), "The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People" (Grove Press) [28] Hudjashov G, Kivisild T, Underhill PA, et al. (May 2007). "Revealing the prehistoric settlement of Australia by Y chromosome and mtDNA analysis". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104 (21): 872630. Bibcode2007PNAS..104.8726H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702928104. PMC1885570. PMID17496137. [29] Wade, Nicholas (2007-05-08). "From DNA Analysis, Clues to a Single Australian Migration" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 05/ 08/ science/ 08abor. html?ex=1187236800& en=3051874ea83b3233& ei=5070). Australia: Nytimes.com. . Retrieved 2011-05-01. [30] Pavlov, Pavel; John Inge Svendsen & Svein Indrelid (Sep 6 2001). "Human presence in the European Arctic nearly 40,000 years ago" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v413/ n6851/ full/ 413064a0. html). Nature 413 (6851): 6467. doi:10.1038/35092552. PMID11544525. . [31] "A Comparison of Y-Chromosome Variation in Sardinia and Anatolia Is More Consistent with Cultural Rather than Demic Diffusion of Agriculture" (http:/ / www. plosone. org/ article/ info:doi/ 10. 1371/ journal. pone. 0010419). Plosone.org. . Retrieved 2010-09-23. [32] Caramelli, D; Lalueza-Fox, C; Vernesi, C; Lari, M; Casoli, A; Mallegni, F; Chiarelli, B; Dupanloup, I; Bertranpetit, J; Barbujani, G; Bertorelle, G (May 2003). "Evidence for a genetic discontinuity between Neandertals and 24,000-year-old anatomically modern Europeans" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=12743370) (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100 (11): 65937. Bibcode2003PNAS..100.6593C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1130343100. ISSN0027-8424.

187

Early human migrations

PMC164492. PMID12743370. . [33] Currat, M. & Excoffier, L. (2004): Modern Humans Did Not Admix with Neanderthals during Their Range Expansion into Europe (http:/ / www. plosbiology. org/ article/ info:doi/ 10. 1371/ journal. pbio. 0020421). PLoS Biol no 2 (12): e421. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020421 [34] Currat M, Excoffier L (Dec 2004). "Modern humans did not admix with Neanderthals during their range expansion into Europe". PLoS Biol. 2 (12): e421. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020421. PMC532389. PMID15562317. [35] Kate Ravilious. Aborigines, Europeans Share African Roots, DNA Suggests (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 05/ 070507-aborigines-dna. html). National Geographic News. May 7, 2007. [36] Wall JD, Hammer MF (Dec 2006). "Archaic admixture in the human genome". Curr Opin Genet Dev. 16 (6): 60610. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2006.09.006. PMID17027252. [37] Hardy J, Pittman A, Myers A, et al. (Aug 2005). "Evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens" (http:/ / www. biochemsoctrans. org/ bst/ 033/ 0582/ bst0330582. htm). Biochem Soc Trans. 33 (Pt 4): 5825. doi:10.1042/BST0330582. PMID16042549. . [38] Schwartz, Jeffrey H.; Tattersall, Ian (2001). Extinct humans (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ reader/ 0813334829/ ). Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. pp.2079. ISBN0-8133-3918-9. . [39] Richard E. Green, et al. (May 2010). "A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 328/ 5979/ 710). Science 328 (5979): 710722. Bibcode2010Sci...328..710G. doi:10.1126/science.1188021. PMID20448178. . [40] Literature: Gran Burenhult: Die ersten Menschen, Weltbild Verlag, 2000. ISBN 3-8289-0741-5 [41] "Atlas of the Human Journey-The Genographic Project" (https:/ / genographic. nationalgeographic. com/ genographic/ atlas. html?era=e003). National Geographic Society.. 1996-2008. . Retrieved 2009-10-06. [42] Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002) (Digitised online by Google books). The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC& lpg=PP1& dq=The Journey of Man& pg=PA138#v=onepage& q& f=true). Random House. pp.138140. ISBN0812971469. . Retrieved 2009-11-21. [43] Fitzhugh, Drs. William; Goddard, Ives; Ousley, Steve; Owsley, Doug; Stanford., Dennis. "Paleoamerican" (http:/ / www. si. edu/ Encyclopedia_SI/ nmnh/ origin. htm). Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Outreach Office. . Retrieved 2009-01-15. [44] "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news169474130. html). Scientific American. . Retrieved 2009-11-17. [45] "Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America" (http:/ / archaeology. about. com/ gi/ o. htm?zi=1/ XJ& zTi=1& sdn=archaeology& cdn=education& tm=25& f=00& tt=13& bt=1& bts=1& zu=http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 279189). American Antiquity, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), p2. . Retrieved 2009-11-17. [46] "68 Responses to "Sea will rise to levels of last Ice Age"" (http:/ / www. realclimate. org/ index. php/ archives/ 2009/ 01/ sea-will-rise-to-levels-of-last-ice-age/ ). Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University. . Retrieved 2009-11-17. [47] "Introduction" (http:/ / www. pc. gc. ca/ eng/ docs/ r/ pfa-fap/ sec1. aspx). Government of Canada. Parks Canada. 2009. . Retrieved 2010-01-09. "Canada's oldest known home is a cave in Yukon occupied not 12,000 years ago like the U.S. sites, but at least 20,000 years ago" [48] "Pleistocene Archaeology of the Old Crow Flats" (http:/ / yukon. taiga. net/ vuntutrda/ archaeol/ info. htm). Vuntut National Park of Canada. 2008. . Retrieved 2010-01-10. "However, despite the lack of this conclusive and widespread evidence, there are suggestions of human occupation in the northern Yukon about 24,000 years ago, and hints of the presence of humans in the Old Crow Basin as far back as about 40,000 years ago." [49] "Jorney of mankind" (http:/ / www. bradshawfoundation. com/ journey/ ). Brad Shaw Foundation. . Retrieved 2009-11-17. [50] "A single and early migration for the peopling of greater America supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data" (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=20009). The National Academy of Sciences of the US. National Academy of Sciences. . Retrieved 2009-10-10.

188

External links
Atlas of the Human Journey (https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/lan/en/atlas.html/) National Geographic Journey of Mankind - Genetic Map (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/) - Bradshaw Foundation

Black Sea deluge theory

189

Black Sea deluge theory

The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC due to waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosporus Strait. The hypothesis made headlines when The New York Times published it in December 1996, shortly before it was published in an academic journal.[1] While it is agreed that the sequence of events described did occur, there is debate over the suddenness, dating and magnitude of the events. Two opposing hypotheses have arisen to explain the rise of the Black Sea: gradual, and oscillating.[2]:15 The oscillating hypothesis specifies that over the last 30,000 years, water has intermittently flowed back and forth between the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea in relatively small magnitudes, and does not necessarily presuppose that there occurred any sudden "refilling" events.

Flood hypothesis
In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman published evidence that a massive flooding of the Black Sea occurred about 5600 BC through the Bosporus, following this scenario.[3] Before that date, glacial meltwater had turned the Black and Caspian Seas into vast freshwater lakes draining into the Aegean Sea. As glaciers retreated, some of the rivers emptying into the Black Sea declined in volume and changed course to drain into the North Sea.[4] The levels of the lakes dropped through evaporation, while changes in worldwide hydrology caused sea level to Black Sea today (light blue) and in 5600 BC rise. The rising Mediterranean finally spilled over a rocky sill at the (dark blue) according to Ryan and Pitman's Bosporus. The event flooded 155000 km2 (unknown operator: hypothesis. u'strong' sqmi) of land and significantly expanded the Black Sea shoreline to the north and west. According to the researchers, "40km3 (unknown operator: u'strong'cumi) of water poured through each day, two hundred times what flows over Niagara Falls... The Bosporus flume roared and surged at full spate for at least three hundred days." Samplings of sediments in the Black Sea by a series of expeditions carried out between 1998 to 2005 in the frame of a European Project ASSEMBLAGE[5] and coordinated by a French oceanographer, Gilles Lericolais[6], brought some new inputs to the Ryan and Pitman's hypothesis. These results were also completed by the Noah project led by the Bulgarian Institute of Oceanography (IO-BAS).[7] Furthermore, calculations made by Mark Siddall predicted an underwater canyon that was actually found.[8]

Criticism
While some geologists claim it as fact that the sequence of events described did occur, there is debate over their suddenness and magnitude. In particular, if the water level of the Black Sea had initially been higher, the effect of the spillover would have been much less dramatic. A large part of the academic geological community also continues to reject the idea that there could have been enough sustained long-term pressure by water from the Aegean to dig through a supposed isthmus at the present Bosporus, or enough of a difference in water levels (if at all) between the two water basins. Countering the hypothesis of Ryan and Pitman are data collected prior to its publication by Ukrainian and Russian scientists including Valentina Yanko-Hombach, who claims that the water flow through the Bosporus repeatedly reversed direction over geological time depending on fluctuation in the levels of the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. This contradicts the hypothesized catastrophic breakage of a Bosporus sill. Likewise, the water levels calculated by Yanko-Hombach differed widely from those hypothesized by Ryan and Pitman.

Black Sea deluge theory In 2007, a research anthology on the topic was published which makes available much of the earlier Russian research in English for the first time, and combines it with more recent scientific findings.[2] A five-year cross-disciplinary research project under the sponsorship of UNESCO and the International Union of Geological Sciences was conducted 20059.[9] A February 2009 article reported that the flooding might have been "quite mild".[10] According to a study by Giosan et al.,[11] the level in the Black Sea before the marine reconnection was 30m below present sea level, rather than the 80m, or lower, of the catastrophe theories. If the flood occurred at all, the sea level increase and the flooded area during the reconnection were significantly smaller than previously proposed. It also occurred earlier than initially surmised, ca. 7400BC, rather than the originally proposed 5600BC. Since the depth of the Bosporus, in its middle furrow, at present varies from 36 to 124m, with an average depth of 65m, a calculated stone age shoreline in the Black Sea lying 30m lower than in the present day would imply that the contact with the Mediterranean may never have been broken during the Holocene, and hence that there could have been no sudden waterfall-style transgression.

190

Evidence from archaeology

Although neolithic agriculture had by that time already reached the Pannonian plain, Ryan and Pitman link its spread with people displaced by the postulated flood. More recent examinations by oceanographers such as Teofilo A. "Jun" Abrajano Jr. at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and his Canadian colleague Ali Aksu of the Memorial University of Newfoundland have cast some doubt on this linkage. Abrajano's team, finding sapropel mud deposits in the Sea of Marmara which are today associated with freshwater outflow over top of salt-water inflow, have concluded that there has been sustained fresh water outflow from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean for at least 10,000 years.[12] In 2003, Michael Sperling [13] concluded that the Black Sea was not a major freshwater source contributing to formation of the Marmara Sapropel S1. Aksu found an underwater Before and after the flood, according to Ryan and Pitman delta south of the Bosporus; evidence for a strong flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea in the 8th millennium BC.[14] Nevertheless, Erkan Gkaan[15] and later Kadir Eris[16] demonstrated that the development of the delta is clearly associated with the Kurbaal Stream on the east coast, and not with the Black Sea outflow through the strait. In a series of expeditions, a team of marine archeologists led by Robert Ballard identified what appeared to be ancient shorelines, freshwater snail shells, drowned river valleys, tool-worked timbers, and man-made structures in roughly 100 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) of water off the Black Sea coast of modern Turkey. Although radiocarbon dating of freshwater mollusk remains indicated an age of about 7,500 years, radiocarbon dating in freshwater mollusks in particular can be inaccurate.[17] Such inaccuracies, however, are always in the direction of objects appearing older than they actually are (containing less 14C than expected),[17] so the time given is a maximum age of a freshwater shoreline at that location.

Black Sea deluge theory

191

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] NYT 1996 Yanko-Hombach et al. 2007 Ryan and Pitman 1997. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Climate History: Exploring Climate Events and Human Development" (http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ ctl/ clihis10k. html) [5] ASSEMBLAGEASSEssMent of the BLAck Sea sedimentary system since the last Glacial Extreme (http:/ / www. ifremer. fr/ assemblage), FR: French Research Institute in Oceanography, . [6] Gilles Lericolais (http:/ / wwz. ifremer. fr/ drogm/ presentation_gm/ pages_perso/ gilles_lericolais), FR: French Research Institute in Oceanography, . [7] Noah Project (http:/ / www. io-bas. bg/ noahproject/ ), BG: IO-Bas, 2004, . [8] Nature 2004 [9] IGCP 521 (http:/ / sealevel. ca/ IGCP521/ ), CA: Sea level, . [10] National Geographic News 2009 [11] Liviu Giosan, F. Filip; Constantinescu, S (2009), "Was the Black Sea catastrophically flooded in the early Holocene?", Quaternary Science Reviews, pp.16. [12] Aksu et al. 2002 [13] Sperling et al. 2003 [14] New Scientist. 2004 [15] Gkaan et al. 2005 [16] Eris et al. 2008 [17] Keith and Anderson 1963. "Evidence is presented to show that modern mollusk shells from rivers can have anomalous radiocarbon ages, owing mainly to incorporation of inactive (carbon-14-deficient) carbon from humus"

References
Aksu, Ali E. et al. 2002. Persistent Holocene Outflow from the Black Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean Contradicts Noah's Flood Hypothesis (http://www.gsajournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document& issn=1052-5173&volume=12&issue=5&page=4). GSA Today, May 2002, 12(5): 410. DOI 10.1130/1052-5173(2002)012<0004:PHOFTB>2.0.CO;2 Sperling, M., Schmiedl, G., Hemleben, C., Emeis, K. C., Erlenkeuser, H., and Grootes, P. M. 2003. Black Sea impact on the formation of eastern Mediterranean sapropel S1? Evidence from the Marmara Sea (http://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V6R-47CY5WW-5/1/6e86fc7d4e172ec60c7729a4c62dc568). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 190, 9-21. Gkaan, E., Algan, O., Tur, H., Meri, E., Trker, A., and imek, M. 2005. Delta formation at the southern entrance of Istanbul Strait (Marmara sea, Turkey): a new interpretation based on high-resolution seismic stratigraphy (http://springerlink.metapress.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1007/ s00367-005-0215-4). Geo-Marine Letters 25, 370-377. Eris, K., Ryan, W. B. F., Cagatay, N., Sancar, ., Lericolais, G., Menot, G., and Bard, E. 2008. The timing and evolution of the post-glacial transgression across the Sea of Marmara shelf south of stanbul (http://www. sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6M-4NJ7WH5-2&_user=485676&_coverDate=09/ 06/2007&_alid=1322298051&_rdoc=16&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5818&_sort=r&_docanchor=& view=c&_ct=51&_acct=C000023438&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=485676& md5=fa6f2c2c4ab9242e5a4347a697d8b427). Marine Geology 243, 57-76. Dimitrov, Petko and Dimitrov, Dimitar. 2004. The Black Sea, the flood, and the ancient myths (http://www. io-bas.bg/noahproject/). Varna (Bulgaria): Slavena. Keith, M.L. and Anderson, G.M. 1963. Radiocarbon Dating: Fictitious Results with Mollusk Shells (http://www. sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/141/3581/634). Science, 1963 August 13, 141(3581): 634637. DOI 10.1126/science.141.3581.634 National Geographic News. 2009-02-06. "Noah's Flood" Not Rooted in Reality, After All? (http://news. nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/02/090206-smaller-noah-flood_2.html)

Black Sea deluge theory Nature. 2004 August 12. Noah's Flood (http://www.climate.unibe.ch/~siddall/Schiermeirnature2004.pdf). 430: 718-19 New Scientist. 2004 May 4. Flood hypothesis seems to hold no water (http://www.newscientist.com/article/ mg17423411.400-flood-hypothesis-seems-to-hold-no-water.html). 2341: 13 The New York Times. 1996-12-17. Geologists Link Black Sea Deluge to Farming's Rise. pp. B5, B13 Ryan, W.B.F.; Pitman III, W.C., et al. 1997. An abrupt drowning of the Black Sea shelf. Marine Geology, 138: 119126. Yanko-Hombach , Valentina. 2007. The Black Sea Flood Question: Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement. Springer ISBN 1-4020-4774-6. Chepalyga A.L. The late glacial Great Flood in the Ponto-Caspian basin. In: The Black Sea Flood question: changes in coastline, climate and human settlement. Springer. 2006. pp.119-148 (http://www.springerlink.com/ content/q02720/#section=335929&page=2)

192

Further reading
Giosan, Liviu et al. 2009. Was the Black Sea catastrophically flooded in the early Holocene? (http://www. sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VBC-4V0V9RH-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=& _orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1130958030&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google& _acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a46ed5c4fc2e3d5120ef0fa742b927de) Quaternary Science Reviews, January 2009, 28(12-2): 1-6. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.10.012 This article (possibly not identical to the preceding citation) is available online with unrestricted access here (http://www.whoi.edu/cms/files/Giosan_et_al-all_46963.pdf) at the sponsoring institution's website. Noah's Not-so-big Flood (http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=58886) Lericolais, G. (http://archimer.ifremer.fr/auteurs/gilles-lericolais.htm) et al. 2009. High frequency sea level fluctuations recorded in the Black Sea since the LGM (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.03.010). Global and Planetary Change, March 2009, 66(1-2): 65-75 "Ballard and the Black Sea" (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ax/frame.html) Ryan, William B.; Pitman, Walter C. (2000), Noah's Flood: The new scientific discoveries about the event that changed history, Simon & Schuster, ISBN0-684-85920-3 Dimitrov, D. 2010. Geology and Non-traditional resources of the Black Sea. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-3-8383-8639-3. 244p. The late glacial Great Flood in the Ponto-Caspian basin (http://paleogeo.org/flood_en.html) Yanko-Hombach, Valentina (December 8), Allan S. Gilbert, Nicolae Panin and Pavel M. Dolukhanov, ed., The Black Sea Flood Question, Springer, pp.999, ISBN978-1402047749

193

Isolated from the rest of us until about now

Andamanese people
The Andamanese people are the various aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, which is the northern district of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory of India, located in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal. They include the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Sentinelese, and the extinct Jangil. Anthropologically, they are usually classified as Negritos (sometimes also called Proto-Australoids), represented also by the Semang of Malaysia and the Aeta of the Philippines. Their ancestors are thought to have arrived in the islands 60,000 years ago from coastal India (or crossed over a land bridge from Burma during a glacial period) as part of the first human peopling of India and Southeast Asia, in the initial Great Coastal Migration on what is now the Continental shelf of the northern Indian Ocean that was the first expansion of humanity out of Africa that began 60,000 years ago.[1][2] With very little contact with external societies or each other for nearly all this period the tribes have mutually unintelligible languages. This comparatively long-lasting isolation and separation from external influences is unequaled, except perhaps by the aboriginal inhabitants of Tasmania.

Comparative map showing distributions of various Andamanese tribes in the Andaman Islands - early 1800s versus present-day (2004). Notables: (a) Rapid depopulation of the original southeastern Jarawa homeland in the 1789-1793 period (b) Onge and Great Andamanese shrinkage to isolated settlements (c) Complete Jangil extinction by 1931 (d) Jarawa move to occupy depopulated former west coast homeland of the Great Andamanese (e) Only the Sentinelese zone is somewhat intact

Decline of the populations

The Andamanese's protective isolation changed with the first British colonial presence (in 1789) and subsequent settlements, which proved disastrous for them. Lacking immunity against common diseases of the Eurasian mainland, the large Jarawa habitats on the southeastern regions of South Andaman Island were likely depopulated by disease within four years (1789-1793AD) of the initial British colonial settlement in 1789.[3] Epidemics of pneumonia, measles and influenza spread rapidly and exacted heavy tolls, as did alcoholism.[3] By 1875, the Andamanese were already "perilously close to extinction," yet attempts to contact, subdue and co-opt them continued unrelentingly and, in 1888, the British government set in place a policy of "organized gift giving" that has continued in varying forms ever since.[4]

Andamanese people

194

Two Great Andamanese men, in an 1875 photograph

There is evidence that some sections of the British Indian administration were deliberately working to annihilate the tribes.[5] After the mid-19th century, British also established penal colonies on the islands, and an increasing numbers of mainland Indian and Karen settlers arrived, encroaching on former territories of the Andamanese. This accelerated the decline of the tribes. At the time of first contact with the British there were an estimated 5,000 An official 1867 British government communication Great Andamanese. By 1901, 600 were left.[6] By 1927 (about 20 about organizing a punitive expedition against years prior to Indian independence), only 100 survivors Andamanese tribespeople on Little Andaman Island remained.[7] Around independence, the number had shrunk to 25.[8] Fourteen years after independence, in 1961, only 19 remained. The numbers have rebounded somewhat and today about 50 remain,[2] which is still far too small for a self-sustaining society. The Aka-Kol of Middle Andaman were extinct by 1921.[8] The last Jangil (also known as the Rutland Jarawa) were sighted in 1907, and were assumed extinct by 1931, as were the Oko-Juwoi.[8] Today only the Sentinelese, who live exclusively on North Sentinel Island, have been able to completely maintain their status as an independent, self-sufficient population, resisting attempts to contact them. Until the late 18th century, their habit of killing all shipwrecked foreigners and the remoteness of their islands prevented modification of their culture or language. With the arrival of the British, this began to result in severe reprisals: in the 1867 Andaman Islands Expedition, dozens of Onge were killed by British naval personnel, which resulted in four Victoria Crosses for the British soldiers.[7][9][10] In the 1940s, the Jarawa were bombed by Japanese forces for their hostility.[8]

Andamanese people Cultivation was unknown to the Andamanese, and they lived off hunting indigenous pigs, fishing, and gathering. Their only weapons were the bow, adzes and wooden harpoons. Besides the aboriginal people of Tasmania, the Andamanese were the only people who in the 19th century knew no method of making fire, carefully preserving embers in hollowed-out trees from fires caused by lightning strikes.

195

Genetic legacy
The Andamans are theorized to be a part of the great coastal migration of humans from Africa along the coastal regions of the Indian mainland and towards Southeast Asia, Japan and Oceania.[1] Genetic analysis of the Andamans has included nuclear DNA[11] and haplotype DNA, both that inherited through the female line (mitochondrial DNA)[12] and the male line (Y chromosomes).[1] The Andamanese belong to the broad Y-chromosome lineage designated as M130 (haplogroup C) by Spencer Wells,[1] who Human migration map based on mitochondrial DNA. leads the Genographic Project. This is the lineage that seems to Note the route of the mtDNA haplogroup M through have emigrated from East Africa at least 50,000 years ago along the Indian mainland and the Andaman Islands, possibly the south coast of Asia eastwards to Australia. Within this lineage, on to Southeast Asia. the Andamanese (Onges and Jarawas) belong almost exclusively to the subtype designated Haplotype D, which is also common in Tibet and Japan, but rare on the Indian mainland.[13] However, this is a subclade of the D haplogroup which has not been seen outside of the Andamans, marking the insularity of these tribes.[14] The only other group that is known to predominantly belong to haplogroup D are the Ainu aboriginal people of Japan.[15] Male Great Andamanese, on the other hand, have a mixed presence of Y-chromosome haplogroups O, L, K and P, which places them between mainland Indian and Asian populations.[14] The mitochondrial DNA haplogroup distribution, which indicates maternal descent, confirms these results. All Andamanese belong to the subgroup M[12] which is widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent, but uncommon in Africa and other areas west of India.[16] Furthermore, they belong to subgroups M2 and M4, which both occur frequently throughout India.[14][17] On the Andamans, M4 occurs as a subtype also seen on the Indian mainland, whereas M2 occurs in two subgroups (M2 haplotypes 16344T and 16357C) that have not been observed on the mainland and are presumed unique to the Andamanese.[12] This implies a long history of the Andamanese on the islands, which would allow the time for insulated local genetic development. Since the M2 and M4 lineages diverged 60,000-30,000 years before present and both occur outside the Andamans, it is likely that the Andaman islands were originally colonized by two different groups, which have kept separate for tens of thousands of years.[12] The results concerning nuclear DNA stress the uniqueness of the Andamanese people.[11] First, they show a very small genetic variation, which is indicative of populations that have experienced a population bottleneck and then developed in isolation for a long period. Second, an allele has been discovered among the Jarawas which is found nowhere else in the world. Third, they present no specific affinity to any other population in the world. This has led some geneticists to conclude that the Andamanese "seem to have remained in isolation for a much longer period than any known ancient population of the world." A likely causal explanation for their uniqueness is that the Andamanese are the surviving descendants of early human migrants from Africa who remained genetically isolated in their habitat in the Andaman Islands since their arrival.[11] This is in contrast to the neighboring Nicobarese, who are believed to mostly descend from more recent immigrants from mainland Asia.[12] Some anthropologists postulate that Southern India and Southeast Asia was once populated largely by Negritos similar to those of the Andamans,[1][18] and that some tribal populations in the south of India, such as the Irulas are remnants of that period.[19][20] A 2009 genetic study of Indian populations that traced most South Asian ethnicities to

Andamanese people genomic contributions from two original founding populations also found that, of all modern-day Indians, only the Andamanese possess Ancestral South Indian lineage without admixture of any Ancestral North Indian genetic heritage.[21][22] Unlike some Negrito populations of Southeast Asia, Andaman Islanders have been found to have no Denisovan ancestry.[23]

196

References
[1] Spencer Wells (2002), The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC), Princeton University Press, ISBN069111532X, , "... the population of south-east Asia prior to 6000 years ago was composed largely of groups of hunter-gatherers very similar to modern Negritos ... So, both the Y-chromosome and the mtDNA paint a clear picture of a coastal leap from Africa to south-east Asia, and onward to Australia ... DNA has given us a glimpse of the voyage, which almost certainly followed a coastal route va India ..." [2] Anvita Abbi (2006), Endangered Languages of the Andaman Islands (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=VWVkAAAAMAAJ), Lincom Europa, , "... to Myanmar by a land bridge during the ice ages, and it is possible that the ancestors of the Andamanese reached the islands without crossing the sea ... The latest figure in 2005 is 50 in all ..." [3] Sita Venkateswar (2004), Development and Ethnocide: Colonial Practices in the Andaman Islands (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=XFETVExNUYgC), IWGIA, ISBN8791563046, , "... As I have suggested previously, it is probable that some disease was introduced among the coastal groups by Lieutenant Colebrooke and Blair's first settlement in 1789, resulting in a marked reduction of their population. The four years that the British occupied their initial site on the south-east of South Andaman were sufficient to have decimated the coastal populations of the groups referred to as Jarawa by the Aka-bea-da ..." [4] Richard B. Lee, Richard Heywood Daly (1999), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5eEASHGLg3MC), Cambridge University Press, ISBN052157109X, , "... By 1875, when these peoples were perilously close to extinction, the Andaman cultures came under scientific scrutiny ... In 1888, "friendly relations" were established with Ongees through organized gift giving contacts ... As recently as 198592, government contacts have been initiated with Jarawas and Sentinelese through gift-giving, a contact procedure much like that carried out during British rule. ..." [5] Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Francesco Cavalli-Sforza (1995), The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ApuuiwUkEZ0C), Basic Books, ISBN0201442310, , "... Contact with whites, and the British in particular, has virtually destroyed them. Illness, alcohol, and the will of the colonials all played their part; the British governor of the time mentions in his diary that he received instructions to destroy them with alcohol and opium. He succeeded completely with one group. The others reacted violently ..." [6] Jayanta Sarkar (1990), The Jarawa (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=HxBuAAAAMAAJ), Anthropological Survey of India, ISBN8170460808, , "... The Great Andamanese population was large till 1858 when it started declining ... In 1901, their number was reduced to only 600 and in 1961 to a mere 19 ..." [7] Madhusree Mukerjee (2003), The Land of Naked People (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=u6373dOvGFgC), Houghton Mifflin Books, ISBN0618197362, , "... In 1927 Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt, a German anthropologist, found that around one hundred Great Andamanese survived, "in dirty, half-closed huts, which primarily contain cheap European household effects." ..." [8] George van Driem (2001), Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region : Containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fiavPYCz4dYC), BRILL, ISBN9004120629, , "... The Aka-Kol tribe of Middle Andaman went extinct by 1921. The Oko-Juwoi of Middle Andaman and the Aka-Bea of South Andaman and Rutland Island were extinct by 1931. The Akar-Bale of Ritchie's Archipelago, the Aka-Kede of Middle Andaman and the A-Pucikwar of South Andaman Island soon followed. By 1951, the census counted a total of only 23 Greater Andamanese and 10 Sentinelese. That means that just ten men, twelve women and one child remained of the Aka-Kora, Aka-Cari and Aka-Jeru tribes of Greater Andaman and only ten natives of North Sentinel Island ..." [9] London Gazette: no. 23333. p. 6878 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 23333/ pages/ 6878). 1867-12-17. Retrieved 2008-08-23. [10] Laxman Prasad Mathur (2003), Kala Pani: History of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, with a Study of Indias Freedom Struggle (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UQ9uAAAAMAAJ), Eastern Book Corporation, , "Snippet: ... Immediately afterwards in another visit to Little Andaman to trace the sailors of a ship named 'Assam Valley' wrecked on its coast, Homfray's party was attacked by a large group of Onges ..." [11] V. K. Kashyap, Sitalaximi T., B. N. Sarkar, R. Trivedi1 (2003), "Molecular Relatedness of The Aboriginal Groups of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with Similar Ethnic Populations" (http:/ / www. krepublishers. com/ 02-Journals/ IJHG/ IJHG-03-0-000-000-2003-Web/ IJHG-03-1-001-067-2003-Abst-PDF/ IJHG-03-1-005-011-2003-Kashyap/ IJHG-03-1-005-011-2003-Kashyap. pdf), International Journal of Human Genetics, 3(1): 5-11 (2003), , retrieved 2009-06-08, "... the Negrito populations of Andaman Islands have remained in isolation ... the Andamanese are more closely related to other Asians than to modern day Africans ... the Nicobarese exhibiting a close affinity with geographically proximate Indo-Mongoloid populations of Northeast India ..." [12] M. Phillip Endicott, Thomas P. Gilbert, Chris Stringer, Carles Lalueza-Fox, Eske Willerslev, Anders J. Hansen, Alan Cooper (2003), "The Genetic Origins of the Andaman Islanders" (http:/ / www. dna. gfy. ku. dk/ course/ papers/ B2. endicott. pdf), American Journal of Human Genetics 72 (1): 178184, doi:10.1086/345487, PMC378623, PMID12478481, , retrieved 2009-04-21, "... The HVR-1 data separate them into two lineages, identified on the Indian mainland (Bamshad et al. 2001) as M4 and M2 ... The Andamanese M2 contains two haplotypes ... developed in situ, after an early colonization ... Alternatively, it is possible that the haplotypes have become extinct in India or are present at a

Andamanese people
low frequency and have not yet been sampled, but, in each case, an early settlement of the Andaman Islands by an M2-bearing population is implied ... The Andaman M4 haplotype ... is still present among populations in India, suggesting it was subject to the late Pleistocene population expansions ..." [13] Y-DNA Haplogroup D and its Subclades - 2008 (http:/ / www. isogg. org/ tree/ ISOGG_HapgrpD08. html) [14] Kumarasamy Thangaraj, Lalji Singh, Alla G. Reddy, V. Raghavendra Rao, Subhash C. Sehgal, Peter A. Underhill, Melanie Pierson, Ian G. Frame, and Erika Hagelberg (2002), Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population (http:/ / hpgl. stanford. edu/ publications/ CB_2002_p1-18. pdf), , retrieved 2008-11-16, "... Our data indicate that the Andamanese have closer affinities to Asian than to African populations and suggest that they are the descendants of the early Palaeolithic colonizers of Southeast Asia ... All Onge and Jarawa had the same binary haplotype D ... Great Andaman males had five different binary haplotypes, found previously in Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Melanesia ..." [15] Tajima, Atsushi; et al. (2004), "Genetic origins of the Ainu inferred from combined DNA analyses of maternal and paternal lineages", Journal of Human Genetics 49 (4): 187193, doi:10.1007/s10038-004-0131-x, PMID14997363. [16] Michael D. Petraglia, Bridget Allchin (2007), The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC), Springer, ISBN1402055617, , "... As haplogroup M, except for the African sub-clade M1, is not notably present in regions west of the Indian subcontinent, while it covers the majority of Indian mtDNA variation ..." [17] Revathi Rajkumar et al., Phylogeny and antiquity of M macrohaplogroup inferred from complete mt DNA sequence of Indian specific lineages (http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ 1471-2148/ 5/ 26), BMC Evolutionary Biology 2005, 5:26 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-26 [18] Jim Mason (2005), An Unnatural Order: The Roots of Our Destruction of Nature (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=7nTUkoLzSk0C), Lantern Books, ISBN1590560817, , "... Australia's "aboriginal" peoples are another case in point. At the end of the Ice Age, their homeland stretched from the middle of India eastward into southeast Asia and as far south as Indonesia and nearby islands. As agriculture spread from its centers in southeast Asia, these pre-Australoid forager people moved farther southward to New Guinea and Australia. ..." [19] K.V. Zvelebil (1982), The Irula language (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=NlSCAAAAIAAJ), O. Harrassowitz, ISBN3447022477, , "... into the low jungles of the Nilgiris (such movement might have been instigated eg by the advancing Australoids pushing out an earlier pre-Australoid ..." [20] Stephen Fuchs (1974), The Aboriginal Tribes of India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2hEkAAAAMAAJ), Macmillan India, , "... Guha thinks that the Negritos were the earliest racial element in India. He believes that the Kadar, Irulas and Panyans of south India have a Negrito strain, even though he admits that they are not pure Negritos ..." [21] David Reich, Kumarasamy Thangaraj, Nick Patterson, Alkes Price, Lalji Singh (Vol 461, 24 September 2009), "Reconstructing Indian population history" (http:/ / genepath. med. harvard. edu/ ~reich/ 2009_Nature_Reich_India. pdf), Nature, , "... two ancient populations, genetically divergent, that are ancestral to most Indians today. One, the Ancestral North Indians (ANI), is genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans, whereas the other, the Ancestral South Indians (ASI), is as distinct from ANI and East Asians as they are from each other ..." [22] Richard F. Nyrop (Oct 2, 2009), "Genetics Weaves Tapestry of Indian Heritage" (http:/ / focus. hms. harvard. edu/ 2009/ 100209/ indian_genetics. shtml), Focus: News from Harvard Medical, Dental and Public Health Schools, , "... nearly all Indians alive today carry various mixtures of genomic contribution from the two ancient populations. One group the authors call Ancestral North Indians is genetically most similar to western Eurasians (including Europeans) and accounts for 40 to 80 percent of the ancestry found in the Indian genomes. The rest comes from the Ancestral South Indians, a distinct population not closely related to populations anywhere else in the world. ... The only exception to the mixed ancestries of all Indians came from the Andaman Islanders, who have exclusive descent from the Ancestral South Indian lineage ..." [23] Choi, Charles (September 22, 2011), Now-Extinct Relative Had Sex with Humans Far and Wide (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ 16171-denisovans-humans-widespread-sex-asia. html), LiveScience,

197

External links
The Andamanese by George Weber (http://www.andaman.org) News by Survival International (http://awa.survivalinternational.org/news/tribes/jarawa) Videos by (http://awa.survival-international.org/news/video/jarawa) Survival International

Tasmanian Aborigines

198

Tasmanian Aborigines
Parlevar (Eng:Palawa) (Tasmanian Aborigines) Regions with significant populations
Australia Tasmania

Languages English; formerly Tasmanian languages

The Aboriginal Tasmanians (Aboriginal name: Parlevar) were the Indigenous people of the island state of Tasmania, Australia. Before British colonisation in 1803, there were an estimated 3,00015,000 Parlevar.[1][2] A number of historians point to introduced disease as the major cause of the destruction of the full-blooded Aboriginal [3][4][5][6] population. Geoffrey Blainey wrote that by 1830 in Tasmania: "Disease had killed most of them but warfare and private violence had also been devastating."[7] Other historians regard the Black War as one of the earliest recorded modern genocides.[8] Benjamin Madley wrote: "Despite over 170 years of debate over who or what was responsible for this near-extinction, no consensus exists on its origins, process, or whether or not it was genocide" however, using the "U.N. definition, sufficient evidence exists to designate the Tasmanian catastrophe genocide."[1]

A picture of the last four "full blooded" Tasmanian Aborigines c. 1860s. Truganini, the last to survive, is seated at far right.

By 1833, George Augustus Robinson, sponsored by Lieutenant Governor George Arthur, had persuaded the approximately 200 surviving Aboriginal Tasmanians to surrender themselves with assurances that they would be protected, provided for and eventually have their lands returned to them. These 'assurances' were in fact lies promises made to the survivors that played on their desperate hopes for reunification with lost family and community members. The assurances were given by Robinson solely to remove the Aboriginal people from mainland Van Diemen's Land.[9] The survivors were moved to Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment on Flinders Island, where diseases continued to reduce their numbers even further. In 1847, the last 47 living inhabitants of Wybalenna were transferred to Oyster Cove, south of Hobart, on the main island of Tasmania. There, a woman called Trugernanner (often rendered as Truganini), who is widely believed to be the last of the 'full-blooded' Aboriginal person, died in 1876. However, in 1889 Parliament recognised Fanny Cochrane Smith (d:1905) as the last surviving 'full blooded' Aboriginal Tasmanian, giving her a land grant of 300 acres (unknown operator: u'strong'ha) and an annuity of 50.[10][11]

Tasmanian Aborigines All of the Indigenous Tasmanian languages have been lost. Currently there are some efforts to reconstruct a language from the available wordlists. Today, some thousands of people living in Tasmania and elsewhere can trace part of their ancestry to the Parlevar, since a number of Parlevar women were abducted, most commonly by the sealers living on smaller islands in Bass Strait; some women were traded or bartered for; and a number voluntarily associated themselves with European sealers and settlers and bore children. Those members of the modern-day descendant community who trace their ancestry to Aboriginal Tasmanians have mostly European ancestry, and did not keep the traditional Parlevar culture. Other Aboriginal groups within Tasmania use the language words from the area where they are living and/or have lived for many generations uninterrupted. Many aspects of the Aboriginal Tasmanian culture are continually practised in various parts of the state and the islands of the Bass Strait.

199

History
Before European settlement
People are thought to have crossed into Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago via a land bridge between the island and the rest of mainland Australia during the last glacial period. According to genetic studies, once the sea levels rose flooding the Bassian Plain, the people were left isolated for approximately 8,000 years until European exploration during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.[12] In 1990 archaeologists excavated materials in the Warreen Cave in the Maxwell River valley of the south-west proving Aboriginal occupation from as early as 34,000 BP making indigenous Tasmanians the southern-most population in the world during the Pleistocene era. In 2010, following protests that the construction of the Jordan River valley bridge that was part The Shoreline of Tasmania and Victoria about 14,000 years ago as Sea Levels of the new Brighton Bypass would disturb a were rising showing some of the human archaeological sites - see Prehistory of traditional Aboriginal meeting place that Australia had been identified in 2008, the government agreed to an archaeological investigation although stating that while artifacts would be protected the construction would go ahead. Archaeologists excavating a 600 metre long section of river bank found a large number of stone tools and later estimated that the bank contains up to three million artifacts. Preliminary dating indicates that the site was continuously occupied from 40,000 BP to 28,000 BP making the site 6,000 years older than the Warreen cave if confirmed.[13] After the sea rose to create Bass Strait, the Australian mainland and Tasmania became separate land masses, and the Aboriginal people who had migrated from mainland Australia became cut off from their cousins on the mainland. Because neither side had ocean sailing technology, the two groups were unable to maintain contact.

Tasmanian Aborigines Some have claimed that because of the ocean divide, and unlike other populations around the world, the small population of Tasmania was not able to share any of the new technological advances being made by mainland groups such as barbed spears, bone tools of any kind, boomerangs, hooks, sewing, and the ability to start a fire thus making Aboriginal Tasmanians the simplest people on Earth.[14] It is claimed that they only possessed lit fires with the men entrusted in carrying embers from camp to camp for cooking and which could also be used to clear land and herd animals to aid in hunting practices.[15][16] However, other scholars dispute that the Aboriginal Tasmanians did not have fire;[17] and indeed, a document from 1887 clearly describes fire-lighting techniques used among Tasmanians.[18] Another school of thought holds that because food was so abundant compared to mainland Australia the Aboriginal people had no need for a better technology, pointing out that they did in fact originally possess bone tools which dropped out of use as the effort to make them began to exceed the benefit they provided.[19] It has been suggested that approximately 4,000 years ago, the Aboriginal Tasmanians largely dropped scaled fish from their diet, and began eating more land mammals such as possums, kangaroos, and wallabies. They also switched from worked bone tools to sharpened stone tools.[16] The significance of the disappearance of bone tools (believed to have been primarily used for fishing related activities) and fish in the diet is heavily debated. Some argue that it is evidence of a maladaptive society while others argue that the change was economic as large areas of scrub at that time were changing to grassland providing substantially increased food resources. Fish were never a large part of the diet, ranking behind shellfish and seals, and with more resources available the cost/benefit ratio of fishing may have become too high.[19] Archaeological evidence indicates that around the time these changes took place the Tasmanian tribes began expanding their territories, a process that was still continuing when Europeans arrived.[20]

200

Tasmanian Aboriginal Tribes

The social organisation of Aboriginal Tasmanians had three distinct levels: the domestic unit or family group, the social unit or band which had a self-defining name with 40 to 50 people, and collections of bands comprising tribes which owned territories. Even though territories were owned there was substantial movement and migration by bands to utilise and share abundant food resources in particular seasons.[21] Estimates made of the combined population of the Aboriginal people of Tasmania, before European arrival in Tasmania, are in the range of 3,000 to 15,000 people.[1] Genetic studies have suggested much higher figures which is supported by oral traditions that Aboriginal people were "more numerous than the white people were aware of" but that their population had been decimated by a sudden outbreak of disease prior to 1803. It is speculated that early contacts with sealers before colonisation had resulted in an epidemic.[3] Using archaeological evidence, Stockton (I983:68) Map of the Tasmanian Tribes estimated 3,000 to 6,000 for the northern half of the west coast alone, or up to six times the commonly accepted estimate, however he later revised this to 3,000 to 5,000 for the entire island based on historical sources. The low rate of genetic drift indicates that Stockton's original maximum estimate is likely the lower boundary and, while not indicated by the archaeological record, a population as high as 100,000 can "not be rejected out of hand". This is supported by carrying capacity data indicating greater

Tasmanian Aborigines resource productivity in Tasmania than the mainland.[12] The Aboriginal Tasmanians were a primarily nomadic people who lived in adjoining territory, moving from area to area not only based on seasonal changes in food supplies such as seafood, land mammals and native vegetables and berries but also to allow food resources to regenerate for future use. The different tribes shared similar languages and culture. They socialised, intermarried and fought 'wars' against other tribes.[15] According to Ryan, the population of Tasmania was aligned into nine tribes composed of six to fifteen bands each, with each band comprising two to six extended family units (clans) who were distantly related to each other. Individual bands had a specific home range with elaborate rites of entry required of visitors. However, the band was a land using group not a land owner with the clans making up the band each owning the rights to their own "estate" in the range.[22] There were more than 60 bands before European colonisation, although only 48 have been located and associated with particular territories. The Eastern and northern Group consisted of the Oyster Bay Tribe, North East Tribe, and the North Tribe. the Midlands Group consisted of the Big River Tribe, North Midlands Tribe and Ben Lomond Tribe. The Maritime Group consisted of the North West Tribe, South West Tribe and South East Tribe.[21] Oyster Bay (Paredarerme) The Paredarerme tribe was estimated to be the largest Tasmanian tribe with ten bands totalling 700 to 800 people (Ryan:1996:17). The Paredarerme Tribe had good relations with the Big River tribe, with large congregations at favoured hunting sites inland and at the coast. Relations with the North Midlands tribe were mostly hostile, and evidence suggests that the Douglas-Apsley region may have been a dangerous borderland rarely visited (Ferguson 1986 pg22). Generally, Paredarerme tribe bands migrated inland to the High Country for Spring and Summer and returned to the coast for Autumn and Winter, but not all people left their territory each year with some deciding to stay by the coast. Migrations provided a varied diet with plentiful seafood, seals and birds on the coast, and good hunting for kangaroos, wallabies and possums inland (Ryan:1996:17). The High Country also provided opportunities to trade for ochre with the North-west and North people, and to harvest intoxicating gum from Eucalyptus gunnii, found only on the plateau.[21] The key determinant of camp sites was topography. The majority of camps were along river valleys, adjacent north facing hill slopes and on gentle slopes bordering a forest or marsh (Brown 1986).
Band Leetermairremener Territory St Patricks Head near St Marys Seasonal migration Winter in the coastal areas of their own lands. Between August and October congregating around Moulting Lagoon and Schouten Island. In October they would move inland to St Pauls and Break o' Day Rivers or up the Meredith River to the Elizabeth River area. In January, the band would move back to the coast. As above.

201

Linetemairrener

North of Great Oyster Bay

Loontitetermairrelehoinner North Oyster Bay As above. Toorernomairremener Poredareme Schouten Passage As above. Little Swanport Winter in the coastal areas of their own lands. In August moving west to the Eastern Marshes, and through St Peters pass to Big River Country before returning to the coast in January. As above. As above. As above. As above.

Laremairremener Tyreddeme Portmairremener Pydairrerme

Grindstone Bay Maria Island Prosser River Tasman Peninsula Pittwater, Risdon

Moomairremener

As above.

Tasmanian Aborigines North East The North East tribe consisted of seven bands totalling around 500 people. They had good relations with the Ben Lamond tribe, who were allowed access to the resources of the north east coast.
Band Peeberrangner Leenerrerter Pinterrairer Trawlwoolway Territory Seasonal migration uncertain uncertain uncertain uncertain

202

Pyemmairrenerpairrener uncertain Leenethmairrener Panpekanner uncertain uncertain

North The North tribe consisted of four bands totalling 200300 people (Ryan:1996:22). Their country contained the most important ochre mines in Tasmania, accessed by well defined roads kept open by firing. They traded the ochre with all adjacent tribes. They would spend part of the year in the country of the North West Tribe to hunt seals and collect shells from Robbins Island for necklaces. In return, the North West Tribe had free access to the ochre mines (Ryan:1996:23-26). Relatively isolated, the region was first explored by Europeans in 1824 with the Van Diemen's Land Company being given a grant of unknown operator: u',' acres (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u','ha), which included the greater part of the tribes hunting grounds. The settlement was a failure, with the inland areas described as "wet, cold and soggy", while the coastal region was difficult to clear, as Superintendent Henry Hellyer noted the "forest [was] altogether unlike anything I have seen in the Island". However, in 1827 a port was established at Emu Bay. In 1828 Tarerenorerer (Eng:Walyer), a woman who had escaped from sealers, became the leader of the Emu Bay people and attacked the settlers with stolen weapons, the first recorded use of muskets by Aboriginal people.[23]
Band Punnilerpanner Pallittorre Noeteeler Territory Port Sorell Quamby Bluff Seasonal migration Winter spent on the coast. In summer they would move inland. As above

Hampshire Hills As above As above

Plairhekehillerplue Emu Bay

Big River

Tasmanian Aborigines

203

Band Leenowwenne Pangerninghe Braylwunyer Larmairremener

Territory New Norfolk Clyde - Derwent Rivers Junction Ouse and Dee Rivers West of Dee

Seasonal migration

Luggermairrernerpairrer Great Lake

North Midlands
Band Leterremairrener Panninher Territory Port Dalrymple Norfolk Plains Seasonal migration

Tyerrernotepanner Campbell Town

Ben Lomond The Ben Lomond tribe consisted of three and possibly four bands totalling 150-200 people who occupied 260km2 (unknown operator: u'strong'sqmi) of country surrounding the 182km2 (unknown operator: u'strong'sqmi) Ben Lomond plateau. Until 12,000 years ago, the plateau was covered by an ice cap, leaving it largely devoid of soil and lacking in resources. Walter George Arthur, son of a Ben Lomond elder, was the Wybalenna "activist" who petitioned Queen Victoria in 1847.[24] Mannalargenna, who organised guerrilla attacks against British soldiers in Tasmania during the period known as the Black War, was a Plangermaireener elder, and in 1835 became the first Aboriginal person in Tasmania to be given a "christian" burial.
Band Plangermaireener Plindermairhemener Territory Seasonal migration uncertain uncertain

Tonenerweenerlarmenne uncertain

North West The North West tribe numbered between 400 and 600 people at time of contact with Europeans and had at least eight bands.[21] They had good relations with the North tribe, who were allowed access to the resources of the north west coast. First explored by Europeans in 1824, the region was considered inhospitable and only lightly settled, although it suffered a high rate of Aboriginal dispossession and killings.

Tasmanian Aborigines

204

Band Tommeginer

Territory Table Cape

Seasonal migration

Parperloihener Robbins Island Pennemukeer Pendowte Peerapper Manegin Tarkinener Peternidic Cape Grim Studland Bay West Point Arthur River mouth Sandy Cape Pieman River mouth

South West Coast

Band Mimegin Lowreenne Ninene Territory Macquarie Harbour Low Rocky Point Port Davey Seasonal migration

Needwonnee Cox Bight

South East Risdon Cove, the first Tasmanian settlement, was located in South East country. There is eyewitness evidence that the South East tribe may have consisted of up to ten bands, totalling around 500 people. However, only four bands totalling 160-200 people were officially recorded as the main source by Robinson, whose journals begin in 1829. By this time, Europeans had settled in most of the South East tribe's country, with the majority of bands dispossessed and food resources depleted. Their country contained the most important silcrete, chert and quartzite mines in Tasmania.[25] Truganini was a Nuenonne from Bruny Island, which they called Lunawanna-Alonnah. The first two European towns built on the Island were named Lunawanna and Alonnah, and most of the island's landmarks are named after Nuenonne people. The island was the source of the sandstone used to build many of Melbourne's buildings, such as the Post Office and Parliament House.[26]
Band Territory Seasonal migration

Mouheneenner Hobart Nuenonne Mellukerdee Lyluequonny Bruny Island Huon River Recherche Bay

Early European contact

Abel Jansen Tasman, credited as the first European to discover Tasmania (in 1642) and who named it Van Diemens Land, did not encounter any of the Aboriginal Tasmanians when he landed. In 1772, a French exploratory expedition under Marion Dufresne visited Tasmania. At first, contact with the Aboriginal people was friendly; however the Aboriginal Tasmanians became alarmed when another boat was dispatched towards the shore. It was reported that spears and stones were thrown and the French responded with musket fire killing at least one Aboriginal person and wounding several others. Two later French expeditions led by Bruni d'Entrecasteaux in 1792-93 and Nicolas Baudin

Tasmanian Aborigines in 1802 made friendly contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanian; the d'Entrecasteaux expedition doing so over an extended period of time.[27] The Resolution under Captain Tobias Furneaux (part of an expedition led by Captain James Cook) had visited in 1773 but made no contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanian although he left gifts in unoccupied shelters found on Bruny Island. The first known British contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians was on Bruny Island by Captain Cook in 1777. The contact was peaceful. Captain William Bligh also visited Bruny Island in 1788 and made peaceful contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians.[28]

205

Contact with Sealers on the North and East Coasts.

More extensive contact between Aboriginal Tasmanians and Europeans resulted when British and American seal hunters began visiting the islands in Bass Strait as well as the northern and eastern coasts of Tasmania from the late 1790s on. Shortly thereafter (by about 1800), sealers were regularly left on uninhabited islands in Bass Strait during the sealing season (November to May). The sealers established semi-permanent camps or settlements on the islands, which were close enough for the sealers to reach the main island of Tasmania in small boats and so make contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians.[29] Trading relationships developed between sealers and Tasmanian Aboriginal tribes. Hunting dogs became highly prized by the Aboriginal people, as were other exotic items such as flour, tea and tobacco. The Aboriginal people traded kangaroo skins for such goods. However, a trade in Aboriginal women soon developed. Many Tasmanian Aboriginal women were highly skilled in hunting seals, as well as in obtaining other foods such as sea-birds, and some Tasmanian tribes would trade their services, and more rarely those of Aboriginal men, to the sealers for the seal-hunting season. Others were sold on a permanent basis. This trade incorporated not only women of the tribe engaged in the trade but also women abducted from other tribes. Some may have been given as gifts meant to incorporate the new arrivals into Aboriginal society through marriage. Sealers engaged in raids along the coasts to abduct Aboriginal women and were reported to have killed Aboriginal men in the process. By 1810 seal numbers had been greatly reduced by hunting so most seal hunters abandoned the area, however a small number of sealers, approximately fifty mostly renegade sailors, escaped convicts or ex-convicts, remained as permanent residents of the Bass Strait islands and some established families with Tasmanian Aboriginal women.[29] Some of the women were taken back to the islands by the sealers involuntarily and some went willingly, as in the case of a woman called Tarerenorerer (Eng:Walyer).[30] Walyer was later to gain some notoriety for her attempts to kill the sealers to escape their brutality. Walyer, a Punnilerpanner, joined the Plairhekehillerplue band after eventually escaping and went on to lead attacks on employees of the Van Diemen's Land Company. Walyer's attacks are the first recorded use of muskets by Aboriginal people. Captured, she refused to work and was banished to Penguin Island. Later imprisoned on Swan Island she attempted to organise a rebellion. Although Aboriginal women were by custom forbidden to take part in war, several Aboriginal women who escaped from sealers became leaders or took part in attacks. According to Lyndall Ryan, the women traded to, or kidnapped by sealers became "a significant dissident group" against white authority.[31] Historian James Bonwick reported Aboriginal women who were clearly captives of sealers but he also reported women living with sealers who 'proved faithful and affectionate to their new husbands', women who appeared content and others who were allowed to visit their native tribe, taking gifts, with the sealers being confident that they would return.[32] Bonwick also reports a number of claims of brutality by sealers towards Aboriginal women including some of those made by George Augustus Robinson.[33] An Aboriginal woman by the name of Bulrer related her experience to Robinson, that sealers had rushed her camp and stolen six women including herself "the white men tie them and then they flog them very much, plenty much blood, plenty cry." Sealing captain, James Kelly, wrote in 1816 that the custom of the sealers was to each have "two to five of these native women for their own use and benefit." A shortage of women available "in trade" resulted in abduction becoming common and in 1830 it was reported that at least fifty Aboriginal women were "kept in slavery" on the Bass Strait islands.[31]

Tasmanian Aborigines "Harrington, a sealer, procured ten or fifteen native women, and placed them on different islands in Bass's Straits, where he left them to procure skins; if, however, when he returned, they had not obtained enough, he punished them by tying them up to trees for twenty-four to thirty-six hours together, flogging them at intervals, and he killed them not infrequently if they proved stubborn." (H.W.Parker The Rise, Progress, and Present State of V. D. Land 1833)[34] The raids for, and trade in, Aboriginal women contributed to the rapid depletion of the numbers of Aboriginal women in the northern areas of Tasmania, by 1830 only three women survived in northeast Tasmania among 72 men [29] and thus contributed in a significant manner to the demise of the full-blooded Aboriginal population of Tasmania. However many modern day Aboriginal Tasmanians trace their descent from the 19th century sealer communities of Bass Strait. There are numerous stories of the sealers' brutality towards the Aboriginal women; with some of these reports originating from George Augustus Robinson. In 1830, Robinson seized 14 Aboriginal women from the sealers, planning for them to marry Aboriginal men at the Flinders Island settlement. Josephine Flood, an archaeologist specialising in Australian mainland Aboriginal peoples, notes: he encountered strong resistance from the women as well as sealers. The sealers sent a representative, James Munro, to appeal to Governor Arthur and argue for the womens return on the basis that they wanted to stay with their sealer husbands and children rather than marry Aboriginal men unknown to them. Arthur ordered the return of some of the women. Shortly thereafter, Robinson began to disseminate stories, told to him by James Munro, of atrocities allegedly committed by the sealers against Aboriginal people and against Aboriginal women, in particular. Brian Plomley, who edited Robinson's papers, expressed scepticism about these atrocities and notes that they were not reported to Archdeacon Broughton's 1830 committee of inquiry into violence towards Tasmanians. Abduction and ill-treatment of Aboriginal Tasmanians certainly occurred, but the extent is debated.[35]

206

After European Settlement

Between 1803 and 1823, there were two phases of conflict between the Aboriginal people and the British colonists. The first took place between 1803 and 1808 over the need for common food sources such as oysters and kangaroos, and the second between 1808 and 1823, when the small number of white females among the farmers, sealers and whalers, led to the trading, and the abduction, of Aboriginal women as sexual partners. These practices also increased conflict over women among Aboriginal tribes. This in turn led to a decline in the Aboriginal population. Historian Lyndall Ryan records 74 Aboriginal people (almost all women) living with sealers on the Bass Strait islands in the period up to 1835.[37]

By 1816, kidnapping of Aboriginal children for labour had become widespread. In 1814, Governor Thomas Davey issued a proclamation expressing "utter indignation and abhorrence" in regards to the kidnapping of the children and in 1819 Governor William Sorell not only re-issued the proclamation but ordered that those who had been taken without parental consent were to be sent to Hobart and supported at government expense.[38] A number of young Aboriginal children were known to be living with settlers. An Irish sealer named Brien spared the life of the baby son of a native woman he had abducted, explaining, "as (he) had stolen the dam he would keep the cub." When the child grew up he became an invaluable assistant to Brien but was considered "no good" by his own people as he was brought up to dislike Aboriginal people, whom he considered "dirty lazy brutes."[31] Twenty-six were definitely known (through baptismal records) to have been taken into settlers' homes as infants or very small children, too young to be of service as labourers. Some Aboriginal children were sent to the Orphan School in Hobart.[39] Lyndall Ryan reports

Robert Dowling, Group of Natives of Tasmania, 1859. Critic Bernard William Smith assessed the work as a "history painting in the full sense of the word", with the natives "seatedemblematic of their situationaround the dying embers of a burnt-out log near a great blackened stump, and in the far left corner there is a leafless tree with [36] shattered branches."

Tasmanian Aborigines fifty-eight Aboriginal people, of various ages, living with settlers in Tasmania in the period up to 1835.[40] Some historians argue that European disease did not appear to be a serious factor until after 1829.[41] Other historians including Geoffrey Blainey and Keith Windschuttle, point to introduced disease as the main cause of the destruction of the full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal population. Keith Windschuttle argues that while smallpox never reached Tasmania, respiratory diseases such as influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis and the effects of venereal diseases devastated the Tasmanian Aboriginal population whose long isolation from contact with the mainland compromised their resistance to introduced disease. The work of historian James Bonwick and anthropologist H. Ling Roth, both writing in the 19th century, also point to the significant role of epidemics and infertility without clear attribution of the sources of the diseases as having been introduced through contact with Europeans. Bonwick, however, did note that Tasmanian Aboriginal women were infected with venereal diseases by Europeans. Introduced venereal disease not only directly caused deaths but, more insidiously, left a significant percentage of the population unable to reproduce. Josephine Flood, archaeologist, wrote: "Venereal disease sterilised and chest complaints - influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis - killed." [42][43] Bonwick, who lived in Tasmania, recorded a number of reports of the devastating effect of introduced disease including one report by a Doctor Story, a Quaker, who wrote: After 1823 the women along with the tribe seemed to have had no children; but why I do not know.[44] Later historians have reported that introduced venereal disease caused infertility amongst the Aboriginal Tasmanians.[45][46] Bonwick also recorded a strong Aboriginal oral tradition of an epidemic even before formal colonisation in 1803. Mr Robert Clark, in a letter to me, said : I have gleaned from some of the aborigines, now in their graves, that they were more numerous than the white people were aware of, but their numbers were very much thinned by a sudden attack of disease which was general among the entire population previous to the arrival of the English, entire tribes of natives having been swept off in the course of one or two days illness. [3] Such an epidemic may be linked to contact with sailors or sealers.[47] Henry Ling Roth, an anthropologist, wrote: Calder, who has gone more fully into the particulars of their illnesses, writes as follows ...: Their rapid declension after the colony was founded is traceable, as far as our proofs allow us to judge, to the prevalence of epidemic disorders.[48] Roth was referring to James Erskine Calder who took up a post as a surveyor in Tasmania in 1829 and who wrote a number of scholarly papers about the Aboriginal people. "According to Calder, a rapid and remarkable declension of the numbers of the aborigines had been going on long before the remnants were gathered together on Flinders Island. Whole tribes (some of which Robinson mentions by name as being in existence fifteen or twenty years before he went amongst them, and which probably never had a shot fired at them) had absolutely and entirely vanished. To the causes to which he attributes this strange wasting away ... I think infecundity, produced by the infidelity of the women to their husbands in the early times of the colony, may be safely added ... Robinson always enumerates the sexes of the individuals he took; ... and as a general thing, found scarcely any children amongst them; ... adultness was found to outweigh infancy everywhere in a remarkable degree ..."[49] George Augustus Robinson recorded in his journals a number of comments regarding the Aboriginal Tasmanians' susceptibility to diseases, particularly respiratory diseases. In 1832 he revisited the west coast of Tasmania, far from the settled regions, and wrote: "The numbers of aborigines along the western coast have been considerably reduced since the time of my last visit [1830]. A mortality has raged amongst them which together with the severity of the season and other causes had rendered the paucity of their number very considerable." [50] Between 1825 and 1831 a pattern of guerilla warfare by the Aboriginal Tasmanians was identified by the colonists, some of whom acknowledged the Aboriginal people as fighting for their country. Rapid pastoral expansion and an increase in the colony's population triggered Aboriginal resistance from 1824 onwards when it has been estimated by Lyndall Ryan that 1000 Aboriginal people remained in the settled districts. Whereas settlers and stock keepers had previously provided rations to the Aboriginal people during their seasonal movements across the settled districts, and recognised this practice as some form of payment for trespass and loss of traditional hunting grounds, the new

207

Tasmanian Aborigines settlers and stock keepers were unwilling to maintain these arrangements and the Aboriginal people began to raid settlers' huts for food. The official Government position was that Aboriginal people were blameless for any hostilities, but when Musquito was hanged in 1825, a significant debate was generated which split the colonists along class lines. The "higher grade" saw the hanging as a dangerous precedent and argued that Aboriginal people were only defending their land and should not be punished for doing so. The "lower grade" of colonists wanted more Aboriginal people hanged to encourage a "conciliatory line of conduct." Governor Arthur sided with the "lower grade" and 1825 saw the first official acceptance that Aboriginal people were at least partly to blame for conflict. In 1826 the Government gazette, which had formerly reported "retaliatory actions" by Aboriginal people, now reported "acts of atrocity" and for the first time used the terminology "Aborigine" instead of "native". A newspaper reported that there were only two solutions to the problem, either they should be "hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed" or they should be removed from the settled districts. The colonial Government assigned troops to drive them out. A Royal Proclamation in 1828 established military posts on the boundaries and a further proclamation declared martial law against the Aboriginal people. As it was recognised that there were fixed routes for seasonal migration, Aboriginal people were required to have passes if they needed to cross the settled districts with bounties offered for the capture of those without passes, 5 (around 2010:$1,000) for an adult and 2 for children, a process that often led to organised hunts resulting in deaths. Every dispatch from Governor Arthur to the Secretary of State during this period stressed that in every case where Aboriginal people had been killed it was colonists that initiated hostilities.[51] While many aboriginal deaths went unrecorded the Cape Grim massacre in 1828 demonstrates the level of frontier violence towards Aboriginal Tasmanians. The Black War of 1828-32 and the Black Line of 1830 were turning points in the relationship with European settlers. Even though many of the Aboriginal people managed to avoid capture during these events, they were shaken by the size of the campaigns against them, and this brought them to a position whereby they were willing to surrender to Robinson and move to Flinders Island. Tasmanian aboriginals and settlers mentioned in literature 1800-1835.[52]
Tribe Oyster Bay North East North Big River North Midlands Ben Lomond North West Captured Shot Settlers killed 27 12 28 31 23 35 96 67 43 80 43 38 31 59 0 1 362 50 7 15 60 26 20 3 0 2 183

208

South West Coast 47 South East Total 14 313

Resettlement of the indigenous population In late 1831 George Augustus Robinson, a Christian missionary, brought the first 51 Aboriginals to a settlement on Flinders Island named The Lagoons, which turned out to be inadequate as it was exposed to gales, had little water and no land suitable for cultivation.[53] Supplies to the settlement were inadequate and if sealers had not supplied potatoes, the Aboriginal people would have starved. The Europeans were living on oatmeal and potatoes while the Aboriginal people, who detested oatmeal and refused to eat it, survived on potatoes and rice supplemented by mutton birds they caught.[54] Within months 31 Aboriginal people had died.

Tasmanian Aborigines "They were lodged at night in shelters or "breakwinds." These "breakwinds" were thatched roofs sloping to the ground, with an opening at the top to let out the smoke, and closed at the ends, with the exception of a doorway. They were twenty feet long by ten feet wide. In each of these from twenty to thirty blacks were lodged ... To savages accustomed to sleep naked in the open air beneath the rudest shelter, the change to close and heated dwellings tended to make them susceptible, as they had never been in their wild state, to chills from atmospheric changes, and was only too well calculated to induce those severe pulmonary diseases which were destined to prove so fatal to them. The same may be said of the use of clothes ... At the settlement they were compelled to wear clothes, which they threw off when heated or when they found them troublesome, and when wetted by rain allowed them to dry on their bodies. In the case of Tasmanians, as with other wild tribes accustomed to go naked, the use of clothes had a most mis-chievous effect on their health.[34] By January 1832 a further 44 captured Aboriginals had arrived and conflicts arose between the tribal groups. To defuse the situation sergeant Wight took the Big River group to Green island, where they were abandoned and he later decided to move the rest to Green Island as well. Two weeks later Robinson arrived with Lieutenant Darling, the new commander for the station, and moved the Aboriginal people back to The Lagoons. Darling ensured a supply of plentiful food and permitted "hunting excursions." In October 1832, it was decided to build a new camp with better buildings (Wattle and daub) at a more suitable location, Pea Jacket Point. Pea Jacket Point was renamed Civilisation Point but became more commonly known as Wybalenna, which in the Ben Lomond language meant "Blackman's Houses".[34]

209

Benjamin Duterrau, Mr Robinson's first interview with Timmy, 1840

Robinson befriended Truganini, learned some of the local language and in 1833 managed to persuade the remaining 154 "full-blooded" people to move to the new settlement on Flinders Island, where he promised a modern and comfortable environment, and that they would be returned to their former homes on the Tasmanian mainland as soon as possible. At the Wybalenna Aboriginal establishment on Flinders Island, described by historian Henry Reynolds as the "best equipped and most lavishly staffed Aboriginal institution in the Australian colonies in the nineteenth century", they were provided with housing, clothing, rations of food, the services of a doctor and educational facilities. Convicts were assigned to build housing and do most of the work at the settlement including the growing of food in the vegetable gardens.[55] After arrival all Aboriginal children aged between six and 15 years were removed from their families to be brought up by the storekeeper and a lay preacher.[38] The Aboriginal people were free to roam the island and were often absent from the settlement for extended periods on hunting trips as the rations supplied turned out to be inadequate. By 1835 the living conditions had deteriorated to the extent that in October Robinson personally took charge of Wybalenna, organising better food and improving the housing. However, of the 220 who arrived with Robinson, most died in the following 14 years from introduced disease and inadequate shelter. As a result of their loss of freedom, the birth rate was extremely low with few children surviving infancy.

Tasmanian Aborigines

210

In 1839, Governor Franklin appointed a board to inquire into the conditions at Wybalenna that rejected Robinson's claims regarding improved living conditions and found the settlement to be a failure. The report was never released and the government continued to promote Wybalenna as a success in the treatment of Aboriginal people.[56] In March 1847 six Aboriginals at Wybalenna presented a petition to Queen Victoria, the first petition to a reigning monarch from any Aboriginal group in Australia, requesting that the promises made to them be honoured.[57] In October Oyster Cove Mob 1847, the 47 survivors were transferred to their final settlement at Oyster Cove station.[58] Only 44 survived the trip (11 couples, 12 single men and 10 children) and the children were immediately sent to the orphan school in Hobart.[38] Although the housing and food was better than Wybalenna, the station was a former convict station that had been abandoned earlier that year due to health issues as it was located on inadequately drained mudflats. According to the guards, the Aboriginal people developed "too much independence" by trying to continue their culture which they considered "recklessness" and "rank ingratitude." Their numbers continued to diminish, in 1859 their numbers were estimated at around a dozen and by 1869 there was only one, who died in 1876. Commenting in 1899 on Robinson's claims of success, anthropologist Henry Ling Roth wrote: While Robinson and others were doing their best to make them into a civilised people, the poor blacks had given up the struggle, and were solving the difficult problem by dying. The very efforts made for their welfare only served to hasten on their inevitable doom. The white man's civilisation proved scarcely less fatal than the white man's musket.[34] Anthropological interest The Oyster Cove people attracted contemporaneous international scientific interest from the 1860s onwards, with many museums claiming body parts for their collections. Scientists were interested in studying Aboriginal Tasmanians from a physical anthropology perspective, hoping to gain insights into the field of paleoanthropology. For these reasons, they were interested in individual Aboriginal body parts and whole skeletons. Tasmanian Aboriginal skulls were particularly sought internationally for studies into craniofacial anthropometry. In one case, the Royal Society of Tasmania received government permission to exhume the body of Truganini in 1878, within two years of her death, on condition that it was "decently deposited in a secure resting place accessible by special permission to scientific men for scientific purposes." Her skeleton was on display in the Tasmanian Museum until 1947.[59] Another case was the removal of the skull and scrotum for a tobacco pouch of William Lanne, known as King Billy, on his death in 1869. Aboriginal people have considered the dispersal of body parts as being disrespectful, as a common aspect within Aboriginal belief systems is that a soul can only be at rest when laid in its homeland.

Tasmanian Aborigines

211

20th century to present

Body parts and ornaments are still being returned from collections today, with the Royal College of Surgeons of England returning samples of Truganini's skin and hair (in 2002); and the British Museum returning ashes to two descendants in 2007.[60] During the 20th century, the absence of "full blood" Aboriginals and a general unawareness of the surviving populations, mean many non-Aboriginals assumed they were extinct, after the death of Truganini in 1876. Since the mid-1970s Tasmanian Aboriginal activists such as Michael Mansell have sought to broaden awareness and identification of Aboriginal descent. A dispute exists within the Tasmanian Aboriginal community, however, over what constitutes Aboriginality. Since splitting from the Lia Pootah in 1996, the Palawa minority were given the power to decide who is of Tasmanian Aboriginal descent at the state level (entitlement to government Aboriginal services). Palawa recognise only descendants of the Bass Strait Island community as Aboriginal and do not consider as Aboriginal the Lia Pootah, who claim descent, based on oral traditions, from Tasmanian mainland Aboriginal communities. The Lia Pootah feel that the Palawa controlled Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre does not represent them politically.[61][62] Since 2007 there have been initiatives to introduce DNA testing to establish family history in descendant subgroups. This is strongly opposed by the Palawa and has drawn an angry reaction from some quarters, as some have claimed "spiritual connection" with aboriginality distinct from, but not as important as the existence of a genetic link. The Lia Pootah object to the current test used to prove Aboriginality as they believe it favours the Palawa, a DNA test would circumvent barriers to Lia Pootah recognition, or disprove their claims to Aboriginality.[63] In April 2000, the Tasmanian Government Legislative Council Select Committee on Aboriginal Lands discussed the difficulty of determining Aboriginality based on oral traditions. An example given by Prof. Cassandra Pybus was the claim by the Huon and Channel Aboriginal people who had an oral history of descent from two Indigenous women. Research found that both were white convict women. A further problem was the number of non-European settlers. Up to 600 of the convict settlers were Afro-American and it is also known that a percentage of free settlers were not of European descent. An Aboriginal community that survived on Bruny Island is possibly descended from two Africans who took up land grants on the island. The 1818 Hobart census lists 20 Afro-Americans and Lascars and the passenger list of one vessel, the Lady Nelson included ten Indians and Africans who had been given land grants in the Tasmanian interior. The children of these settlers effectively disappeared into the community as they were never identified as "negro" or "coloured" as no distinction was made between them and the European settlers.[64] The Tasmanian Palawa Aboriginal community is making an effort to reconstruct and reintroduce a Tasmanian language, called palawa kani out of the various records on Tasmanian languages. Other Tasmanian aboriginal communities use words from traditional Tasmanian languages, according to the language area they were born or live in.

Tasmanian Aboriginal shell necklace art

Making necklaces from shells is a significant cultural tradition among Tasmanian Aboriginal women.[65] Necklaces were used for adornment, as gifts and tokens of honour, and as trading objects. Dating back at least 2,600 years, necklace-making is one of the few Palawa traditions that has remained intact and has continued without interruption since before European settlement.[66] A number of shell necklaces is held in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.[67]

Tasmanian Aborigines

212

Legislated definition
In June 2005, the Tasmanian Legislative Council introduced an innovated definition of aboriginality into the Aboriginal Lands Act.[68] The bill was passed to allow Aboriginal Lands Council elections to commence, after uncertainty over who was 'aboriginal', and thus eligible to vote. Under the bill, a person can claim "Tasmanian Aboriginality" if they meet the following criteria: Ancestry Self-identification Community recognition

Government compensation for "Stolen Generations"

On 13 August 1997 a Statement of Apology (specific to removal of children) was issued - which was unanimously supported by the Tasmanian Parliament - the wording of the sentence was That this house, on behalf of all Tasmanian(s)... expresses its deep and sincere regret at the hurt and distress caused by past policies under which Aboriginal children were removed from their families and homes; apologises to the Aboriginal people for those past actions and reaffirms its support for reconciliation between all Australians. There are many people currently working in the community, academia, various levels of government and NGOs to strengthen what has been termed as the Tasmanian Aboriginal culture and the conditions of those who identify as members of the descendant community. In November 2006 Tasmania became the first Australian state or territory to offer financial compensation for the Stolen Generations, Aboriginal people forcibly removed from their families by Australian government agencies and church missions between about 1900 and 1972. Up to 40 Aboriginal Tasmanians' descendants are expected to be eligible for compensation from the $5 million package.[69]

Some notable Aboriginal Tasmanians

Trugernanner (Truganini) and Fanny Cochrane Smith, who both claimed to be the last "full blooded" Palawa. William Lanne or "King Billy"

Literature & Entertainment

The play The Golden Age by Louis Nowra The novel English Passengers by Matthew Kneale Historical novel Doctor Wooreddy's Prescription for Enduring the Ending of the World by Mudrooroo The poem Oyster Cove by Gwen Harwood The novel Manganinnie (novel) by Beth Roberts The AFI Award-winning 1980 film Manganinnie, based on Beth Robert's novel.

Tasmanian Aborigines

213

References
[1] From Terror to Genocide: Britains Tasmanian Penal Colony and Australias History Wars (http:/ / www. journals. uchicago. edu/ doi/ pdf/ 10. 1086/ 522350) [2] Rhys Jones:3,000-5,000, N. J. B. Plomley: 4,0006,000, Henry Reynolds: 5,0007,000, Colin Pardoe: 12,000+ and David Davies: 15,000. [3] Bonwick, James: Daily Life and Origins of the Tasmanians, Sampson, Low, Son and Marston, London, 1870, p84-85 [4] Bonwick, James: The Last of the Tasmanians, Sampson Low, Son & Marston, London, 1870, p388 [5] Flood, Josephine: The Original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal People, Allen & Unwin, 2006, pp 66-67 [6] Windschuttle, Keith, The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847, Macleay Press, 2002, pp 372-375 [7] Geoffrey Blainey, A Land Half Won, Macmillan, South Melbourne, Vic., 1980, p75 [8] Colin Tatz, With Intent To Destroy [9] 'Van Diemen's Land' James Boyce 2009 p.297 [10] For discussion of the Truganini claim, and the other candidates, Suke and Fanny Cochrane Smith, see Rebe Taylor, Unearthed: the Aboriginal Tasmanians of Kangaroo Island,Wakefield Press, 2004 pp.140ff. [11] Lyndall Ryan, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, Allen & Unwin, 1996 p.220, denies Truganini was the last 'full-blood', and makes a case for Suke (d.circa 1888) [12] Pardoe, Colin (1991). "Isolation and Evolution in Tasmania". Current Anthropology 32 (1): 127. doi:10.1086/203909. [13] Archaeology News March 2010 (http:/ / www. archaeology. ws/ 2010-3-16. htm) [14] Jared Diamond. Guns, Germs, and Steel (1999 ed.). Norton. pp.492. ISBN0393061310. [15] "Aboriginal Occupation" (http:/ / www. abs. gov. au/ Ausstats/ abs@. nsf/ dc057c1016e548b4ca256c470025ff88/ F6FA372655DCC15FCA256C3200241893?opendocument). ABS. 26 March 2008. . Retrieved 26 March 2008. [16] Lyndall Ryan, pp10-11, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, Second Edition, Allen & Unwin, 1996, ISBN 1863739653 [17] Rebe Taylor http:/ / epress. anu. edu. au/ aborig_history/ ah32/ pdf/ ch01. pdf The polemics of making fire in Tasmania: the historical evidence revisited, Aboriginal History Journal vol 32 2008 [18] Cotton, Edward Octavius. 1887. Notes on the Tasmanian Aborigines (http:/ / eprints. utas. edu. au/ 1887/ ). [19] Manne, Robert (2003). Whitewash. 317-318: Schwartz Publishing. ISBN0 9750769 0 6. [20] Tasmania 2005: Aboriginal occupation (http:/ / www. abs. gov. au/ ausstats/ abs@. nsf/ 0/ F6FA372655DCC15FCA256C3200241893?opendocument) Australian Bureau of Statistics 13 September 2002 [21] Lyndall Ryan, pp13-44, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, Second Edition, Allen & Unwin, 1996, ISBN 1863739653 [22] Cornwall Coal: Cullenswood 2 Environmental Effects Report pdf (http:/ / www. epa. tas. gov. au/ file. aspx?id=24243) [23] Burnie: A Thematic History pdf (http:/ / www. burnie. net/ files/ Volume_1_44480_-_Thematic_History. pdf) Burnie City Council [24] Ben Lomond National Park (http:/ / www. parks. tas. gov. au/ index. aspx?base=4563) Parks and Wildlife Service [25] Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Survey Jan 2001 pdf (http:/ / www. southwoodresources. com. au/ southwood/ pdf/ planning/ APPKABOR. PDF) [26] Tasmania Regional Guide Series. Lonely Planet 2008 pg 136-137 ISBN 1741046912 [27] Flood, Josephine: The Original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal People, Allen & Unwin, 2006, pp 58-60 [28] Bonwick, James: The Last of the Tasmanians, Sampson Low, Son & Marston, London, 1870, pp 3-8 [29] Flood, Josephine: The Original Australians, pp58-60, p 76 [30] Differing opinions have been given on Walyers involvement with the sealers. McFarlane writes that she voluntarily joined the sealers with members of her family, and was responsible for attacking Aboriginal people and white settlers alike (McFarlane, 2008: 119). However, Ryan comes to a different conclusion, that Walyer had been abducted at Port Sorell by Aboriginal people and traded to the sealers for dogs and flour (Ryan, 1996: 141). [31] Kay Merry The Cross-Cultural Relationships Between the Sealers and the Tasmanian Aboriginal Women at Bass Strait and Kangaroo Island in the Early Nineteenth Century pdf (http:/ / ehlt. flinders. edu. au/ projects/ counterpoints/ Proc_2003/ A8. pdf), Flinders University Department of History 2003 [32] Bonwick, James: The Last of the Tasmanians, pp 295-297 [33] Bonwick, James: The Last of the Tasmanians, pp 295-301 [34] Henry Ling Roth The Aborigines of Tasmania (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ aboriginestasma00tylogoog/ aboriginestasma00tylogoog_djvu. txt) 1899 [35] Flood, Josephine: The Original Australians, p 76 [36] Smith, Bernard (1971). Australian Painting, 1788-1970. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. p.57. ISBN0195503724. [37] Ryan, Lyndall, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, Second Edition, Allen & Unwin, 1996, ISBN 1863739653, Appendix p 313 [38] Bringing them Home - The Report (http:/ / www. gwb. com. au/ gwb/ news/ sorry/ stolen12. html) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [39] Flood, Josephine. The Original Australians, p 77 [40] Ryan, Lyndall, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, Second Edition, Allen & Unwin, 1996, ISBN 1863739653, p 176 [41] Boyce, James: Van Diemens Land, Black Inc, 2008, ISBN 9781863954136, p65 [42] Flood, Josephine: The Original Australians, p 77, p 90, 128 [43] Windschuttle, Keith, The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, Volume One: Van Diemen's Land 1803-1847, Macleay Press, 2002, pp 372-376

Tasmanian Aborigines
[44] Bonwick, Last of the Tasmanians, p388 [45] Flood, Josephine, The Original Australians, p 90 [46] Windschuttle, Keith, The Fabrication of Aboriginal History, pp 375-376 [47] Flood, Josephine: The Original Australians, pp 66-67 [48] Roth, Henry Ling, The Aborigines of Tasmania, Second Edition, Halifax (England): F. King & Sons, Printers and Publishers, Broad Street, 1899, p 18 [49] Roth, Henry Ling, The Aborigines of Tasmania, 1899, pp 172-173 [50] Plomley, N. J. B. (ed), Friendly Mission, Tasmanian Historical Research Association, Hobart, 1966, at p 695, Robinson writing to Edward Curr, 22 Sept 1832 [51] John J. Cove What the bones say: Tasmanian aborigines, science, and domination McGill-Queen's University Press 1995 Pg 25-29 ISBN 0886292476 [52] Ryan L. 1996, The Aboriginal Tasmanians pg 313-314 . Europeans killed and Aborigines captured can be considered correct. The figures for tribal people shot is likely to be a substantial undercount. [53] The Lagoons was located on a narrow sandbank, covered with ferns and scrub. It was bounded on one side by the sea, and on the other side by a saltwater lagoon bordered with thick tea-tree which cut off access to the main island. [54] Roth The Aborigines of Tasmania 1899 pg 3 [55] Flood, Josephine, The Original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal People, Allen & Unwin, 2006, p88, citing Reynolds [56] Peter Howson Pointing the Bone. Reflections on the Passing of ATSIC pdf (http:/ / www. aph. gov. au/ senate/ committee/ indigenousaffairs_ctte/ submissions/ sub235att1. pdf) Quadrant magazine June 2004 [57] Since the 1980s this petition has been the focus of a major argument in the legal battle regarding the promises that Robinson and Governor Arthur made to the Tasmanian Aborigines. [58] Bonwick, James: The Last of the Tasmanians, p 270-295 [59] Trugernanner (Truganini) (1812? - 1876) (http:/ / adbonline. anu. edu. au/ biogs/ A060326b. htm), Australian Dictionary of Biography [60] "Bodies of Knowledge". The Museum. 17 May 2007. No. 2, season 1. [61] "Who makes up the Tasmanian Aboriginal community?" (http:/ / www. tasmanianaboriginal. com. au). Lia Pootah Community. 26 March 2008. . Retrieved 26 March 2008. [62] Interview with Kaye McPherson (Lia Pootah elder) (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ 4corners/ stories/ s658453. htm) Four Corners Australian Broadcasting Corporation 26 August 2002 [63] Matthew Denholm, "A bone to pick with the Brits" (http:/ / www. theaustralian. news. com. au/ story/ 0,25197,21238214-28737,00. html), The Australian, 17 February 2007. [64] Legislative Council Select Committee on Aboriginal Lands (http:/ / www. parliament. tas. gov. au/ ctee/ Witnesses/ PYBUS. htm) 10 April 2002 [65] Tasmanian Aboriginal shell necklaces (http:/ / www. nma. gov. au/ collections/ dulcie_greeno_necklaces), National Museum of Australia [66] Shell necklace with opalescent green maireener and black cat's teeth feature shells, by Dulcie Greeno (http:/ / www. nma. gov. au/ collections-search/ display?irn=60245), National Museum of Australia [67] Dulcie Greeno collection no. 1 (http:/ / www. nma. gov. au/ collections-search/ results?search=adv& ref=coll& collname=Dulcie+ Greeno+ collection+ no. + 1), National Museum of Australia [68] Tasmanian Legislation - Aboriginal Lands Act 1995 (http:/ / www. thelaw. tas. gov. au/ tocview/ index. w3p;cond=;doc_id=98+ + 1995+ GS1/ EN+ 20080112000000;histon=;prompt=;rec=0;term=) [69] STOLEN GENERATIONS PUBLIC RELEASE, Premier Paul Lennon http:/ / www. premier. tas. gov. au/ speeches/ stolen. html

214

External links
Foster, S.G. Contra Windschuttle, Quadrant, March 2003, 47:3 (http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/ article_view.php?article_id=252) Records Relating to Tasmanian Aboriginal People (http://www.archives.tas.gov.au/guides-to-holdings/ guide018.htm) from the Archives Office of Tasmania (http://www.archives.tas.gov.au/default.asp) "Brief Guide No. 18" Statistics - Tasmania - occupation (http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/ f6fa372655dcc15fca256c3200241893?OpenDocument) (from the Australian Bureau of Statistics) The Lia Pootah People Home Page (http://www.tasmanianaboriginal.com.au/liapootah/index.htm) Historian dismisses Tasmanian aboriginal genocide "myth" (http://www.abc.net.au/pm/stories/s746130.htm) (contains edited transcript of 2002 ABC radio interviews by Peter McCutcheon with historian and author Keith Windschuttle and historian and author Henry Reynolds) "Native Fiction" (http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/21/apr03/blainey.htm) a sympathetic New Criterion review of Keith Windschuttle's book casting doubt on a supposed Tasmanian genocide.

Tasmanian Aborigines Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation (http://www.antar.org.au/) (ANTaR) (http://www.reconciliationaustralia.org/) Reconciliation Australia 1984 Review (http://wwwmcc.murdoch.edu.au/ReadingRoom/film/Tasmanian.html) of Tom Haydon's documentary "The Last Tasmanian" (1978) "Tension in Tasmania over who is an Aborigine" (http://smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/16/1034561211169. html) Article from The Sydney Morning Herald newspaper by Richard Flanagan A history (http://www.hreoc.gov.au/bth/text_versions/map/history/tas.html) from the Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. Transcript of current affairs television program (http://sunday.ninemsn.com.au/sunday/includes/fetchcontent. asp?purl=/sunday/cover_stories/transcript_1286.asp) Sunday with Keith Windschuttle, Prof. Henry Reynolds, Prof. Cassandra Pybus, Prof. Lyndall Ryan, and others National Museum of Australia (http://www.nma.gov.au/collections-search/display?irn=60245)

215

216

Unexplained Archaeology
Pumapunku
Pumapunku also called "Puma Pumku" or "Puma Puncu", is part of a large temple complex or monument group that is part of the Tiwanaku Site near Tiwanaku, Bolivia. In Aymara, its name means, "The Door of the Cougar". The Pumapunku complex consists of an unwalled western court, a central unwalled esplanade, a terraced platform mound that is faced with megalithic stone, and a walled eastern court.[1][2][3] The Pumapunku is a terraced earthen mound that is faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m long along its east-west axis. On the northeast and southeast corners of the An example of high-precision small holes (for viewing Pumapunku it has 20-meter wide projections that extend the image to enlarge). 27.6meters north and south from the rectangular mound. The eastern edge of the Pumapunku is occupied by what is called the "Plataforma Ltica." The Plataforma Ltica consists of a stone terrace that is 6.75 by 38.72meters in dimension. This terrace is paved with multiple enormous stone blocks. The Plataforma Ltica contains the largest stone slab found in both the Pumapunku and Tiwanaku Site. This stone slab is 7.81meters long, 5.17meters wide and averages 1.07meters thick. Based upon the specific gravity of the red sandstone from which it was carved, this stone slab has been estimated to weigh 131 metric tons.[4] The other stonework and facing of the Pumapunku consists of a mixture of andesite and red sandstone. The core of the Pumapunku consists of Stone block with a blind holes of complex shape. clay. The fill underlying selected parts of the edge of the Pumapunku consists of river sand and cobbles instead of clay. Excavations at the Pumapunku have documented three major building epochs, in addition to small repairs and remodeling.[1][2][3][4][5] At its peak, Pumapunku is thought to have been "unimaginably wondrous"[2], adorned with polished metal plaques, brightly colored ceramic and fabric ornamentation, trafficked by costumed citizens, elaborately dressed priests and elites decked in exotic jewelry. Current understanding of this complex is limited due to its age, the lack of a written record, the current deteriorated state of the structures due to treasure hunting, looting, stone mining for building stone and railroad ballast, and natural weathering.[1][2][4] The area within the kilometer separating the Pumapunku and Kalasasaya complexes has been surveyed using ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, induced electrical conductivity, and magnetic susceptibility. The geophysical data collected from these surveys and excavations have revealed in the area between the Pumapunku and Kalasasaya complexes the presence of numerous man-made structures. These structures include the wall foundations of buildings and compounds, water conduits, pool-like features, revetments, terraces, residential compounds, and widespread gravel pavements all of which now lie buried and hidden beneath the modern grounds surface.[6][7]

Pumapunku

217

Age
Determining the age of the Pumapunku complex has been a focus of researchers since the discovery of the Tiwanaku site. As noted by Andean specialist, Binghamton University Anthropology professor W. H. Isbell,[1] a radiocarbon date was obtained by Vranich[2] from lowermost and oldest layer of mound fill forming the Pumapunku. This layer was deposited during the first of three construction epochs and dates the initial construction of the Pumapunku at 1510 25 B.P. C14 (AD 440; calibrated, AD 536600). Since the radiocarbon date came from the lowermost and oldest layer of mound fill underlying the andesite and sandstone stonework, the stonework must have been constructed sometime after 1510 25 B.P. C14. The excavation trenches of Vranich show that the clay, sand, and gravel fill of the Pumapunku complex lies directly on the sterile middle Pleistocene sediments. These excavation trenches also demonstrated the lack of any pre-Andean Middle Horizon cultural deposits within the area of the Tiwanaku Site adjacent to the Pumapunku complex.[2]

Engineering
The largest of these stone blocks is 7.81meters long, 5.17meters wide, averages 1.07meters thick, and is estimated to weigh about 131metric tons. The second largest stone block found within the Pumapunka is 7.90meters long, 2.50meters wide, and averages 1.86meters thick. Its weight has been estimated to be 85.21metric tons. Both of these stone blocks are part of the Plataforma Ltica and composed of red sandstone.[4] Based upon detailed petrographic and chemical analyses of samples from both individual stones and known quarry sites, archaeologists concluded that these and other red sandstone blocks were transported up a steep incline from a quarry near Lake Titicaca roughly 10km away. Smaller andesite blocks that were used for stone facing and carvings came from quarries within the Copacabana Peninsula about 90km away from and across Lake Titicaca from the Pumapunka and the rest of the Tiwanaku Site.[2][4] Archaeologists argue that the transport of these stones was accomplished by the large labor force of ancient Tiwanaku. Several theories have been proposed as to how this labor force transported the stones although these theories remain speculative. Two of the more common proposals involve the use of llama skin ropes and the use of ramps and inclined planes.[8]
Detail of stone with precisely cut straight line and tooled holes within the line

In assembling the walls of Pumapunku, each stone was finely cut to interlock with the surrounding stones and the blocks fit together like a puzzle, forming load-bearing joints without the use of mortar. One common engineering technique involves cutting the top of the lower stone at a certain angle, and placing another stone on top of it which was cut at the same angle.[3] The precision with which these angles have been utilized to create flush joints is indicative of a highly sophisticated knowledge of stone-cutting and a thorough understanding of descriptive geometry.[5] Many of the joints are so precise that not even a razor blade will fit between the stones.[9] Much of the masonry is characterized by accurately cut rectilinear blocks of such uniformity that they could be interchanged for one another while maintaining a level surface and even joints. The blocks were so precisely cut as to suggest the possibility of prefabrication and mass production, technologies far in advance of the Tiwanakus Incan successors hundreds of years later.[8] Tiwanaku engineers were also adept at developing a civic infrastructure at this complex, constructing functional irrigation systems, hydraulic mechanisms, and waterproof sewage lines.

Pumapunku

218

Architecture
To sustain the weight of these massive structures, Tiwanaku architects were meticulous in creating foundations, often fitting stones directly to bedrock or digging precise trenches and carefully filling them with layered sedimentary stones to support large stone blocks.[8] Modern day engineers argue that the base of the Pumapunku temple was constructed using a technique called layering and depositing. By alternating layers of sand from the interior and layers of composite from the exterior, the fills would overlap each other at the joints, essentially grading the contact points to create a sturdy base.[3][8]

Demonstration of the building block technique

Notable features at Pumapunku are I-shaped architectural cramps, which are composed of a unique copper-arsenic-nickel bronze alloy. These I-shaped cramps were also used on a section of canal found at the base of the Akapana pyramid at Tiwanaku. These cramps were used to hold the blocks comprising the walls and bottom of stone-lined canals that drain sunken courts. I-cramps of Demonstration of the building block technique unknown composition were used to hold together the massive slabs that formed Pumapunku's four large platforms. In the south canal of the Pumapunku, the I-shaped cramps were cast in place. In sharp contrast, the cramps used at the Akapana canal were fashioned by the cold hammering of copper-arsenic-nickel bronze ingots.[8][10] The unique copper-arsenic-nickel bronze alloy is also found in metal artifacts within the region between Tiwanaku and San Pedro de Atacama during the late Middle Horizon around 600900.[11]

Cultural and spiritual significance

It is theorized the Pumapunku complex as well as its surrounding temples, the Akapana pyramid, Kalasasaya, Putuni and Kerikala functioned as spiritual and ritual centers for the Tiwanaku. This area might have been viewed as the center of the Andean world, attracting pilgrims from far away to marvel in its beauty. These structures transformed the local landscape; Pumapunku was purposely integrated with Illimani mountain, a sacred peak that the Tiwanaku possibly believed to be home to the spirits of their dead. This area was believed to have existed between heaven and Earth. The spiritual significance and the sense of wonder would have been amplified into a "mind-altering and life-changing experience"[12] through the use of hallucinogenic plants. Examinations of hair samples exhibit remnants of psychoactive substances in many mummies found in Tiwanaku culture mummies from Northern Chile, even those of babies as young as 1 year of age, demonstrating the importance of these substances to the Tiwanaku.[13] As was characteristic of civilizations around this time, the Tiwanaku actively incorporated human sacrifice into their culture. The remains of dismembered bodies have been found throughout the area. Ceramic artifacts depict imagery of warriors, masked with puma skulls, decapitating their enemies and holding trophy skulls, adorned with belts of human heads with their tongues torn out.[12]

Pumapunku

219

Peak and decline

The Tiwanaku civilization and the use of these temples appears to some to have peaked from 700 to 1000 AD. by which point the temples and surrounding area may have been home to some 400,000 people. By this point, an extensive infrastructure had been developed with a complex irrigation system running over 30 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km2) to support potatoes, quinoa, corn and other various crops. At its peak the Tiwanaku culture dominated the entire Lake Titicaca basin as well as portions of Bolivia and Chile. The culture in question seems to have dissolved rather abruptly some time around 1000AD and researchers are still seeking answers as to why. A likely scenario involves rapid environmental change , possibly involving an extended drought. Unable to support the massive crop yields necessary for their large population, the Tiwanaku are argued to have scattered into the local mountain ranges only to disappear shortly thereafter.

References
[1] Isbell, William H. (2004), "Palaces and Politics in the Andean Middle Horizon" (http:/ / www. doaks. org/ publications/ doaks_online_publications/ isbn_0-88402-300-1. pdf), in Evans, Susan Toby; Pillsbury, Joanne, Palaces of the Ancient New World, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, pp.191246, ISBN0-88402-300-1, , retrieved 2010-04-26 [2] Vranich, A., 1999, Interpreting the Meaning of Ritual Spaces: The Temple Complex of Pumapunku, Tiwanaku, Bolivia. (http:/ / repository. upenn. edu/ dissertations/ AAI9926211/ ) Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Pennsylvania. [3] Vranich, A., 2006, The Construction and Reconstruction of Ritual Space at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: A.D. 500-1000. Journal of Field Archaeology 31(2): 121136. [4] Ponce Sangins, C. and G. M. Terrazas, 1970, Acerca De La Procedencia Del Material Ltico De Los Monumentos De Tiwanaku. Publication no. 21. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia [5] Protzen, J.-P., and S.E.. Nair, 2000, On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture: The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 358-371. [6] Ernenweini, E. G., and M. L. Konns, 2007, Subsurface Imaging in Tiwanakus Monumental Core. Technology and Archaeology Workshop. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C. [7] Williams, P. R., N. C. Couture and D. Blom, 2007 Urban Structure at Tiwanaku: Geophysical Investigations in the Andean Altiplano. In J. Wiseman and F. El-Baz, eds., pp. 423-441. Remote Sensing in Archaeology. Springer , New York. [8] Protzen, Jean-Pierre; Stella Nair, 1997, Who Taught the Inca Stonemasons Their Skills? A Comparison of Tiahuanaco and Inca Cut-Stone Masonry: The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 146-167 [9] Robinson, Eugene (1990). In Bolivia, Great Excavations; Tiwanaku Digs Unearthing New History of the New World, The Washington Post. Dec 11, 1990: d.01. [10] Lechtman, H.N., 1998, Architectural cramps at Tiwanaku: copper-arsenic-nickel bronze. In Metallurgica Andina: In Honour of Hans-Gert Bachmann and Robert Maddin, Deutsches, edited by T. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J. D. Muhly, pp. 77-92. Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, Germany. [11] Lechtman, H.N., 1997, El bronce arsenical y el Horizonte Medio. En Arqueologa, antropologa e historia en los Andes. in Homenaje a Mara Rostworowski, edited by R. Varn and J. Flores, pp. 153-186. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima. [12] Morell, Virginia (2002). Empires Across the Andes National Geographic. Vol. 201, Iss. 6: 106 [13] Choi, Charles Q. Drugs Found in Hair of Ancient Andean Mummies (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2008/ 10/ 081022-drug-mummies. html) National Geographic News. Oct. 22, 2008. Accessed Nov. 4, 2011.

External links
Interactive Archaeological Investigation at Pumapunku Temple (http://www.archaeology.org/interactive/ tiwanaku/project/pumapunku1.html)

Bosnian pyramids

220

Bosnian pyramids
The term Bosnian pyramids has been used for a cluster of natural geological formations sometimes known as flatirons[1] near the Bosnian town of Visoko, northwest of Sarajevo. The hill named Visoica became the focus of international attention in October 2005 following a news-media campaign promoting the idea that they are human-made and the largest ancient pyramids on Earth. Scientific investigations of the site show that the so-called pyramids are natural formations and that there are no signs of human building involved.[2][3][4] Additionally, scientists have criticised the Bosnian authorities for supporting the pyramid claim saying, "This scheme is a cruel hoax on an unsuspecting public and has no place in the world of genuine science."[5]

Visoica overlooking Visoko, photo taken in 1973

The 213-metre (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) Visoica hill, upon which the Old town of Visoki was once sited, is roughly pyramid-shaped. The idea that it constitutes an ancient artificial edifice was publicised by Bosnian author and metalworker Semir Osmanagi. His subsequent excavations at the site have uncovered what he claims to be a paved Visoica overlooking Visoko in 2007 entrance plateau and tunnels, as well as stone blocks and ancient mortar which he has suggested once covered the structure. Osmanagi has claimed that the dig involved an international team of archaeologists from Australia, Austria, Ireland, Scotland and Slovenia.[6] However, many archaeologists he named have stated they had not agreed to participate and were never at the site.[7] The dig began in April 2006, and has involved reshaping the hill to make it look like a Mayan step pyramid.[1]

Interpretation
Osmanagi's interpretation
Osmanagi has named the Visoica hill the "Pyramid of the Sun", and two nearby hills, identified from satellite and aerial photography, the "Pyramid of the Moon" (Pljeevica hill) and the "Pyramid of the (Bosnian) Dragon" (another two, "Pyramid of the Earth" and "Pyramid of Love" have been mentioned in reports). Newspaper reports have quoted Osmanagi as claiming that they were constructed by ancient Illyrian inhabitants of the Balkans as early as 12,000

Bosnian pyramids BC. But in an interview with Philip Coppens in Nexus (AprilMay 2006), Osmanagi attempted to clarify his previous statements, stating he was misquoted: he does claim that they were most likely constructed by the Illyrians, who he claims lived in the area from 12,000 BC to 500 BC, and that the pyramid was therefore most likely constructed between those two dates not in 12,000 BC. Osmanagi claims the excavation has produced evidence of building blocks as well as tunnels. Additionally Osmanagi claims to have found tunnels in the hillside which he interprets as ventilation shafts. Osmanagi believes his discoveries around Visoko will have further implications for world prehistory. By comparing the varying heights of the tallest pyramids in Mexico and Egypt with Visoica hill, he concluded that the pyramids were all built by the same people, with the Bosnian Pyramid being the last to be built. However, upon further thought he has decided that this dating mechanism may not be reliable and has now announced Visoica hill could be "The mother of all Pyramids", a claim he says would be corroborated by the existence of sacred geometry and further numerological study of messages left in the pyramid for future generations.[8] Osmanagi estimates that the Sun pyramid stands 722 feet (220m) high (or, depending upon the report, either 230 feet (70m) high or 328 feet (100m) high). If it is 722 feet, it would be one third taller than the Great Pyramid of Giza, making it the largest pyramidal structure on Earth. The current target of the project is to complete excavation by 2012.[9] This is in order to "break a cloud of negative energy, allowing the Earth to receive cosmic energy from the centre of the galaxy" according to Osmanagi,[9] who also hopes that it will be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site.[10] In October 2011 a Sarajevo court ended a four year court case by giving permission for further investigation of Visoica hill.[11]

221

Scientific explanations
Osmanagi's claims, widely reported in the mass media, have been challenged by a number of experts, who have accused him of promoting pseudo-scientific notions and damaging archaeological sites with his excavations. Amar Karapus, a curator at the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo, said "When I first read about the pyramids I thought it was a very funny joke. I just couldn't believe that anyone in the world could believe this."[1] Penn State University Professor Garrett Fagan is quoted as saying "They should not be allowed to destroy genuine sites in the pursuit of these delusions[...] Its as if someone were given permission to bulldoze Stonehenge to find secret chambers of lost ancient wisdom underneath."[12] Boston University's Curtis Runnels, an expert in prehistoric Greece and the Balkans states that, "Between 27,000 and 12,000 years ago, the Balkans were locked in the last Glacial maximum, a period of very cold and dry climate with glaciers in some of the mountain ranges. The only occupants were Upper Paleolithic hunters and gatherers who left behind open-air camp sites and traces of occupation in caves. These remains consist of simple stone tools, hearths, and remains of animals and plants that were consumed for food. These people did not have the tools or skills to engage in the construction of monumental architecture."[13] Enver Imamovi of the University of Sarajevo, a former director of the National Museum of Sarajevo, concerned that the excavations will damage historic sites such as the medieval royal capital Visoki, said that the excavations would "irreversibly destroy a national treasure".[14] Excavations by archaeologists not related to the Foundation in the summer of 2008 uncovered medieval artefacts and led to renewed calls for the government to cancel Osmanagi's digging permits.[15] In a letter to the editor of The Times on 25 April 2006, Professor Anthony Harding, president of the European Association of Archaeologists, referred to Osmanagi's theories as "wacky" and "absurd" and expressed concern that insufficient safeguards were in place to protect Bosnia's "rich heritage" from "looting and unmonitored or unauthorised development".[16] After visiting the site himself, Harding reported, "we saw areas of natural stone (a breccia), with fissures and cracks; but no sign of anything that looked like archaeology."[3]

Bosnian pyramids

222

On 8 May 2006, members of the Geological team investigating Visoica on behalf of the Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation held a press conference in Tuzla to present the results of their research. The academics, from the Faculty of Mining and Geology at the University of Tuzla and led by Professor Dr. Sejfudin Vrabac, concluded that the hill is a natural geological formation, made of clastic sediments of layered composition and varying thickness, and that its shape is a consequence of endodynamical and exodynamical processes in the post-Miocene era.[17][18]

Comparison of approximate profiles of some notable pyramidal or near-pyramidal buildings. Where the base is an oblong, the longer side is shown. Dotted lines indicate original heights, where data is available.

According to Professor Vrabac, who specializes in paleogeology, there are dozens of similar morphological formations in the Sarajevo-Zenica mining basin alone. The Geological team report on Visocica, based on the data collected in six drill holes at 3 to 17 metre depths, is supported by the Research and Teaching Council of the Faculty of Mining and Geology, as well as the Association of Geologists of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[18] In June 2006, Zahi Hawass's name became linked to the excavations[19] as recommending a supposed expert, Ali Abdullah Barakat, to investigate the hills. Upon being contacted Hawass denied any involvement, accusing Osmanagi of "giving out false information", and clarifying that Barakat "knows nothing about Egyptian pyramids".[20] The Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation has said that Barakat inspected the hills and stated, "My opinion is that this is a type of pyramid, probably a primitive pyramid."[7][21] In November 2007 an English version of a 2006 report by Barakat was posted on the foundation site.[22] Osmanagi also invited geologist and alternative archaeologist Robert Schoch to visit the site. In a preliminary report he concluded that there were natural geological explanations for all the features claimed to be artificial by Osmanagi. In the case of the tunnels he further added:"The much-touted ancient inscriptions seem not to be ancient at all. I was told by a reliable source that the inscriptions were not there when members of the pyramid team initially entered the tunnels less than two years ago. The ancient inscriptions had been added since, perhaps non-maliciously, or perhaps as a downright hoax.[23] Schoch's website documents "extreme damage being done by the way the excavations are being performed," and accuses Osmanagi of launching "a deliberate smear campaign."[24] In 2007 a report by Egyptologist Nabil Mohamed Abdel Swelim was publicised by the Archaeological Park which said that the Pyramid of the Sun was the world's largest pyramid.[25] After two visits to Visoko he released a report in 2007 in which he concluded: Arguments in favour or in disfavour have no effect on the fact that the pyramid concept and the properties are there for everyone to see. [26] However, in 2010 he released a report in which he clarified that he does not claim it is a man-made pyramid, but rather that he uses the term for any feature, natural or artificial, which is a geometric pyramid. He does not exclude the possibility it is man-made.[27]

Bosnian pyramids

223

References
[1] Colin Woodard, December 2009, "The Pyramid Man", Smithsonian 40:9 [2] Pyramid No More (http:/ / subrosa. dailygrail. com/ download. html), Sub Rosa, Issue 6, Oct 2006. [3] The great Bosnian pyramid scheme (http:/ / www. britarch. ac. uk/ ba/ ba92/ feat3. shtml) by Anthony Harding, British Archaeology November/December 2006 [4] John Bohannon, Mad About Pyramids (http:/ / www. johnbohannon. org/ NewFiles/ bosnia. pdf), Science Magazine, 22 September 2006. [5] Declaration from the European Association of Archaeologists (http:/ / www. e-a-a. org/ statement. pdf), 11 Dec 2006 [6] Australian in Bosnia pyramid riddle (http:/ / smh. com. au/ news/ World/ Australian-in-Bosnia-pyramid-riddle/ 2006/ 01/ 20/ 1137553735882. html), Sydney Morning Herald, 20 January 2006 [7] Mark Rose, Bosnian "Pyramids" Update (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ online/ features/ osmanagic/ update. html), Archaeology Magazine Online, 14 June 2006 [8] Osmanagic: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Candidate for Mother of all Pyramids (http:/ / www. fena. ba/ uk/ vijest. html?fena_id=FSA381913& rubrika=ES), FENA News (http:/ / www. fena. ba/ uk/ index. html), 20 April 2005 [9] Osmanagi, Semir (July 2006). "Energijsko sredie sveta? [The energy center of the world]" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5gcTyTjsY) (in Slovenian). Misteriji. pp.5. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cleopatris. net/ misteriji/ leto_2006/ jul06/ 2k6_07_jul_energijsko_sredisce_sveta/ index. htm) on 2009-05-08. . Retrieved 2009-11-20. "Mi razbijamo negativni energijski oblak. To mora biti narejeno pred letom 2012, da bi lahko sprejeli zgodovinski vpliv vesoljne energije iz koz- minega centra nae galaksi- je." [10] 5-year Plan of Research on Visokos Visocica 1 Jan 2006 31 Dec 2010 (http:/ / www. piramidasunca. ba/ eng/ podmeni/ programistrazivanja/ program. htm), Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation (http:/ / www. piramidasunca. ba/ ). Accessed 13 July 2006. [11] Major victory in bid to uncover potential remains of a lost civilisation (http:/ / www. balkans. com/ open-news. php?uniquenumber=132956), Balkans Business News (http:/ / www. balkans. com), 19 January 2012 [12] Nick Hawton, Indiana Jones of the Balkans and the mystery of a hidden pyramid (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,13509-2135223,00. html), Times Online, 15 April 2006 [13] Rose, Mark. " The Bosnia-Atlantis Connection (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ online/ features/ osmanagic/ index. html)". Archaeology Magazine Online. URL accessed 2006-04-29. [14] Lucian Harris, Amateur to dig on site of medieval capital in search of Bosnia's own Valley of the Kings (http:/ / www. theartnewspaper. com/ article01. asp?id=237), The Art Newspaper, 15 April 2006 [15] Archaeologists find medieval artefacts on Mt. Visocica, disparage pyramid seeker (http:/ / www. setimes. com/ cocoon/ setimes/ xhtml/ en_GB/ features/ setimes/ features/ 2008/ 09/ 18/ feature-02) [16] Anthony Harding, Bosnia's rich heritage (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,59-2150036,00. html), Times Online, 25 April 2006 [17] "Vrabac: Visoica je prirodna geoloka tvorevina" (http:/ / www. sarajevo-x. com/ bih/ politika/ clanak/ 060508041) (in Bosnian). FEMA News Agency. 2006-05-08. . [18] Sejfudin Vrabac et al. (2006-04-17). "Izvjetaj o geolokim istraivanjima Visoice kod Visokog" (http:/ / irna. lautre. net/ IMG/ pdf/ Output. pdf) (in Bosnian). Mining, Geology and Civil Engineering Faculty of University of Tuzla. . [19] Bosnian 'pyramid' created by nature, say European experts (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ afp/ 20060609/ sc_afp/ bosniaarchaeology_060609194121;_ylt=AnAo9ZP6_dA_5zN0kLWRagDPOrgF;_ylu=X3oDMTA5aHJvMDdwBHNlYwN5bmNhdA--), Yahoo! AFP, June 9, 2006. [20] Letter to Archaeology Magazine (PDF) (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ online/ features/ osmanagic/ zahi_hawass. pdf) [21] Aida Cerkez-Robinson British Expert Nixes Bosnia Pyramid Claim (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Technology/ wireStory?id=2059759), ABC News [22] At last, Dr. Barakats report (http:/ / irna. lautre. net/ At-last-Dr-Barakat-s-report. html), 8 May 2006 [23] The Bosnian Pyramid Phenomenon (http:/ / www. robertschoch. net/ Bosnian Geology Robert Schoch Pyramids Colette Dowell. htm), The New Archaeology Review vol 1.8, pp 16-17, September 2006 [24] by Dr. Schoch & Dr. Dowell (http:/ / www. robertschoch. net/ Circular Times Table of Contents. htm''Articles) [25] "Dr. Swelim: Bosnian Pyramid Of The Sun Is The WorldS Largest" (http:/ / www. piramidasunca. ba/ en/ index. php/ DR. -SWELIM-BOSNIAN-PYRAMID-OF-THE-SUN-IS-THE-WORLDS-LARGEST. html). July 2007. . Retrieved 19 March 2011. [26] Swelim, Nabil (2007-09-17). "The pyramid hills" (http:/ / nabilswelim. com/ downloads/ Pyr_Hills. pdf. pdf). Archeology. . Retrieved 2011-04-11. [27] Swelim, Nabil Mohamed Abdel. "VISOCICA ON THE BALANCE" (http:/ / www. nabilswelim. com/ downloads/ vic_10. pdf). . Retrieved 19 March 2011.

Bosnian pyramids

224

External links
Bosnian pyramid location: 1 (http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=Sarajevo+&ll=43.977499,18. 175507&spn=0.05213,0.173035&t=h) 2 (http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=43.978000N+18. 178000E&t=k&ll=43.977993,18.177996&spn=0.035391,0.083599&om=1) Google maps Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation (http://www.piramidasunca.ba/) Foundation created by Osmanagic to promote his interpretations (Bosnian)/(English) Bosanska Piramida Sunca (http://www.alternativnahistorija.com/AH8main.htm) Osmanagic's book on the subject (Bosnian) Bosnian pyramids (http://irna.lautre.net/-Bosnian-pyramids-.html) skeptical analysis Old Visoki fort, Bosnian National Monument (http://www.aneks8komisija.com.ba/main.php?id_struct=50& lang=4&action=view&id=2409) Geology of the Bosnian "pyramids" (http://irna.lautre.net/Geology-of-the-Bosnian-pyramids.html) The Bosnia-Atlantis Connection from Archaeology magazine (http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/ osmanagic) 27 April 2006 Bosnian Pyramids: Absence of Evidence is not Evidence of Atlantis (http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/25850.html) 29 May 2006 Dr. Hawass' Letter Concerning Bosnian "Pyramids" (http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/osmanagic/ zahi_hawass.pdf) 27 June 2006 More on Bosnian "Pyramids" by Mark Rose (http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/osmanagic/update. html) 27 June 2006 "Mad About Pyramids" (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/313/5794/1718) 22 September 2006 "Tourists flock to Bosnian hills but experts mock amateur archaeologist's pyramid claims" (http://www. guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,1887640,00.html) 5 October 2006 Ancient pyramids discovered in Bosnia Natural or man-made? (http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/12/26/ bosnian_pyramids/) 26 December 2006

Hill of Tara

225

Hill of Tara
Hill of Tara Cnoc na Teamhrach

The Lia Fil (Stone of Destiny) on the Hill of Tara, County Meath Elevation Prominence 197 m (646 ft) 180 m (591 ft) Location Location Coordinates County Meath,
Ireland

533439N 63643W

The Hill of Tara (Irish: Cnoc na Teamhrach,[1] Teamhair or Teamhair na R), located near the River Boyne, is an archaeological complex that runs between Navan and Dunshaughlin in County Meath, Leinster, Ireland. It contains a number of ancient monuments, and, according to tradition, was the seat of the High King of Ireland. Recent scholarship claims that despite the rich narratives derived from mythologies, Tara was not so much a true seat of kingship, but a sacral site associated with kingship rituals. Other historians have argued that the concept itself is mostly mythical.[2]

Hill of Tara

226

Ancient monuments
At the summit of the hill, to the north of the ridge, is an oval Iron Age hilltop enclosure, measuring 318 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) north-south by 264 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) east-west and enclosed by an internal ditch and external bank, known as Rith na Rogh (the Fort of the Kings, also known as the Royal Enclosure). The most prominent earthworks within are the two linked enclosures, a bivallate ring fort and a bivallete ring barrow known as Teach Chormaic (Cormac's House) and the Forradh or Royal Seat. In the middle of the Forradh is a standing stone, which is believed to be the Lia Fil (Stone of Destiny) at which the High Kings were crowned. According to legend, the stone would scream if a series of challenges were met by the would-be king. At his touch the stone would let out a screech that could be heard all over Ireland. To the north of the ring-forts is a small Neolithic passage tomb known as Dumha na nGiall (the Mound of the Hostages), which was constructed around 3,400 (cal.) BC. To the north, just outside the bounds of the Rith na Rig, is a ringfort with three banks known as Rith na Seanadh (the Rath of the Synods). Excavations of this monument have produced Roman artifacts dating from the 1st-3rd centuries.

Layout of the Hill of Tara

Further north is a long, narrow rectangular feature known as the Banqueting Hall (Teach Miodhchuarta), although it is more likely to have been a ceremonial avenue or cursus monument approaching the site, and three circular earthworks known as the Sloping Trenches and Grinne's Fort. All three are large ring barrows which may have been built too close to the steep and subsequently slipped. To the south of the Royal Enclosure lies a ring-fort known as Rith Laoghaire (Laoghaire's Fort), where the eponymous king is said to have been buried in an upright position. Half a mile south of the Hill of Tara is another hill fort known as Rath Maeve, the fort of either the legendary queen Medb, who is more usually associated with Connacht, or the less well known legendary figure of Medb Lethderg, who is associated with Tara.

Tara's significance
Area known as "Banqueting Hall" For many centuries, historians worked to uncover Tara's mysteries, and suggested that from the time of the first Gaelic influence until the 1169 invasion of Richard de Clare, the Hill of Tara was the island's political and spiritual capital. Due to the history and archaeology of Ireland being not well-integrated, and naturally evolving, archaeologists involved in recent research suggest that the complete story of the wider area around Hill of Tara remains untold.

Hill of Tara The most familiar role played by the Hill of Tara in Irish history is as the seat of the kings of Ireland until the 6th century. This role extended until the 12th century, albeit without its earlier splendor. Regardless, the significance of the Hill of Tara predates Celtic times, although it has not been shown that Tara was continuously important from the Neolithic to the 12th century. The central part of the site could not have housed a large permanent retinue, suggesting that it was used as an occasional meeting place. There were no large defensive works. Certainly the earliest records attest that high kings were inaugurated there, and the "Seanchas Mor" legal text (written down after 600AD) specified that they had to drink ale and symbolically marry the goddess Maeve (Medb) to acquire the high-kingship. Previous scholarly disputes over Tara's initial importance advanced as archaeologists identified pre-Celtic monuments and buildings dating back to the Neolithic period around 5,000 years ago. One of these structures, the Mound of the Hostages, has a short passage which is aligned with sunrise on the solar cross-quarter days, which fall at the midpoints between the solstices and equinoxes. By the calendar, these dates usually fall around November 8 and February 4, the ancient Celtic festivals of Samhain and Imbolc.[3] The mound's passage is shorter than the long entryways of monuments like Newgrange, which makes it less precise in providing alignments with the Sun; still, Martin Brennan, in The Stones of Time, states that the daily changes in the position of a 13-foot (4-m) long sunbeam are more than adequate to determine specific dates. A theory that may predate the Hill of Tara's splendor before Celtic times is the legendary story naming the Hill of Tara as the capital of the Tuatha D Danann, pre-Celtic dwellers of Ireland. When the Celts established a seat in the hill, the hill became the place from which the kings of Mide ruled Ireland. There is much debate among historians as to how far the King's influence spread; it may have been as little as the middle of Ireland, or may have been all the northern half. The high kingship of the whole island was only established to an effective degree by Mel Sechnaill mac Mele Ruanaid (Malachy I). Irish pseudohistorians of the Middle Ages made it stretch back into prehistoric times. Atop the hill stands a stone pillar that was the Irish Lia Fil (Stone of Destiny) on which the High Kings of Ireland were crowned; legends suggest that the stone was required to roar three times if the chosen one was a true king (compare with the Scottish Lia Fail). Both the Hill of Tara as a hill and as a capital seems to have political and religious influence, which diminished since St. Patrick's time. During the rebellion of 1798, United Irishmen formed a camp on the hill but were attacked and defeated by British troops on 26 May 1798 and the Lia Fil was moved to mark the graves of the 400 rebels who died on the hill that day. In 1843, the Irish Member of Parliament Daniel O'Connell hosted a peaceful political demonstration on Hill of Tara in favour of repeal of the Act of Union which drew over 750,000 people, which indicates the enduring importance of the Hill of Tara.[4] During the turn of the 20th century the Hill of Tara was excavated by British Israelists who thought that the Irish were part of the Lost Tribes of Israel and that the hill contained the Ark of the Covenant.[5]

227

Motorway development
The M3 motorway, owned by Siac Construction and Cintra, S.A., which opened in June 2010, passes through the Tara-Skryne Valley - as does the existing N3 road. Protesters argue that since the Tara Discovery Programme started in 1992, there is an appreciation that the Hill of Tara is just the central complex of a wider landscape. The distance between the motorway and the exact site of the Hill is 2.2km (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) - it intersects the old N3 at the Blundelstown interchange between the Hill of Tara and the Hill of Skyrne. The presence of this interchange situated in the valley has led to allegations that further development is planned near Tara. An alternative route approximately 6km west of the Hill of Tara is claimed to be a straighter, cheaper and less destructive alternative.[6][7] On Sunday 23 September 2007 over 1500 people met on the hill of Tara to take part in a human sculpture representing a harp and spelling out the words "SAVE TARA VALLEY" as a call for the rerouting of the M3 motorway away from Tara valley. Actors Stuart Townsend and Jonathan Rhys Meyers attended this event.[8] The Hill of Tara was included in the World Monuments Fund's 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world.[9] It was included, in 2009, in the 15 must-see endangered cultural treasures in the world by the

Hill of Tara Smithsonian Institution.[10] There is currently a letter writing campaign being undertaken to preserve the Hill of Tara.[11]

228

Pictures

Sunset

High Cross

Church

Summit

References
[1] 'Hill of Tara / Teamhair / Cnoc na Teamhrach' (http:/ / wikimapia. org/ 2629628/ Hill-of-Tara-Teamhair-Cnoc-na-Teamhrach) [2] Comerford, R. V. (2003). Ireland: Inventing the Nation. London. pp.21. [3] Knowth.com photo of Samhain sunrise at the Mound of Hostages (http:/ / www. knowth. com/ hill-of-ward. htm) "The Stone Age Mound of the Hostages is also aligned with the Samhain sun rise." The sun rises from the same angle on Imbolc. [4] Muldoon, Paul (25 May 2007). "Erin Go Faster" (http:/ / travel. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 05/ 25/ opinion/ 25muldoon. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-09-07. [5] Carew, Mairead (October 30, 2004). Tara and the Ark of the Covenant: A Search for the Ark of the Covenant by British Israelites on the Hill of Tara, 1899 -1902. Royal Irish Academy. ISBN0954385527. [6] Eileen Battersby (26 May 2007). "Is nothing sacred?". The Irish Times. [7] Glenn Frankel (22 January 2005). "In Ireland, Commuters vs. Kings" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ articles/ A27671-2005Jan21. html). The Washington Post: p.A01. . Retrieved 2007-06-14. [8] Paula Geraghty (24 September 2007). "In Ireland, Human Aerial Art at Tara: People power combines art protest and politics" (http:/ / www. indymedia. ie/ article/ 84352). Indymedia Ireland. . Retrieved 2008-04-14. [9] 2008 world monuments watch list of 100 most endangered sites (http:/ / web. archive. org/ 20070607005406/ http:/ / wmf. org/ pdf/ Watch_2008_list. pdf) at the Wayback Machine (archived June 7, 2007) World Monuments Fund. [10] Logue, Patrick (28 February 2009). "Tara endangered, says Smithsonian" (http:/ / www. irishtimes. com/ newspaper/ ireland/ 2009/ 0228/ 1224241986012. html). Irish Times. . Retrieved 26 August 2009. [11] "The Hill of Tara". Sacred Sites International Foundation. (http:/ / sacred-sites. org/ preservation/ tarahill. html)

Further reading
Raftery, Barry (1994) Pagan Celtic Ireland: The enigma of the Irish Iron Age. London, Thames and Hudson Edel Bhreathnach (d), The Kingship and Landscape of Tara (Dublin, Four Courts Press, 2005). The Smithonian Staff (March 2010), "10 Must-See Endangered Cultural Treasures" (http://www. smithsonianmag.com/travel/Endangered-Cultural-Treasures-The-Hill-of-Tara-Ireland.html), Smithsonian 39 (12): 37 - The Hill of Tara, Ireland, Where Kings Once Tread by Amanda Bensen Newman, Conor (2007), "Misinformation, disinformation and downright distortion: the Battle to Save Tara 1999-2005" (http://hdl.handle.net/10379/1443), Uninhabited Ireland. Tara, the M3 and Public Spaces in Galway. Two essays by Conor Newman and Ulf Strohmayer.: 59102

Hill of Tara

229

External links
Hill of Tara (http://www.megalithicireland.com/Hill of Tara.htm) at Megalithic Ireland (http://www. megalithicireland.com/) Tara (http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Places/Place/358045) at Ancient Worlds (http://www. ancientworlds.net/) Aerial photos of the monuments (http://www.knowth.com/tara-images.htm) Heritage of Ireland, Tara (http://www.heritageireland.ie/en/MidlandsEastCoast/HillofTara/) Boyne Valley Tourist Portal - Information on Tara (http://www.theboynevalley.com/hilloftara.php) King Ollamh Fodhla and The Great Feast of Tara (http://www.kingollamhfodhla.com/) Savetara.com - website opposed to building M3 motorway through Tara landscape (http://www.savetara.com/) World Monuments Fund's Watch List, including the Hill of Tara (http://www.worldmonumentswatch.org/) The Hill of Tara page on the World Monuments Fund's 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites (http:/ /wmf.org/watch2008/watch.php?id=S8351) The Hill of Tara page on Mythical Ireland (http://www.mythicalireland.com/ancientsites/tara/) Gatherings celebrating the cycle of the year held on Tara (http://www.taracelebrations.org) Photos and descriptions of the trees on Tara (http://www.tara-trees.org)

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

Theories of Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact are those theories that propose interaction between indigenous peoples of the Americas who settled the Americas before 10,000 BC, and peoples of other continents (Africa, Asia, Europe, or Oceania), which occurred before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean in 1492. Many such contacts have been proposed, based on historical accounts, archaeological finds, and cultural comparisons. However, claims of such contacts are controversial and debated, due in part to much ambiguous or circumstantial evidence cited by proponents. Only one instance of pre-Columbian European contact the Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada c. 1000 AD is regarded by scholars as demonstrated.[1] The scientific responses to other pre-Columbian contact claims range from serious consideration in peer-reviewed publications to dismissal as fringe science or pseudoarcheology.

Confirmed Norse trans-oceanic contact

Norse, or Viking journeys to North America are supported by both historical and archaeological evidence. A Norse colony in Greenland was established in the late 10th century, and lasted until the mid 15th century. In 1961, archaeologists Helge and Anne Ingstad uncovered the remains of a Norse settlement at the L'Anse aux Meadows archaeological site on the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, Canada. A connection is frequently drawn between L'Anse aux Meadows and the Vinland sagas. These are written versions of older oral histories that recount the temporary settlement of an area to the west of L'Anse aux Meadows Greenland, called Vinland, led by a Norse explorer, Leif Erikson. It is possible that Vinland may have been Newfoundland. Finds on Baffin Island suggest a Norse presence there after L'Anse aux Meadows was abandoned although it has also been suggested that these might be indigenous Dorset culture artifacts.[2]

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Few sources describing contact between Native Americans and Norse settlers exist. Contact between the Thule people, ancestors of the modern Inuit, and Norse between the 12th or 13th centuries is known. The Norse Greenlanders called these incoming settlers "skrlingar". Conflict between the Greenlanders and the "skrlings" is recorded in the Icelandic Annals. The Vinland sagas, recorded hundreds of years later, describe trade and conflict with Native peoples, who were also termed skrlings, but may have been an entirely different people. Archaeological evidence for contact in Greenland is limited, but seems to indicate that the Norse did not substantially affect indigenous adaptations, technologies, or cultures. Around 80 Icelanders today have a genetic marking of an Amerindian woman who may have settled in Iceland in the 11th century. It is hypothesized this may have been a woman taken back to Europe by early Norse explorers of the Americas.[3]

230

Possible Polynesian trans-oceanic contact

Between 300 and 1200 CE, Polynesians in canoes spread throughout the Polynesian Triangle going as far as Easter Island, New Zealand and Hawaii, and perhaps on to the Americas. The sweet potato, which is native to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia when Europeans first reached the Pacific. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to 1000 CE, and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia c. 700 CE and spread across Polynesia from there.[4] It has been suggested[5] that it was brought by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back, or that South Americans brought it to the Pacific. It is unlikely that the plant could successfully float across the ocean by natural means.[6]

PolynesianMapuche contact
In recent years, considerable evidence has emerged suggesting pre-Columbian contact between the Mapuche people of south-central Chile and Polynesians. Chicken bones found at the site El Arenal in the Arauco Peninsula, an area inhabited by Mapuche, support a pre-Columbian introduction of chicken to South America.[7] The bones found in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, before the arrival of the Spanish. DNA sequences taken were matched to those of chickens in American Samoa and Tonga, and dissimilar to European chicken.[8][9][10] However, a later report in the same journal looking at the same mtDNA concluded that the Chilean chicken specimen clusters with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America.[11] Furthermore, in December 2007, several human skulls with Polynesian features, such as a pentagonal shape when viewed from behind, were found lying on a shelf in a museum in Concepcin. These skulls turned out to be originating from Mocha Island, an island just off the coast of Chile in the Pacific ocean, nowadays inhabited by Mapuche. Professor Lisa Matisoo-Smith of the University of Otago and Jos-Miguel Ramrez-Aliaga of the University of Valparaso hope to win agreement soon with the locals of Mocha Island to begin an excavation search for Polynesian remains on the island.[12] Geneticist Erik Thorsby and colleagues have published two studies in the peer-reviewed journal Tissue Antigens that evidence an Amerindian genetic contribution to the Easter Island population, determining that it was probably introduced prior to European discovery of the island. [13][14]

Archaeological theories
A team of academics headed by the University of York's Mummy Research Group and BioArch,[15] while examining a Peruvian mummy at the Bolton Museum, found it had been embalmed using a tree resin. Before this it was thought that Peruvian mummies were naturally preserved. The resin, found to be that of an Araucaria conifer related to the 'monkey puzzle tree', was from a variety found only in Oceania and probably New Guinea. "Radiocarbon dating of both the resin and body by the University of Oxford's radiocarbon laboratory confirmed they were essentially contemporary, and date to around CE1200."[16]

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact In 1995, archaeobotanist Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift presenting evidence for the presence of chili peppers, a New World crop, in Europe in the pre-Columbian era.[17] According to Hjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in St Botulf in Lund found a Capsicum frutescens in a layer from the 13th century. Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also claims that Capsicum was described by the Greek Theophrastus (370286 BCE) in his Historia Plantarum, and in other sources. Around the first century CE, the Roman poet Martialis (Martial) mentioned "Piperve crudum" (raw pepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedly describing them as long and containing seeds (a description which seems to fit chili peppers but could also fit long pepper, which was well known to ancient Romans), though this description is missing from at least some versions of the epigram. Traces of coca and nicotine found in some Egyptian mummies have led some to speculate that Ancient Egyptians may have traveled to the New World. The initial discovery was made by a German toxicologist, Svetlana Balabanova, after examining the mummy of a female priestess called Henut Taui. Follow-up tests of the hair shaft, performed to rule out contamination, gave the same results.[18] The significance of these finds lies in the fact that both coca and tobacco plants are indigenous to the Americas and thought not to have existed in Africa until sometime after the voyages of Columbus.[19][20] Subsequent examination of numerous Sudanese mummies undertaken by Balabanova mirrored what was found in the mummy of Henut Taui.[21] Balabanova suggested that the tobacco may be accounted for since it may have also been known in China and Europe, as indicated by analysis run on human remains from those respective regions. Balabanova proposed that such plants native to the general area may have developed independently, but have since gone extinct.[21] Other explanations include fraud, though curator Alfred Grimm of the Egyptian Museum in Munich disputes this.[21] Skeptical of Balabanova's findings, Rosalie David Keeper of Egyptology at the Manchester Museum had similar tests performed on samples taken from the Manchester mummy collection and reported that two of the tissue samples and one hair sample did test positive for nicotine.[21] Sources of nicotine other than tobacco and sources of cocaine in the Old World are discussed by the British biologist Duncan Edlin.[22] Mainstream scholars remain skeptical, and do not see this as proof of ancient contact between Africa and the Americas, especially as there may be possible Old World sources.[23][24] Two attempts to replicate Balbanova finds of cocaine failed, suggesting "that either Balabanova and her associates are misinterpreting their results or that the samples of mummies tested by them have been mysteriously exposed to cocaine."[25] A re-examination in the 1970s of the mummy of Ramesses II revealed the presence of fragments of tobacco leaves in its abdomen. This became a popular topic in fringe literature and the media and was seen as proof of contact between Ancient Egypt and the New World. The investigator, Maurice Bucaille, noted that when the mummy was unwrapped in 1886 the abdomen was left open and that "it was no longer possible to attach any importance to the presence inside the abdominal cavity of whatever material was found there, since the material could have come from the surrounding environment."[26] Following the renewed discussion of tobacco sparked by Balabnova's research and its mention in a 2000 publication by Rosalie David, a study in the journal Antiquity suggested that reports on both tobacco and cocaine in mummies "ignored their post-excavation histories" and pointed out that the mummy of Ramesses II had been moved five times between 1883 and 1975.[24] Another discovery in the mummy of Ramesses II also led to suggestions of early contact. This was an adult Lasioderma serricorne, a beetle also known as the 'tobacco beetle'. It was first described in American dried plants in 1798 but not recorded as a species until 1886. It may be of tropical origin and has been found in Tutankhamun's tomb, Bronze Age Akrotiri and Amarna.[24]

231

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

232

Linguistic theories
Two lexical items may be shared by Polynesian languages and language of South America. One is the name of the sweet potato, which was domesticated in the New World. Easter Island kumara and Hawaiian uala (also compare the Mori name kumra) may be connected with Quechua and Aymara kumar ~ kumara. A possible second is the word for 'stone axe', Easter Island toki, Mapuche toki, and further afield, Yurimangui totoki 'axe'. The word for sweet potato, at least, "constitutes near proof of incidental contact between inhabitants of the Andean region and the South Pacific", though the word for axe is not as convincing. That is, there appears to have been trade between Polynesia and South America, but not a mass movement of peoples.[27]

Possible trans-oceanic travel from the New World

In addition to trans-oceanic travel to the Americas from elsewhere, the is also evidence for possible travels originating from the New World.

Inuit and Arctic peoples

There is substantial evidence for Inuit and other American Arctic peoples arriving in Europe prior to Columbus' voyage. Contact between indigenous Americans and the Norse of Greenland as early as the 11th century is well attested. In 1009, Norse explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni captured two boys from Markland (Labrador) and took them to Greenland, where they were taught to speak Norse and baptized. The Norse sagas report that Thorfinn sailed to Norway and then Iceland shortly after; though it is not explicitly stated, it is likely he took his two captives with him. If so, they may have been the earliest Americans to come to Europe. It is possible that the Norse took other indigenous peoples to Europe as slaves over the next centuries, as they are known to have taken Scottish and Irish slaves.[28][29] In 1420, Danish geographer Claudius Clavus Swart wrote that he personally had seen "pygmies" from Greenland who were caught by Norsemen in a small skin boat. Their boat was hung in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim along with another, longer boat also taken from "pygmies". Clavus Swart's description fits the Inuit and two of their types of boats, the kayak and the umiak.[28][29] Similarly, the Swedish clergyman Olaus Magnus wrote in 1505 that he saw in Oslo Cathedral two leather boats taken decades prior. According to Olaus, the boats were captured from Greenland pirates by one of the Hakons, which would place the event in the 14th century.[28] Additionally, there is substantial evidence of Inuit coming to Europe under their own power or as captives after 1492, opening up the possibility that this had happened previously as well. A substantial body of Greenland Inuit folklore first collected in the 19th century told of journeys by boat to Akilineq, here depicted as a rich country across the ocean.[30]

Other possible New World contacts

Tpac Inca Yupanqui, the tenth Inca emperor, is said to have led an expedition lasting between nine months to a year into the Pacific Ocean around 1480, which discovered two islands.[31] It has been suggested that the islands he visited are the Galpagos,[31] or possibly Polynesian islands (Easter Island). The story says that he brought back gold, brass, and the skin and jaw of a horse, none of which would have been found on islands in the south Pacific. According to Bartolom de las Casas, two dead bodies that looked like those of Indians were found on the Portuguese Flores Island in the Azores. He said he found that fact in Columbus' notes, and it was one reason why Columbus presumed that India was on the other side of the ocean.[32] In Ferdinand Columbus' biography of his father Christopher, he says that in 1477 his father saw in Galway, Ireland two dead bodies which had washed ashore in their boat. The bodies and boat were of exotic appearance, and have been suggested to have been Inuit who had drifted off course.[33]

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

233

Fringe theories
Several scenarios of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact have been proposed without gaining acceptance in mainstream scholarship.

Medieval
14th and 15th century Europe Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney and feudal baron of Roslin (c. 1345 c. 1400) was a Scottish nobleman. He is best known today because of a modern legend that he took part in explorations of Greenland and North America almost 100 years before Christopher Columbus. William Thomson, in his History of Orkney, wrote: "It has been Earl Henry's singular fate to enjoy an ever-expanding posthumous reputation which has very little to do with anything he achieved in his lifetime."[35] Henry was the grandfather of William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness, the builder of Rosslyn Chapel (near Edinburgh, Scotland). The authors Robert Lomas and Christopher Knight believe some carvings in the chapel to be ears of New World corn or maize in the chapel.[34] This crop was unknown in Europe at the time of the chapel's construction, and was not cultivated there until several hundred years later. Knight and Lomas view these carvings as evidence Authors Robert Lomas and Christopher Knight claim supporting the idea that Henry Sinclair, travelled to the Americas that these carvings in Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland [34] well before Columbus. Specialists in medieval architecture depict Indian corn (maize). interpret these carvings as stylised depictions of wheat, strawberries or lilies.[36][37] Sinclair's voyage is supposed to have taken more or less the same route as that of the Norse, i.e., across the North Atlantic, by Iceland and Greenland, and some conjecture that this is evidence that this route was never forgotten. Some have conjectured that Columbus was able to persuade the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon to support his planned voyage only because they were aware of some recent earlier voyage across the Atlantic. Some suggest that Columbus himself visited Canada or Greenland before 1492, because according to Bartolom de las Casas he wrote he had sailed 100 leagues past an island he called Thule in 1477. Whether he actually did this and what island he visited, if any, is uncertain. Columbus is thought to have visited Bristol in 1476.[38] Bristol was also the port from which John Cabot sailed in 1497, crewed mostly by Bristol sailors. In a letter of late 1497 or early 1498 the English merchant John Day wrote to Columbus about Cabot's discoveries, saying that land found by Cabot was "discovered in the past by the men from Bristol who found 'Brasil' as your lordship knows".[39] There may be records of expeditions from Bristol to find the "isle of Brazil" in 1480 and 1481.[40] Trade between Bristol and Iceland is well documented from the mid 15th century. Gonzalo Fernndez de Oviedo y Valds records several such legends in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. He discusses the then-current story of a Spanish caravel that was swept off its course while on its way to England, and wound up in a foreign land populated by naked tribesmen. The crew gathered supplies and made its way back to Europe, but the trip took several months and the captain and most of the men died before reaching land. The ship's pilot, a man called Alonso Snchez, supposed to be from somewhere in the Iberian peninsula (Oviedo says different versions have him as Portuguese, Basque, or Andalusian), and very few others finally made it to Portugal, but all were very ill. Columbus was a good friend of the pilot, and took him to be treated in his own house, and the pilot described the land they had seen and marked it on a

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact map before dying. People in Oviedo's time knew this story in several versions, but Oviedo regarded it as myth.[41] In 1925, Soren Larsen wrote a book claiming that a joint Danish-Portuguese expedition landed in Newfoundland or Labrador in 1473 and again in 1476. Larsen claimed that Didrik Pining and Hans Pothorst served as captains, while Joo Vaz Corte-Real and the possibly mythical John Scolvus served as navigators, accompanied by Alvaro Martins.[42] Nothing beyond circumstantial evidence has been found to support Larsen's claims.[43] Arabic Early Chinese accounts of Muslim expeditions state that Muslim sailors reached a region called "Mu-Lan-Pi". "Mu-Lan-Pi" is normally identified as Spain, though some fringe theories hold that it is instead some part of the Americas.[44][45] The sources for this claim are Ling-wai tai-ta (1178) by Chou Ch'ii-fei and Chu-fan chihg (1225) by Chao Jukua, together referred to as the "Sung Document". One supporter of the interpretation of "Mu-Lan-Pi" as part of the Americas was historian Hui-lin Li in 1961,[44][45] and while Joseph Needham is also open to the possibility, he doubts that Arabic ships at the time would have been able to withstand a return journey over such a long distance across the Atlantic Ocean and points out that a return journey would have been impossible without knowledge of prevailing winds and currents. Needham states that there is no evidence that these were known five centuries before the Portuguese used them.[46]

234

Semitic
Cyrus H. Gordon believed that Jews, Phoenicians, and other Semitic groups had crossed the Atlantic in antiquity, ultimately arriving in both North and South America.[47] This opinion was based on his own work on the Bat Creek inscription[48] Similar ideas were also held by John Philip Cohane; Cohane even claimed that many geographical names in America have a Semitic origin.[49][50] Using gold obtained by expansion of the African coastal trade down the west African coast, the Phoenician state of Carthage minted gold staters in 350 BC bearing a pattern, in the reverse exergue of the coins, interpreted as a map of the Mediterranean with the Americas shown to the west across the Atlantic. [51] Reports of the discovery of putative Carthaginian coins in North America are based on modern replicas, that may have been buried at sites from Massachusetts to Nebraska in order to confuse and mislead archaeological investigation. [52]

Irish and Welsh legend

The legend of Saint Brendan, an Irish monk, involves a fantastical journey into the Atlantic ocean in search of Paradise in the 6th century. Since the discovery of the New World, various authors have tried to link the Brendan myth with an early discovery of America. The voyage was recreated in recent times by Tim Severin. According to British legend, Madoc was a prince from Wales who explored the Americas as early as 1170. While most scholars consider this legend to be untrue, it was used as justification for British claims to the Americas, based on the notion of a Briton arriving before other European nationalities.[53] A memorial tablet erected at Fort Morgan in Mobile Bay, Alabama reads: "In memory of Prince Madog, a Welsh explorer, who landed on the shores of Mobile Bay in 1170 and left behind, with the Indians, the Welsh language." One tribe which was said to be Welsh-speaking was the Mandan. Barry Fell claims that Ogham writing has been found carved into stones in the Virginias,[54] but grave doubts about these claims have been raised[55] and none of these finds have ever been confirmed by credible linguists, epigraphers, or archaeologists.

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

235

Romans
Evidence of contacts with the civilizations of Classical Antiquity primarily with the Roman Empire, but sometimes also with other cultures of the age have been based on isolated alleged archaeological finds in American sites that originated in the Old World. The established presence of Romans and probably Phoenicians in the Canary Islands has led some researchers to suggest that the islands may have been used as a stepping-off point for such journeys, as the islands lie along the same favorable sea route taken by Columbus on his first voyage to the Americas. Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head A small terracotta Roman head, showing a beard and European-like features, was found in 1933 (in the Toluca Valley, 72 kilometres southwest of Mexico City) in a burial offering under three intact floors of a pre-colonial building dated between 1476 and 1510. The artifact has been studied by Roman art authority Bernard Andreae, director emeritus of the German Institute of Archaeology in Rome, Italy, and Austrian anthropologist Robert von Heine-Geldern, both of whom stated that the style of the artifact was compatible with small Roman sculptures of the 2nd century.[56] The identification of the head as Roman work from the II-III century A.D. has been further confirmed by Bernard Andreae, a director emeritus of the German Institute of Archaeology in Rome, Italy. According to Andreae "[the head] is without any doubt Roman, and the lab analysis has confirmed that it is ancient. The stylistic examination tells us more precisely that it is a Roman work from around the II century A.D., and the hairstyle and the shape of the beard present the typical traits of the Severian emperors period [193-235 A.D.], exactly in the fashion of the epoch." (Andreae cited in Domenici 2000: 29). On the other hand, an examination of the field notes of the archaeologist in charge of the excavation as well as the site itself have not revealed, in either case, signs of possible disturbances of the context (Hristov and Genovs 1999).[57] In 1995 a thermoluminescence age test was performed at the Forschungsstelle Archometrie in Heidelberg, Germany which set the age limits for the head at 1780 400 B.P., which would date the head at circa 170AD. In 1999, anthropologists Romeo Hristov and Santiago Genovs re-examined the evidence and came to the conclusion "A review of the circumstances of this discovery did not demonstrate any sign of possible post-Columbian intrusion and permits the acceptance of the object as the first hard evidence from Mesoamerica to support pre-Hispanic transoceanic contacts between the Old and New Worlds." [58][59] If genuine and if not placed there after 1492 (the pottery found with it dates to between 1476 and 1510)[60] the find provides evidence for at least a one-time contact between the Old and New Worlds.[61] According to Michael E. Smith [62] of Arizona State University, the late John Paddock, a leading Mesoamerican scholar, used to tell classes he taught the artifact was planted as a joke by Hugo Moedano, one of the students who originally worked on the site. Despite speaking with individuals who knew Garca Payn (the original discoverer) and Moedano, Smith says he has been unable to confirm or reject this claim. Though Smith remains skeptical, he concedes the possibility the head was a genuinely buried Postclassic offering at Calixtlahuaca cannot be ruled out at this time.[63] Amphorae In 1982, Brazilian newspapers reported that fragments of amphorae had been recovered by treasure hunter and underwater archaeologist Robert F. Marx, from the bottom of Guanabara Bay, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Elizabeth Lyding Will of the University of Massachusetts identified the finds as being Roman, manufactured at Kouass (Dehar Jedid) in Morocco, and dated them to the 3rd century. A bottom survey by Harold E. Edgerton, an MIT researcher, located what Marx thought to be remains of two disintegrating ships. These claims were disputed when Amrico Santarelli, an Italian diver living in Rio de Janeiro, revealed in a book that he had 18 such amphorae made by a local potter, and had placed 16 of them himself at various places in the bay. He said that he intended to recover the encrusted amphorae later, to decorate his house at Angra dos Reis. Marx claimed that the Brazilian government

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact prevented any additional research and that the Brazilian Navy dumped sand over the site in the bay to ensure that no further artifacts would ever be recovered, a charge the Navy denied. Marx was prohibited from working in Brazil after Brazilian officials accused him of selling contraband goods, and all permits for underwater exploration and digging were cancelled pending revised legislation.[64] Others Claims of contact have often been based on occurrences of similar motifs in art and decoration, or on depictions in one World of species or objects that are thought to be characteristic of the other World. Famous examples include a Maya statuette claimed to depict a bearded man rowing, a cross in bas-relief at the Temple of the Cross in Palenque, or a claimed depiction of a pineapple in a mosaic on the wall of a house at Pompeii.[65] Nevertheless, most of these finds can be explained as the result of mis-interpretation. The Palenque "cross", for instance, is almost certainly a stylized maize plant; and the Pompeii "pineapple" has been identified as a pine cone from the Umbrella pine tree which is native to the Mediterranean area. [66] The dubious Bat Creek inscription and Los Lunas Decalogue Stone have led some to suggest the possibility that Jewish seafarers may have come to America after fleeing the Roman Empire at the time of the Jewish Revolt.[67] The Fuente Magna, also known as the Fuente Bowl, is a large stone vessel, resembling a libation bowl. It is asserted to have been found in the 1950s by a worker from the CHUA Hacienda near Tiwanaku, west of La Paz, Bolivia.[68] The inscription has been claimed to contain Sumerian writing, and is said to resemble that on the later found Pokotia Monolith.[69][70] It resides in a small museum in Calle Jan, La Paz, Bolivia; Museo de metales preciosos "Museo de Oro".[71]

236

Africans
Proposed claims for an African presence in Mesoamerica rest on attributes of the Olmec culture, the presence of an African plant species in the Americas, and interpretations of certain European and Arabic historical accounts. The Olmec culture existed from roughly 1200 BCE to 400 BCE. The idea that the Olmecs are related to Africans was suggested by Jos Melgar, who discovered the first colossal head at Hueyapan (now Tres Zapotes) in 1862 and subsequently published two papers that attributed this head to a "Negro race".[72] Authors such as Ivan van Sertima propose that these statues depict settlers or explorers from Africa.[73]

Several Olmec colossal heads have features that some diffusionists link to African contact.

North African sources describe what some consider to be visits to the New World by a Mali fleet in 1311.[74] According to these sources, 400 ships from the Mali Empire discovered a land across the ocean to the West after being swept off course by ocean currents. Only one ship returned, and the captain reported the discovery of a western current to Prince Abubakari II; the off-course Mali fleet of 400 ships is said to have conducted both trade and warfare with the peoples of the western lands. It is claimed that Abubakari II abdicated his throne and set off to explore these western lands. In 1324, the Mali king

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Mansa Musa is said to have told the Arabic historian, Al-Umari that "his predecessors had launched two expeditions from West Africa to discover the limits of the Atlantic Ocean." According to the abstract of Columbus' log made by Bartolom de las Casas, the purpose of Columbus third voyage was to test both the claims of King John II of Portugal that canoes had been found which set out from the coast of Guinea [West Africa] and sailed to the west with merchandise as well as the claims of the native inhabitants of Hispaniola that from the south and the southeast had come black people whose spears were made of a metal called guannfrom which it was found that of 32 parts: 18 were gold, 6 were silver, and 8 copper.[75] [76] In his book They Came Before Columbus African Studies professor Ivan van Sertima of Rutgers University assembled what he viewed as evidence in support of a pre-Columbian African presence in the Americas. His work has been criticized in a lengthy 1997 Journal of Current Anthropology article titled "Robbing Native American Cultures: Van Sertima's Afrocentricity and the Olmecs".[77]

237

Chinese
Without speculating on the origin of any such influence, some researchers have remarked on the what appears to be a distinctly Asian appearance in some Mesoamerican figurines.[78] Other researchers have argued that the Olmec civilization came into existence with the help of Chinese refugees, particularly at the end of the Shang dynasty.[79] In 1975, Betty Meggers of the Smithsonian Institution argued that the Olmec civilization originated due to Shang Chinese influences around 1200 BCE.[80] In a 1996 book, Mike Xu, with the aid of Chen Hanping, claimed that celts from La Venta bear Chinese characters.[81][82] These claims are unsupported by mainstream Mesoamerican researchers.[83] A group of Chinese Buddhist missionaries led by Hui Shen before 500 CE claimed to have visited a location called Fusang. Although Chinese mapmakers placed this on the Asian coast, more recently some have argued, by selecting elements which are similar to some elements of the California coast, that this was America.[84] In his book 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, the British author Gavin Menzies made the controversial claim that the fleet of Zheng He arrived in America in 1421.[85] Menzies' assertions have been found to be unconvincing by professional historians.[86][87][88][89] Menzies sees stylistic similarities between the decorative motifs of ancient China and those of the ancient Maya, and the high value that both placed on jade.[85]

Indians
An image in a temple in southern India depicts a goddess holding what is claimed by some to be maize,[90] a crop native to the Americas; the image is usually taken to be a native grass like sorghum or pearl millet, which bear some resemblance to maize, or a mythical fruit bearing pearls known in Sanskrit as "Muktaphala".[91]

Japanese
Pottery associated with the Valdivia culture of coastal Ecuador dated to 30001500 BCE was said by Smithsonian archaeologist Betty Meggers to exhibit similarities to pottery produced during the Jomon period in Japan. Chronological and other problems have led most archaeologists to dismiss this.[92][93] The suggestion has been made that the resemblances (which are not complete) are simply due to the limited number of designs possible when incising clay. Alaskan anthropologist Nancy Yaw Davis claims that the Zuni people of New Mexico exhibit linguistic and cultural similarities to the Japanese.[94] The Zuni language is a linguistic isolate, and Davis contends that the culture appears to differ from that of the surrounding natives in terms of blood type, endemic disease, and religion. Davis speculates that Buddhist priests or restless peasants from Japan may have crossed the Pacific in the 13th century, traveled to the American Southwest, and influenced Zuni society.[94]

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

238

Mormon archaeology
The Book of Mormon states that some ancient inhabitants of the New World are descendants of Semitic peoples, all of whom sailed from the Old World. Mormon apologetics groups such as the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies attempt to vindicate these ideas. Though discovered and documented first in the 1930s, Izapa Stela 5 is particularly noteworthy because of the controversy created by the proposition by Professor M. Wells Jakeman in 1953 that the stone was a record of the Book of Mormon tree of life vision,[95] which he considered of Old World origin.

Notes
[1] "''L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site of Canada'' (Parks Canada. 2007)" (http:/ / www. pc. gc. ca/ lhn-nhs/ nl/ meadows/ index_e. asp). Pc.gc.ca. 2011-01-28. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. Izapa Stela 5

[2] ""Vikings visited Canadian Artic" Canada.com May 27, 2009" (http:/ / www. canada. com/ technology/ science/ Vikings+ visited+ Canadian+ Arctic+ research+ suggests/ 1635865/ story. html). Canada.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [3] Govan, Fiona (2010-11-16). "First Americans 'reached Europe five centuries before Columbus voyages'" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ science/ science-news/ 8138884/ First-Americans-reached-Europe-five-centuries-before-Columbus-voyages. html). London: Telegraph.co.uk. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [4] VAN TILBURG, Jo Anne. 1994. Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press [5] Langdon, Robert. The Bamboo Raft as a Key to the Introduction of the Sweet Potato in Prehistoric Polynesia, The Journal of Pacific History, Vol.36, No.1., 2001 [6] "Batatas, Not Potatoes" (http:/ / www. botgard. ucla. edu/ html/ botanytextbooks/ economicbotany/ Ipomoea/ index. html). Botgard.ucla.edu. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [7] Storey et al., p. 10335. [8] Whipps, Heather (June 4, 2007). "Chicken Bones Suggest Polynesians Found Americas Before Columbus" (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ history/ 070604_polynesian_chicken. html). Live Science. . Retrieved 2007-06-05. [9] "Polynesians beat Spaniards to South America, study shows" (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ nationworld/ nation/ la-sci-chickens5jun05,1,4338408. story?coll=la-headlines-nation) by Thomas H. Maugh II, Los Angeles Times, 5 June 2007 [10] Storey et al., "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 104/ 25/ 10335. full), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 10.1073/pnas.0703993104, 7 June 2007 [11] Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA. Jaime Gongora, Nicolas J. Rawlence, Victor A. Mobegi, Han Jianlin, Jose A. Alcalde, Jose T. Matus, Olivier Hanotte, Chris Moran, J. Austin, Sean Ulm, Atholl J. Anderson, Greger Larson and Alan Cooper, "Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA" PNAS July 29, 2008 vol. 105 no 30 (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 105/ 30/ 10308) [12] Lawler, Andrew (2010) " Beyond Kon-Tiki: Did Polynesians Sail to South America? (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 328/ 5984/ 1344. full)", Science, 11 June: 1344-1347. [13] Molecular genetic studies of natives on Easter Island: evidence of an early European and Amerindian contribution to the Polynesian gene pool (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1111/ j. 1399-0039. 2006. 00717. x/ abstract) [14] Further evidence of an Amerindian contribution to the Polynesian gene pool on Easter Island (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1111/ j. 1399-0039. 2009. 01233. x/ abstract) [15] "28801_April08.indd" (http:/ / www. york. ac. uk/ admin/ presspr/ magazine/ aprilmag08. pdf). York.ac.uk. 2010-12-02. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [16] From the University of York Magazine, page 9, April/May 2008 [17] Hjelmqvist, Hakon. "Cayennepeppar frn Lunds medeltid". Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift, vol 89: pp.193. [18] "http:/ / www. faculty. ucr. edu/ ~legneref/ ethnic/ mummy. htm" [19] Cocaine (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1O87-cocaine. html) Encyclopedia.com (2007) [20] Tobacco (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1E1-tobacco. html) Encyclopedia.com (2007) [21] "Curse of the Cocaine Mummies" written and directed by Sarah Marris. (Producers: Hilary Lawson, Maureen Lemire and narrated by Hilary Kilberg). A TVF Production for Channel Four in association with the Discovery Channel, 1997.

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

[22] "A look at the Evidence for Cocaine in Mummies" (http:/ / www. thehallofmaat. com/ modules. php?name=Articles& file=article& sid=45). Thehallofmaat.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [23] "The Stoned Age?" (http:/ / www. thehallofmaat. com/ modules. php?name=Articles& file=article& sid=45). Hall of Maat. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [24] Buckland, P.C., Panagiotakopulu, E "Rameses II and the tobacco beetle" Antiquity 75: 54956 2001 [25] Counsell, D. C., "Intoxicants in Ancient Egypt? Opium, nymphea, coca, and tobacco," in David, Ann Rosalie, ed. Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0521865791 p.213 [26] Bucaille, M. Mummies of the Pharaohs: Modern Medical Investigations NY: St. Martins Press pp 186-188 [27] "Genetic relations of South American Indian languages". In Adelaar & Muysken, eds, The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge University Press, 2004. [28] Forbes, Jack D. (2007). The American Discovery of Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cd8yZn7MfSQC& printsec=frontcover& dq=American+ Discovery+ of+ Europe& hl=en& sa=X& ei=V-TwTs-nKIKEtgeEhpnQBg& ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Nidaros& f=false). University of Illinois Press. p.163. ISBN0252031520. . Retrieved December 20, 2011. [29] Forbes, Jack D. (1993). Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6aLAeB5QiHAC& pg=PA20& dq=Trondheim+ cathedral+ Inuit& hl=en& sa=X& ei=BuDwTsilH4X7ggfekdWbAg& ved=0CDkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Trondheim cathedral Inuit& f=false). University of Illinois Press. pp.1821. ISBN025206321X. . Retrieved December 20, 2011. [30] Fossett, Rene (2001). In Order to Live Untroubled: Inuit of the Central Arctic, 1550-1940 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=yK7cac_mXGgC& pg=PA80& dq=Inuit+ in+ Europe+ Trondheim& hl=en& sa=X& ei=V9rwTsmWJYzhggevrOirAg& ved=0CEAQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q& f=false). University of Manitoba Press. pp.7577. ISBN0887556477. . [31] Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa. "TUPAC INCA YUPANQUI SETS OUT, A SECOND TIME, BY ORDER OF HIS FATHER, TO CONQUER WHAT REMAINED UNSUBDUED IN CHINCHAY-SUYU" (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 20218/ 20218-8. txt). In Sir Clements Markham. History of the Incas. Sir Clements Markham. . see note 104 [32] De Las Casas, Bartolom; Pagden, Anthony (September 8, 1999). A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indias. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044562-5. [33] Seaver (1995), p. 208 [34] Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas. The Hiram Key. Fair Winds Press, 2001 ISBN 1-931412-75-8. [35] "Earl Henry Sinclair" (http:/ / www. orkneyjar. com/ history/ historicalfigures/ henrysinclair/ ). Orkneyjar. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [36] Mark Oxbrow & I. Robertson. Rosslyn and the Grail. Mainstream Publishing, 2005 ISBN 1-84596-076-9. [37] Historian Mark Oxbrow, quoted in "The ship of dreams" (http:/ / heritage. scotsman. com/ myths. cfm?id=515952005) by Diane MacLean, Scotsman.com, 13 May 2005 [38] "It is most probable that Columbus visited Bristol, where he was introduced to English commerce with Iceland." Bedini, Silvio A. and David Buisseret (1992). The Christopher Columbus encyclopedia, Volume 1, University of Michigan press, republished by Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-13-142670-2, p. 175 [39] Seaver (1995) p.222 [40] Seaver, K.A.(1995) The Frozen Echo Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 3161 6 p.221 [41] Columbus, Christopher; Cohen, J. M. (translator) (May 5, 1992). The Four Voyages, pp. 2737. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044217-0. [42] Soren, Larsen. (1925) The Pining voyage: The Discovery of North America Twenty Years Before Columbus. [43] Thomas L. Hughes, The German Discovery of America: A Review of the Controversy over Didrik Pinings Voyage of Exploration in 1473 in the North Atlantic (http:/ / www. ghi-dc. org/ publications/ ghipubs/ bu/ 033/ 79. pdf) in: German Historical Institute Bulletin, No. 33 (Fall 2003) [44] Joseph Needham & Colin A. Ronan (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. 3. Cambridge University Press. pp.11920. ISBN0521315603 [45] Hui-lin Li; Li, Hui-lin (19601961). "Mu-lan-p'i: A Case for Pre-Columbian Transatlantic Travel by Arab Ships". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Harvard-Yenching Institute) 23: 114126. doi:10.2307/2718572. JSTOR2718572 [46] Joseph Needham & Colin A. Ronan (1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China. 3. Cambridge University Press. p.120. ISBN0521315603 [47] Pace, Eric (2001-04-09). "Cyrus Gordon, Scholar of Ancient Languages, Dies at 92" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2001/ 04/ 09/ obituaries/ 09GORD. html). The New York Times. . [48] Robert C. Mainfort, Jr., and Mary L. Kwas, "The Bat Creek Stone: Judeans In Tennessee?" Tennessee Anthropologist Vol. XVI, No. 1, Spring 1991 (http:/ / ramtops. co. uk/ bat1. html) [49] Cyrus Herzl Gordon, Before Columbus; links between the Old World and ancient America, Crown, 1971, p. 138 [50] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 677086 [51] McMenamin, M. A. 1996. Carthaginian Cartagraphy: A Stylized Exergue Map. Meanma Press, South Hadley, Massachusetts; McMenamin, M. A. 1997. The Phoenician World Map. Mercator's World 2(3):46-51; Scott, J. M. 2005. Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity. Cambridge University Press, pp. 182-183. [52] McMenamin, M. A. 2000. Phoenicians, Fakes and Barry Fell: Solving the Mystery of Carthaginian Coins Found in America. Meanma Press, South Hadley, Massachusetts.

239

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

[53] Williams, Gwyn A (1979): Madoc: The Making of a Myth. London: Eyre Methuen [54] Sisson, David (September 1984). "Did the Irish discover America?" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050321123920/ http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1189/ is_v256/ ai_3410276). The Saturday Evening Post. Retrieved July 23, 2006. [55] Oppenheimer, Monroe; Wirtz, Willard (Spring 1989). "A Linguistic Analysis of Some West Virginia Petroglyphs" (http:/ / cwva. org/ ogam_rebutal/ wirtz. html). The West Virginia Archeologist 41 (1). . Retrieved 2007-08-08. [56] "Roman 'head' found in Mexico" (http:/ / www. econ. ohio-state. edu/ jhm/ arch/ calix. htm). Econ.ohio-state.edu. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [57] "Roman head found in America" (http:/ / www. unm. edu/ ~rhristov/ calixtlahuaca. html). Unm.edu. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [58] Romeo Hristov and Santiago Genovs (1999).MESOAMERICAN EVIDENCE OF PRE-COLUMBIAN TRANSOCEANIC CONTACTS. Ancient Mesoamerica, 10, pp 207-213 [59] "http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online& aid=43757" [60] Forbes, Jack D. The American Discovery of Europe University of Illinois Press; 16 April 2007 ISBN 978-0-252-03152-6 p.108 [61] Hristov and Genovs (1999). [62] "http:/ / www. public. asu. edu/ ~mesmith9/ " [63] Smith, Michael E., " The 'Roman Figurine' Supposedly Excavated at Calixtlahuaca (http:/ / www. public. asu. edu/ ~mesmith9/ tval/ RomanFigurine. html)". Accessed: 2012-02-13. (Archived by WebCite at http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 65PlUfqJr) [64] Simons, Marlise (June 25, 1985). "Underwater Exploring is Banned in Brazil" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?sec=health& res=9402E2DA1139F936A15755C0A963948260& n=Top/ Reference/ Times Topics/ Subjects/ S/ Salvage). The New York Times. . [65] "NEARA 36-2 first draft.indd" (http:/ / www. neara. org/ jett/ precolumbiantransoceanic. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [66] Jashemski, Wilhelmina (2002). The natural history of Pompeii (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=3xfjyTqqR7IC& pg=PA81& dq="Domenico+ Casella"+ pineapple#v=onepage& q="Domenico Casella" pineapple& f=false). Cambridge University Press. p.81. ISBN9780521800549. . [67] Biblical Archaeology Review, JulyAugust, 1993. [68] Pontificio Istituto biblico, Pontificio Istituto biblico. Facolt di studi dell'antico oriente (1987). Orientalia, Volume 56. University of Virginia. [69] Alberto Marini (1985). "A Sumerian Inscription of the Fuente Magna, La Paz, Bolivia" (http:/ / epigraphy. org/ volume_13. htm). Epigraphic Society Occasional Papers 13: 9. . [70] "Fuente Magna Bowl on Flickr (side view)" (http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ 41766098@N03/ 3896401412/ ). Flickr.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [71] bkreykenbohm, gneubert. "Museo de Or" (http:/ / www. bolivialine. com/ bolivia/ museums_la_paz_1. htm#museodeoro). Bolivialine.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-03. [72] Stirling, p. 2, who cites Melgar, Jose (1869) "Antigedades mexicanas, notable escultura antigua", in Boletn de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografa y Estadstica, poca 2, vol. 1, pp. 292297, Mexico, as well as Melgar, Jose (1871) "Estudio sobre la antigedad y el origen de la Cabeza Colosal de tipo etipico que existe en Hueyapan del cantn de los Tuxtlas" in Boletn de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografa y Estadstica, poca 2, vol. 3, pp. 104109; Mexico. [73] Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. ISBN 1-56584-100-X. [74] Joan Baxter (13 December 2000). "Africa's 'greatest explorer'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 1068950. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2008-02-12. [75] Morison, Samuel Eliot (1963). Journals & Other Documents on the Life & Voyages of Christopher Columbus. New York: The Heritage Press. pp.262,263. [76] Thacher, John Boyd (1903). Christopher Columbus: his life, his work, his remains, as revealed by original printed and manuscript records, together with an essay on Peter Martyr of Anghera and Bartolom De Las Casas, the first Historians of America. New York: G. P. Putnams Sons. pp.379, 380. [77] Gabriel Haslip-Viera; Bernard Ortiz de Montellano; Warren Barbour, "Robbing Native American Cultures: Van Sertima's Afrocentricity and the Olmecs" (http:/ / www. unl. edu/ rhames/ courses/ current/ vansertima. pdf), Current Anthropology, Vol.38 (3), June 1997 [78] Logan Museum of Anthropology, Beloit College. Remojadas (http:/ / www. beloit. edu/ logan_online/ collections/ catalogue/ central_america/ veracruz/ remojadas/ remojadas. php). Accessed: 2012-02-13. (Archived by WebCite at http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 65PkndJHr) [79] This theory is mentioned in the history book The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (1963) by William H. McNeill [80] Meggers. [81] Xu, Origin of the Olmec civilization. [82] Dr. Mike Xu's Transpacific website (http:/ / www. chinese. tcu. edu/ www_chinese3_tcu_edu. htm), comparing Olmec and Chinese Shang period artifacts. [83] See for example Grove (1976). [84] Feder, Kenneth L., Frauds, Myths and Mysteries, Third Edition, Mayfield Publishing Company, 1999 pp. 103104 [85] Menzies, Gavin. 1421: The Year China Discovered the World (Transworld Publishers, 2003). [86] "The 1421 myth exposed" (http:/ / www. 1421exposed. com/ ). . Retrieved 2007-03-22. [87] "Zheng He in the Americas and Other Unlikely Tales of Exploration and Discovery" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070317044419/ http:/ / www. csicop. org/ sb/ 2004-09/ tales. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. csicop. org/ sb/ 2004-09/ tales. html) on 2007-03-17. . Retrieved 2007-03-22.

240

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

[88] "1421: The Year China Discovered the World by Gavin Menzies" (http:/ / www. asianreviewofbooks. com/ arb/ article. php?article=201). . Retrieved 2007-03-22. [89] Finlay, Robert (2004). "How Not to (Re)Write World History: Gavin Menzies and the Chinese Discovery of America" (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jwh/ 15. 2/ finlay. html). Journal of World History 15 (2). . [90] J. Huston McCulloch (7 February 2001). "Maize in Pre-Columbian India" (http:/ / econ. ohio-state. edu/ jhm/ arch/ maize. html). Archaeological Outliers. . Retrieved 2008-08-13. [91] Payak, M.M., and Sachan, J.K.S. 1993 "Maize Ears Not Sculpted in 13th Century Somnathpur Temple in India." Economic botany. APR 01 1993, vol. 47 no. 2, P. 202[92] Valdivia, Jomon Fishermen, and the Nature of the North Pacific: Some Nautical Problems with Meggers, Evans, and Estrada's (1965) Transoceanic Contact Thesis Gordon F. McEwan, D. Bruce Dickson American Antiquity, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Jul., 1978), pp. 362371. [93] Prehistory of the Americas By Stuart J. Fiedel pp 188189. [94] Davis, Nancy Yaw (200). The Zuni Enigma. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-32230-0, ISBN 978-0-393-32230-9 [95] *Brewer, Stewart W., (1999); "The History of an Idea: The Scene on Stela 5 from Izapa, Mexico, as a Representation of Lehi's Vision of the Tree of Life" (http:/ / farms. byu. edu/ display. php?table=jbms& id=180), (p. 12)

241

References
Ashe, Geoffrey, The Quest for America (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971); Fagan, Brian M. The Great Journey. Thames and Hudson. 1987); Feder, Kenneth L. (1999) "Frauds, myths, and mysteries: science and pseudoscience in archaeology" (3rd ed., Mountain View, Calif. : Mayfield Pub. Co., 1999) Fell, Barry (1984) America B.C. : Ancient Settlers in the New World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984) William J. Hamblim Archaeology and the Book of Mormon (Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 1993), Volume 5, Issue 1, pp.250272, Text (http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?id=126&table=review) ; Gerol, E. Harry Dioses, Templos y Ruinas. Guernsey, Julia (2006) Ritual and Power in Stone: The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapan Style Art, University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, ISBN 978-0-292-71323-9. Hey, J. (2005). "On the number of New World founders: A population genetic portrait of the peopling of the Americas". Public Library of Science Biology 3: e193. Holst, Sanford (2005) Phoenicians Lebanon's Epic Heritage, Cambridge & Boston Press, Los Angeles, California. Howgaard, William (1971) The Voyages of the Norsemen to America (New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1914, Kraus Reprint Co., 1971); Hristov, Romeo H. and Santiago Genovs T. (2001) "The Roman Head from Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca, Mexico: A Review of the evidence" (http://www.unm.edu/~rhristov/Romanhead.html), Paper prepared for the 66thAnnual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans (2001). Huyghe, Patrick (1992) Columbus was Last: A Heretical History of who was First (New York: Hyperion, 1992; Anomalist Books, 2005) Ingstad, Helge Westward to Vinland (New York: St. Martins, 1969); Johnson, Adrian America Explored (New York: The Viking Press, 1974); Jones, Gwyn A History of the Vikings (Oxford University Press, 1984); Jones, Peter N. American Indian mtDNA, Y Chromosome Genetic Data, and the Peopling of North America. Boulder: Bauu Press. 2004; Lawrence, Harold G. (1962). African Explorers of the New World. John Henry and Mary Louisa Dunn Bryant Foundation. ISBN B0007HV7US. Arlington Mallery and Mary Roberts Harrison, The Rediscovery of Lost America (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1979); Marcus, G. J., "The Conquest of the North Atlantic" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); Mowat, Farley (1998) The Farfarers (Toronto, Key Porter Books, 1998) ISBN 1-55013-989-4; Frederick J. Pohl, The Lost Discovery (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1952); Frederick J. Pohl, The Viking Explorers (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1966);

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Gary A. Rendsburg, "'Someone Will Succeed in Deciphering Minoan': Minoan Linear A as a West Semitic Dialect," Biblical Archaeologist, 59:1 (1996), pp.3643, esp. p.40. Seaver, K.A.(1995) The Frozen Echo: Greenland and the Exploration of North America ca A.D. 10001500 Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 3161 6 Smith, Michael E. " The 'Roman Figurine' Supposedly Excavated at Calixtlahuaca (http://www.public.asu.edu/ ~mesmith9/tval/RomanFigurine.html)", accessed December 2007. Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2006) "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages." In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. Pp.238297. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4 Sorenson, John L.; Raish, Martin H. (1996) Pre-Columbian Contact with the Americas Across the Oceans: An Annotated Bibliography. 2v. 2d ed., rev., Provo, Utah: Research Press, ISBN 0-934893-21-7. Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2009) World Trade and Biological Exchanges Before 1492, Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, ISBN 978-0-595-52441-9; Stirling, Matthew (1967) "Early History of the Olmec Problem", in Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec, E. Benson, ed., Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Storey, Alice A.;Ramrez, Jose Miguel; Quiroz, Daniel; Burley, David V.; Addison, David J.; Walter, Richard; Anderson, Atholl J.; Hunt, Terry L.; Athens, J. Stephen; Huynen, Leon; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth A. (2007) "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile", in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, June 19, 2007, v. 104, n. 25, pp.1033510339. Van Sertima, Ivan (1976). They Came Before Columbus. Random House. ISBN0-394-40245-6. Von Wuthenau, Alexander (1975). Unexpected Faces in Ancient America: The Historical Testimony of Pre-Columbian Artists. Crown Publishers. ISBN0-517-51657-8. Wauchope, Robert (1962) Lost Tribes & Sunken Continents. University of Chicago Press. Williams, Stephen (1991) "Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory", Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 0-8122-8238-8/0-8122-1312-2. Man across the sea: Problems of Pre-Columbian contacts (Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1971). Report of Severin's trip in the National Geographic Magazine, Volume 152, Number 6 (December 1977).

242

Further reading
Erik Wahlgren The Vikings and America (1986, 2000) ISBN 0-500-28199-8. Cyrus H. Gordon Before Columbus; Links Between the Old World and Ancient America (1971) ISBN 0517504413

External links
Paper given at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology (2001) on The Calixtlahuaca Head (http://www.unm.edu/~rhristov/Romanhead.html) The Mystery of the Cocaine Mummies (http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Misc/mummies.htm) (Transcript of television broadcast) A look at the Evidence for Cocaine in Mummies by British Biochemist Duncan Edlin (http://www. thehallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=45) Thomas Hughes: "The German Discovery of America: A Review of the Controversy over Didrik Pinings Voyage of Exploration in 1473 in the North Atlantic" (http://www.ghi-dc.org/publications/ghipubs/bu/033/79.pdf), in: GHI Bulletin, Nr. 33 (Fall 2003) Robbing Native American Cultures: Van Sertima's Afrocentricity and the Olmecs, an article from Current Anthropology (http://www.hallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=73)

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Plant Evidence for Contact between Africa and the New World by Professor Bernard Ortiz de Montellano (http:// www.hallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=88) Goodbye Columbus? The Pseudohistory of Who Discovered America (http://www.hallofmaat.com/modules. php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=74) Archives of Cultural Exchanges (http://www.archivesofculturalexchanges.org/index.html)

243

Out-of-place artifact
Out-of-place artifact (OOPArt) is a term coined by American naturalist and cryptozoologist Ivan T. Sanderson for an object of historical, archaeological, or paleontological interest found in a very unusual or seemingly impossible context[1] that could challenge conventional historical chronology. The term "out-of-place artifact" is rarely used by mainstream historians or scientists. Its use is largely confined to cryptozoologists, proponents of ancient astronaut theories, Young Earth creationists, and paranormal enthusiasts.[2] The term is used to describe a wide variety of objects, from anomalies studied by mainstream science to pseudoarchaeology far outside the mainstream, to objects that have been shown to be hoaxes or to have mundane explanations. Critics argue that most purported OOPArts which are not hoaxes are the result of mistaken interpretation, wishful thinking, or a mistaken belief that a particular culture couldn't have created an artifact or technology due to a lack of knowledge or materials. Supporters regard OOParts as evidence that mainstream science is overlooking huge areas of knowledge, either willfully or through ignorance.[2] In some cases, the uncertainty results from inaccurate descriptions. For example: the Wolfsegg Iron was said to be a perfect cube, but in fact it is not; the Klerksdorp spheres were said to be perfect spheres, but they are not; and the Iron pillar of Delhi was said to be stainless, but it has some rust near its base. Many writers or researchers who question conventional views of human history have used purported OOPArts in attempts to bolster their arguments; they are used to support religious descriptions of pre-history, ancient astronaut theories, or the notion of vanished civilizations that possessed knowledge or technology more advanced than our own.[2]

Validation
In rare cases, the validity of claims is validated by mainstream science; i.e., it is proven that some artifact was created with a technology not previously thought to have existed in the ancient culture that built it. One piece that changed mainstream understanding of ancient technology is the Antikythera mechanism, a type of mechanical computer[3][4] which has been fully validated as a real object from about 150100 BC. Before X-ray examination, its clockwork-like appearance (dating about 1,000 years before clocks were invented) was cited as evidence of alien visitation by fringe sources.[5] A partially validated example is the Maine penny, from the Goddard site in Blue Hill, Maine, United States. It is an 11th century Norse coin found in an American Indian shell midden. Over 20,000 objects were found over a 15-year period at the site. The sole non-Native artifact was the coin.[6] Some argue it demonstrates Norse visits to North America unknown to archaeology; mainstream belief is that it was brought to the site from Labrador or Newfoundland by native trade.[7]

Out-of-place artifact

244

Examples
These are examples of objects that have been argued by various fringe authors (see list) to have been OOPArts. They are categorised according to their current status in the eyes of the mainstream scientific community (for references on this, see the linked article on each item). Here "validation" means that the object in question has been validated as evidence of technological developments that were present in an ancient society and which were previously unknown to us.

Entirely fictional
Dropa stones: Invented by David Gamon (as David Agamon) as part of his false document Sungods in Exile.

Probably debunked
Modern-day creations Acmbaro figures: Mid-20th century figurines of dinosaurs, attributed by Waldemar Julsrud to an ancient society. Crystal skulls: supposedly demonstrate more advanced stonecutting skills than were available in pre-Columbian South America. Appear to have been made in the 19th century. Ica stones: Depict Inca dinosaur-hunters, surgery, and other modern or fanciful topics. Collected by Javier Cabrera Darquea who believed them to be prehistoric. Kensington Runestone: Purports to have been made by 15th century descendents of Leif Ericson's colony. Generally believed to be a modern-day hoax.

An Ica stone depicting a dragon-like animal

The Michigan relics, forged, supposedly ancient artifacts that were supposed to prove that people of an ancient Near Eastern culture had lived in Michigan, USA. The Tucson artifacts, another hoax. The Newark Holy Stones. Calaveras Skull a hoax. Natural objects mistaken for artifacts Baigong Pipes: Their natural vs artificial status is uncertain; see the article for details. Eltanin Antenna: Actually a sponge Klerksdorp spheres: Actually Precambrian concretions Erroneously dated objects Coso artifact: Thought to be prehistoric; actually a 1920s spark plug. Malachite Man: Thought to be from the early Cretaceous; actually a post-Columbian burial. Wolfsegg Iron: Thought to be from the Tertiary epoch; actually from an early mining operation. Inaccurately described as a perfect cube.

Out-of-place artifact

245

Unconfirmed objects
Dorchester Pot: a metal pot claimed to have been blasted out of solid rock in 1852. Kingoodie artifact: an object resembling a corroded nail, said to have been encased in solid rock. Fuente Magna: A bowl with what appears to be a Sumerian inscription on it, but was found in Tiwanaku.

Unorthodox interpretations of real ancient artifacts

Baalbek megaliths: Supposedly impossible to move with Bronze Age technology. Dendera Lamps: supposed to depict a light bulb, but made in Ptolemaic Egypt. Iron Man (Eiserner Mann): an old iron pillar, said to be a unique oddity in Central Europe. Iron pillar of Delhi: supposedly demonstrates more advanced metallurgy than was available in 1st millennium India. Nazca Lines: supposedly impossible to design without the aid of an aerial view. Pacal's sarcophagus lid: Described by Erich von Dniken as a depiction of a spaceship. Piri Reis map: several ancient astronauts authors, and others such as Gavin Menzies and Charles Hapgood, suggested that this map, made by the Turkish admiral Piri Reis from a diverse range of sources centuries before the Antarctica was discovered, features that continent and even has many points of continuity with modern maps of the Antarctica below its ice sheets.

The iron pillar of Delhi

Saqqara Bird: supposed to depict a glider, but made in Ancient Egypt. Shakkidog: small humanoid and animal figurines made during the late Jmon period (14,000 400 BCE) of prehistoric Japan, said to resemble extraterrestrial astronauts. Stone spheres of Costa Rica: inaccurately described as perfectly spherical, and therefore as demonstrating greater stoneworking skills than were available in pre-Columbian times.

Formerly orthodox interpretations of artifacts

Baghdad Battery: Vase and rods made in Parthian or Sassanid Persia. May have been used as a galvanic cell for electroplating, though no electroplated artifacts from this era have been found. Lake Winnipesaukee mystery stone: Originally thought to be a record of a treaty between tribes; but later analysis has called its authenticity into question.

Partially validated
Maine penny: May be a sign of pre-Columbian contact. Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head: said to be a bust in the Classical Roman style, found in a Mexican tomb.

Out-of-place artifact

246

Fully validated
Antikythera mechanism: a set of gears from an orrery, dating to the 2nd century BCE.

References
[1] Hatcher Childress, David (1996). Lost cities of Atlantis, ancient Europe & the Mediterranean (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eDSFkAghU34C& pg=PA171& lpg=PA171& dq="Ivan+ T. + Sanderson"+ OOPart& ct=result#v=onepage& q="Ivan T. Sanderson" OOPart& f=false). Adventures Unlimited Press. ISBN0932813259. . Retrieved April 19, 2010. [2] O'Hehir, Andrew (Wednesday, Aug 31, 2005). "Archaeology from the dark side" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ news/ feature/ 2005/ 08/ 31/ archaeology/ index. html). Salon.com. . Retrieved 19 April 2010. [3] " The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project (http:/ / www. antikythera-mechanism. gr/ project/ general/ the-project. html)", The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 2007-07-01 Quote: "The Antikythera Mechanism is now understood to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena and operates as a complex mechanical "computer" which tracks the cycles of the Solar System." [4] Paphitis, Nicholas (December 1, 2006). "Experts: Fragments an Ancient Computer" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 11/ 30/ AR2006113001303. html). The Washington Post (ATHENS, Greece). . "Imagine tossing a top-notch laptop into the sea, leaving scientists from a foreign culture to scratch their heads over its corroded remains centuries later. A Roman shipmaster inadvertently did something just like it 2,000 years ago off southern Greece, experts said late Thursday." [5] "The Antikythera Mechanism" (http:/ / skeptoid. com/ episodes/ 4184). Skeptoid.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-24. [6] "Bye, Columbus" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,919916,00. html). Time. December 11, 1978. . [7] "Vinland Archeology" (http:/ / www. mnh. si. edu/ vikings/ voyage/ subset/ vinland/ archeo. html). Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History. . Retrieved 2011-08-24.

External links
Against OOPArts Bad Archaeology (http://www.badarchaeology.net/bad/index.php), critical perspective on Creationist and New Age claims related to out-of-place artifacts Salon article: Archaeology from the dark side (http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2005/08/31/ archaeology/index.html) Out-of-place artifacts article from Cult and Fringe Archaeology website (http://www.kmatthews.org.uk/ cult_archaeology/out_of_place_artefacts.html)

Ancient astronauts

247

Ancient astronauts
Ancient astronauts

Ancient paintings from Val Camonica, Italy are believed to depict forgotten deities; ancient astronaut proponents claim these pictures resemble modern day astronauts despite being painted ca. 10,000 BC. Claims Intelligent extraterrestrial life visited the Earth in ancient times and profoundly affected the development of human civilization. Archaeology 1919 Charles Fort, Erich von Dniken Robert K. G. Temple, Zecharia Sitchin, Richard C. Hoagland, Burak Eldem Pseudoscientific concepts

Related scientific disciplines Year proposed Original proponents

Subsequent proponents

Some writers have proposed that intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth in antiquity or prehistory and made contact with humans. Such visitors are called ancient astronauts or ancient aliens. Proponents suggest that this contact influenced the development of human cultures, technologies and religions. A common variant of the idea is that deities from most, if not all, religions are actually extraterrestrials, and their technologies were taken as evidence of their divine status.[1][2] These proposals have been popularized, particularly in the latter half of the 20th century, by writers such as Erich von Dniken, Giorgio A. Tsoukalos, Zecharia Sitchin, Robert K. G. Temple, David Icke and Peter Kolosimo,[3] but the idea that ancient astronauts actually existed is not taken seriously by most academics, and has received little or no credible attention in peer reviewed studies.[4] Ancient astronauts have been widely used as a plot device in science fiction.

Overview
Proponents of ancient astronaut theories often maintain that humans are either descendants or creations of extraterrestrial beings who landed on Earth thousands of years ago. An associated idea is that much of human knowledge, religion, and culture came from extraterrestrial visitors in ancient times, in that ancient astronauts acted as a "mother culture". Ancient astronaut proponents also believe that travelers from outer space known as "astronauts" or "spacemen" built many of the structures on earth such as the pyramids in Egypt and the Moai stone heads of Easter Island or aided humans in building them.[5][6]

Ancient astronauts Proponents argue that the evidence for ancient astronauts comes from supposed gaps in historical and archaeological records, and they also maintain that absent or incomplete explanations of historical or archaeological data point to the existence of ancient astronauts. The evidence is said to include archaeological artifacts that they argue are anachronistic or beyond the presumed technical capabilities of the historical cultures with which they are associated (sometimes referred to as "Out-of-place artifacts"); and artwork and legends which are interpreted as depicting extraterrestrial contact or technologies. Certain mainstream academics have responded that gaps in contemporary knowledge of the past need not demonstrate that such speculative ancient astronaut ideas are a necessary conclusion to draw.[7] Francis Crick, the co-discoverer of the double helix structure of DNA, however strongly believed in what he called panspermia, the concept that earth was 'seeded' with life, probably in the form of bluegreen algae, by intelligent extraterrestrial species, for the purpose of ensuring life's continuity. He believed that this could have been done on any number of planets of this class, possibly using unmanned shuttles. He talks at length about this theory in his book Life Itself.[8] Thomas Gold, a professor of astronomy, suggested a "garbage theory" for the origin of life, proposing that life on earth might have spread from a pile of waste products accidentally dumped on Earth long ago by extraterrestrials.[9] The television series Ancient Aliens on the History channel features the main proponents in the ancient astronaut theory, and includes interviews with Giorgio A. Tsoukalos, David Childress, Erich von Dniken, Steven Greer and Nick Pope.[10]

248

Notable writers and publications

Paleocontact or "ancient astronaut" narratives first appear in early science fiction of the late 19th to early 20th century. The idea was proposed in earnest by Harold T. Wilkins (1954) and it received some consideration as a serious hypothesis during the 1960s, and has been mostly confined to the field of pseudoscience and pop culture since the 1970s. Ancient astronauts appear as a feature of UFO religions beginning with the Space opera in Scientology scripture (1967), followed by Raelism (1974).

Ancient astronauts

249

Erich von Dniken

Erich von Dniken was a leading proponent of this theory in the late 1960s and early 1970s, gaining a large audience through the 1968 publication of his best-selling book Chariots of the Gods? and its sequels. Certain artifacts and monumental constructions are claimed by von Dniken to have required a more sophisticated technological ability in their construction than that which was available to the ancient cultures who constructed them. Von Dniken maintains that these artifacts were constructed either directly by extraterrestrial visitors or by humans who learned the necessary knowledge from said visitors. These include Stonehenge, Pumapunku, the Moai of Easter Island, the Great Pyramid of Giza, and the ancient Baghdad electric batteries. Von Dniken claims that ancient art and iconography throughout the world illustrates air and space vehicles, non-human but intelligent creatures, ancient astronauts, and artifacts of an anachronistically advanced technology. Von Dniken also claims that geographically separated historical cultures share artistic themes, which he argues imply a common origin. One such example is von Dniken's interpretation of the sarcophagus lid recovered from the tomb of the Classic-era Maya ruler of Palenque, Pacal the Great. Von Dniken claimed the design represented a seated astronaut, whereas the iconography and accompanying Maya text identifies it as a portrait of the ruler himself with the World Tree of Maya mythology.

Sarcophagus lid of Pakal the great, which according to Von Dniken represents an "ancient astronaut" ascending to the stars in his spaceship.

The origins of many religions are interpreted by von Dniken as reactions to encounters with an alien race. According to his view, humans considered the technology of the aliens to be supernatural and the aliens themselves to be gods. Von Dniken claims that the oral and written traditions of most religions contain references to alien visitors in the way of descriptions of stars and vehicular objects travelling through air and space. One such is Ezekiel's revelation in the Old Testament, which Dniken interprets as a detailed description of a landing spacecraft. Von Dniken's theories became popularized in the U.S. after the NBC-TV documentary In Search Of Ancient Astronauts hosted by Rod Serling and the movie Chariots of the Gods. Critics argue that von Dniken misrepresented data, that many of his claims were unfounded, and that none of his core claims have been validated.[11]

Ancient astronauts

250

Zecharia Sitchin
Zecharia Sitchin's series The Earth Chronicles, beginning with The 12th Planet, revolves around Sitchin's interpretation of ancient Sumerian and Middle Eastern texts, megalithic sites, and artifacts from around the world. He theorizes the gods of old Mesopotamia were actually astronauts from the planet "Nibiru", which Sitchin claims the Sumerians believed to be a remote "12th planet" (counting the Sun, Moon, and Pluto as planets) associated with the god Marduk. According to Sitchin, Nibiru continues to orbit our sun on a 3,600-year elongated orbit. Sitchin also suggests that the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter is the An ancient Mesopotamian cylinder seal shattered remains of the ancient planet "Tiamat", which he claims was destroyed in one of Niburu's orbits through the solar system. Modern astronomy has found no evidence to support Sitchin's claims. Sitchin claimed there are Sumerian texts which tell the story that 50 Anunnaki, inhabitants of a planet named Nibiru, came to Earth approximately 400,000 years ago with the intent of mining raw materials, especially gold, for transport back to Nibiru. With their small numbers they soon tired of the task and set out to genetically engineer laborers to work the mines. After much trial and error they eventually created homo sapiens sapiens: the "Adapa" (model man) or Adam of later mythology. Sitchin contended the Anunnaki were active in human affairs until their culture was destroyed by global catastrophes caused by the abrupt end of the last ice age some 12,000 years ago. Seeing that humans survived and all they had built was destroyed, the Anunnaki left Earth after giving humans the opportunity and means to govern themselves. Modern archaeologists and experts in the ancient Sumerian culture and language reject every one of these claims insisting Sitchin had simply invented a non-existent Sumerian mythology, that the texts and tablets which Sitchin described do not actually exist, and that the texts of ancient Sumer, Akkad, and Ugarit do not contain any of these stories or even variations on them.[12][13] It has also been pointed out that many of Sitchin's translations of Sumerian and Mesopotamian words are not consistent with Mesopotamian cuneiform bilingual dictionaries, produced by ancient Akkadian scribes.[14] The Faculty of Oriental Studies at the University of Oxford has made available an online searchable database with English translations of the entire body of Sumerian literature for comparison.[15]

Robert Temple
Robert K. G. Temple's 1976 book, The Sirius Mystery argues that the Dogon people of northwestern Mali preserved an account of extraterrestrial visitation from around 5,000 years ago. He quotes various lines of evidence, including supposed advanced astronomical knowledge inherited by the tribe, descriptions, and comparative belief systems with ancient civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Sumer. His work draws heavily on the studies of cultural anthropologists Marcel Griaule and Germaine Dieterlen.[16]

Hieroglyphs at Abydos, Egypt that are said to depict aircraft

His conclusions have been criticized by scientists, who point out discrepancies within Temple's account, and suggested that the Dogon may have received some of their astronomical information recently, probably from

Ancient astronauts European sources, and may have misrepresented Dogon ethnography.[17][18][19]

251

Shklovski and Sagan

In their 1966 book Intelligent Life in the Universe[20] astrophysicists I.S. Shklovski and Carl Sagan devote a chapter[21] to arguments that scientists and historians should seriously consider the possibility that extraterrestrial contact occurred during recorded history. However, Shklovski and Sagan stressed that these ideas were speculative and unproven. Shklovski and Sagan argued that sub-lightspeed interstellar travel by extraterrestrial life was a certainty when considering technologies that were established or feasible in the late '60s;[22] that repeated instances of extraterrestrial visitation to Earth were plausible;[23] and that pre-scientific narratives can offer a potentially reliable means of describing contact with outsiders.[24] Additionally, Shklovski and Sagan cited tales of Oannes, a fishlike being attributed with teaching agriculture, mathematics, and the arts to early Sumerians, as deserving closer scrutiny as a possible instance of paleocontact due to its consistency and detail.[25]
[26]

In his 1979 book Broca's Brain, Sagan suggested that he and Shklovski might have inspired the wave of '70s ancient astronaut books, expressing disapproval of "von Dniken and other uncritical writers" who seemingly built on these ideas not as guarded speculations but as "valid evidence of extraterrestrial contact." Sagan argued that while many legends, artifacts, and purported out-of-place artifacts were cited in support of ancient astronaut theories, "very few require more than passing mention" and could be easily explained with more conventional theories. Sagan also reiterated his earlier conclusion that extraterrestrial visits to Earth were possible but unproven, and perhaps improbable.

A Dog figurine from Japan (dated 1000400 BCE). Ancient astronaut theorists suggest that these may represent extraterrestrial visitors.

UFO religions
Various new religious movements including theosophy, Nation of Islam, Scientology, The Urantia Book, Ralism, and Heaven's Gate believe in ancient and present-day contact with extraterrestrial intelligence. Many of these faiths see both ancient scriptures and recent revelations as connected with the action of aliens from other planetary systems. Sociologists and psychologists have found that UFO religions have similarities which suggest that members of these groups consciously or subliminally associate enchantment with the memes of science fiction.[27]

Evidence cited by proponents

Ancient religious texts
Proponents cite ancient mythologies to support their viewpoints based on the idea that ancient creation myths of gods who descend from the heavens to Earth to create or instruct humanity are actually representations of alien visitors, whose superior technology accounts for their reception as gods. Proponents attempt to draw an analogy to occurrences in modern times when isolated cultures are exposed to Western technology, such as when, in the early 20th century, "cargo cults" were discovered in the South Pacific: cultures who believed various Western ships and their cargo to be sent from the gods as fulfillment of prophecies concerning their return.[28]

Ancient astronauts Ramayana In Hindu mythology, the gods and their avatars travel from place to place in flying vehicles (variously called "flying chariots", "flying cars" or Vimanas). There are many mentions of these flying machines in the Ramayana, which dates to the 5th or 4th century BCE. Below are some examples: From Book 6, Canto CXXIII: The Magic Car:[29] Is not the wondrous chariot mine, Named Pushpak, wrought by hands divine. This chariot, kept with utmost care, Will waft thee through the fields of air, And thou shalt light unwearied down In fair Ayodhy's royal town. From Book 6, Canto CXXIV: The Departure:[29] Swift through the air, as Rma chose, The wondrous car from earth arose. And decked with swans and silver wings Bore through the clouds its freight of kings. Erich von Dniken discusses the Ramayana and the vimanas in Chariots of the Gods? chapter 6, suggesting that they were "space vehicles". To support his theory, he also offers a quotation which he says is from an 1889 translation of the Mahabharata by C. Roy: "Bhima flew with his Vimana on an enormous ray which was as brilliant as the sun and made a noise like the thunder of a storm".[30] See also Vaimanika Shastra, a text on Vimanas supposedly "channeled" in the early 20th century.[31] Book of Genesis and Book of Enoch The Book of Genesis, chapter 6 verses 14, states: When human beings began to increase in number on the earth and daughters were born to them, the sons of God saw that the daughters of humans were beautiful, and they married any of them they chose. ... The Nephilim were on the earth in those daysand also afterwardwhen the sons of God went to the daughters of humans and had children by them. Genesis 6:14 (New International Version) One interpretation is that the Nephilim are the children of the "sons of God" and "daughters of humans", although scholars are uncertain.[32] The King James Version replaces the term "Nephilim" with "giants". The first part of the apocryphal Book of Enoch expands and interprets Genesis 6:1. It explains that the "sons of God" were a group of 200 "angels" called "Watchers". Against God's wishes, these Watchers descended to Earth to breed with humans. Their offspring are the Nephilim, "giants" who "consumed all the acquisitions of men". When humans could no longer sustain the Nephilim, they turned against humanity. The Watchers also instructed humans in

252

Rama being welcomed back to Ayodhya in his "flying car"; some ancient astronauts theorists claim as evidence for flying vehicles in ancient antiquity

Ancient astronauts metallurgy and metalworking, cosmetics, sorcery, astrology, astronomy and meteorology. God then ordered the Watchers to be imprisoned in the ground. He created the Great Flood to rid Earth of the Nephilim and of the humans who had been given knowledge by the Watchers. However, to ensure humanity's survival, Noah is forewarned of the oncoming destruction. Because they disobeyed God, the book also describes the Watchers as "fallen angels".[33] Some ancient astronaut theorists believe that this story is a historical account of extraterrestrials visiting Earth. In their interpretation, the "angels" are extraterrestrials and were called Watchers because their mission was to observe humanity. Some of the extraterrestrials disobeyed orders; they made contact with humans, cross-bred with human females and shared knowledge with them. The Nephilim were thus half-human-half-extraterrestrial hybrids.[34] Chuck Missler and Mark Eastman argue that modern UFOs carry the fallen angels, or offspring of fallen angels: the Nephilim of Genesis, who have now returned. They believe it was this interbreeding between the angels and humans that led to what they call "the gene pool problem." Noah was perfect in his "generations," that is "Noah's genealogy was not tarnished by the intrusion of fallen angels. It seems that this adulteration of the human gene pool was a major problem on the planet earth."[35] Von Dniken also suggests that the two angels who visited Lot in Genesis 19 were not angels, but ancient astronauts. They may have used atomic weapons to destroy the city of Sodom. In any case, the otherworldly beings acted as if there was a time set for Sodom's destruction. Von Dniken questioned why God would work on a timetable and why an "infinitely good Father" would give "preference to 'favorite children,' such as Lot's family, over countless others."[36] Marc Dem completely reinterprets Genesis by claiming humanity started on another planet and that the God of the Bible is an extraterrestrial.[37] Book of Ezekiel In the Biblical Old Testament, chapter 1 of the Book of Ezekiel recounts a vision in which Ezekiel sees "an immense cloud" that contains fire and emits lightning and "brilliant light". It continues: "The center of the fire looked like glowing metal, and in the fire was what looked like four living creatures". These creatures are described as winged and humanoid, they "sped back and forth like flashes of lightning" and "fire moved back and forth among the creatures". The passage goes on to describe four shiny objects, each appearing "like a wheel intersecting a wheel". These objects could fly and they moved with the creatures: "When the living creatures moved, the wheels beside them moved; and when the living creatures rose from the ground, the wheels also rose".[38]

253

An engraved illustration of Ezekiel's 'vision' (1670)

In chapter 4 of Chariots of the Gods?, entitled "Was God an Astronaut?", von Dniken suggests that Ezekiel had seen a spaceship or spaceships; this hypothesis had been put forward by Morris Jessup in 1956[39] and by Arthur W. Orton in 1961.[40] A detailed version of this hypothesis was described by Josef F. Blumrich in his book The Spaceships of Ezekiel (1974).[41]

Ancient astronauts Elsewhere in the Bible The characteristics of the Ark of the Covenant and the Urim and Thummim have been said to suggest high technology, perhaps from alien origins.[42] Robert Dione and Paul Misraki published books in the 1960s claiming the events in the Bible were caused by alien technology.[43][44] Barry Downing, a Presbyterian minister wrote a book in 1968 claiming that Jesus was an extraterrestrial, citing (John 8: 23) and other biblical verses as evidence.[45] Some ancient astronaut proponents such as Von Daniken and Barry Downing believe that the concept of hell in the Bible could be a real description of the planet Venus brought to earth by extraterrestrials showing photos of the hot surface on Venus to humans.[46]

254

Ancient artwork
Other artistic support for the ancient astronaut theory has been sought in Palaeolithic cave paintings. Wondjina in Australia and Val Camonica in Italy (seen above) are claimed to bear a resemblance to present day astronauts.[47] Supporters of the ancient astronaut theory sometimes claim that similarities such as dome shaped heads, interpreted as beings wearing space helmets, prove that early man was visited by an extraterrestrial race.[48] More support of this theory draws upon what are claimed to be representations of flying saucers in medieval and renaissance art.[49] This is used to support the ancient astronaut theory by attempting to show that the creators of humanity return to check up on their creation throughout time.

Wondjina rock art in the Kimberley region, Australia

Comparison of some Ural pictograms to modern structural formulas of several chemical compounds (according to Russian researcher Vladimir Avinsky)

Ancient astronauts Nazca Lines The ancient Nazca Lines comprise hundreds of enormous ground drawings etched into the high desert landscape of Peru, which consist primarily of geometric shapes, but also include depictions of a variety of animals and at least one human figure. Many believers in ancient astronauts cite the Nazca lines as evidence because the figures created by the lines are most clearly depicted or only able to be seen when viewed from the air. Writing professor Joe Nickell of the University of Kentucky, using only technology he believed to be available to people of the time, was able to recreate one of the larger figures with a reasonable degree of accuracy.[50]

255

"The Astronaut" - a large geoglyph near the Nazca Lines

Ancient artifacts
Alleged physical evidence includes the discovery of artifacts in Egypt (the Saqqara Bird) and Colombia-Ecuador, which are claimed to be similar to modern planes and gliders,[51] although these have been interpreted by archaeologists as stylized representations of birds and insects.

Megalithic sites
Evidence for ancient astronauts is claimed to include the existence of ancient monuments and megalithic ruins such as the Giza pyramids of Egypt, Machu Picchu in Peru, or Baalbek in Lebanon, the Moai of Easter Island and Stonehenge of England.[52] Supporters contend these stone structures could not have been built with the technical abilities and tools of the people of the time and further argue that many could not be duplicated even today. They suggest that the large size of the building stones, the precision with which they were laid, and the distances many were transported leaves the question open as to who Ahu Tongariki near Rano Raraku; some ancient constructed these sites. These contentions are categorically rejected by astronaut theorists claim the stone structures were mainstream archeology. Some mainstream archeologists have built by (or with the help of) extraterrestrials participated in experiments to move large megaliths. These experiments have succeeded in moving megaliths up to at least 40 tons,[53][54] and they have speculated that with a larger workforce larger megaliths could be towed with ancient technology.[55] Such allegations are not unique in history, however, as similar reasoning lay behind the wonder of the Cyclopean masonry walling at Mycenaean cities in the eyes of Greeks of the following "Dark Age," who believed that the giant Cyclopes had built the walls.

Ancient astronauts

256

Religious and cultural practises

A number of ancient cultures, such as the Ancient Egyptians and some Native Americans, artificially lengthened the skulls of their children. Some ancient astronaut theorists propose that this was done to emulate extraterrestrial visitors, whom they saw as gods.[56][57] Among the ancient rulers depicted with elongated skulls are pharaoh Akhenaten and Nefertiti. It has been pointed out that the Grey aliens described by many alien abductees have similarly shaped heads.[56] In the program Ancient Aliens it was suggested that the owners of the biggest of the lengthened skulls may be human-extraterrestrial hybrids.[56]
An artificially lengthened Nazca skull at the Museo Regional de Ica in Peru

Reception
Despite the proponents' own interpretations of ancient writings and artifacts, there has yet to be found any evidence to support the ancient astronaut hypothesis. Alan F. Alford, author of Gods of the New Millennium (1996), was an adherent of the ancient astronaut theory. Much of his work draws on Sitchin's theories. However, he now finds fault with Sitchin's theory after deeper analysis, stating that: "I am now firmly of the opinion that these gods personified the falling sky; in other words, the descent of the gods was a poetic rendition of the cataclysm myth which stood at the heart of ancient Near Eastern religions."[58] The Christian creationist community is highly critical of many of the ancient astronaut ideas, the young earth creationist author Clifford A. Wilson published Crash Go the Chariots in 1972 in which he attempted to discredit all claims made in Von Daniken's book Chariots of the Gods.[59] In a 2004 article in Skeptic magazine,[60] Jason Colavito argues that von Dniken plagiarized many of the book's concepts from Le Matin des Magiciens, that this book in turn was heavily influenced by the Cthulhu Mythos, and that the core of the ancient astronaut theory originates in H. P. Lovecraft's short stories "The Call of Cthulhu" and "At the Mountains of Madness".

Popular culture
1897: Garrett P. Serviss (book, Edison's Conquest of Mars) 1919: Charles Fort (book, The Book of the Damned) 1928: H.P. Lovecraft (short story, "The Call of Cthulhu") 1954: Harold T. Wilkins (book, Flying Saucers from the Moon) 1956: Morris K. Jessup (book, UFOs and the Bible) 1957: Peter Kolosimo (book, Il pianeta sconosciuto (The Unknown Planet)) 1958: George Hunt Williamson (book, Secret Places of the Lion) 1958: Henri Lhote[61] (book, The Search for the Tassili Frescoes: The story of the prehistoric rock-paintings of the Sahara) 1959: Matest M. Agrest 1959: Jacques Bergier and Louis Pauwels (book, The Morning of the Magicians) 1960: Brinsley Le Poer Trench (book, The Sky People) 1963: Robert Charroux (book, One Hundred Thousand Years of Man's Unknown History) 1964: W. Raymond Drake (book, Gods or Spacemen?)

1965: Paul Misraki (book, Flying Saucers Through The Ages) 1966: Iosif Shklovsky and Carl Sagan (book, Intelligent Life in the Universe) 1967: Brad Steiger (book, The Flying Saucer Menace)

Ancient astronauts 1967: John Michell (book, The Flying Saucer Vision) 1968: Erich von Dniken (book, Chariots of the Gods?) 1968: Barry Downing (book, The Bible and Flying Saucers) 1968: Herg (graphic novel, Flight 714) 1969: Robert Dione (book, God Drives a Flying Saucer) 1969: Jean Sendy (book, Those Gods Who Made Heaven and Earth; the novel of the Bible) 1971: Andrew Tomas (book, We are not the first: riddles of ancient science) 1972: Thomas Charles Lethbridge (book, The Legend of the Sons of God: A Fantasy?) 1974: Charles Berlitz (book, The Bermuda Triangle) 1974: Josef F. Blumrich (book, The Spaceships of Ezekiel) 1974: Claude Vorilhon aka Rael (book, Le Livre Qui Dit La Vrit (The Book Which Tells the Truth)) 1974: Robin Collyns (book, Did Spacemen Colonise the Earth?) 1975: Graham Cairns-Smith (a biochemist who suggested that the ancestors of humans might have had alien biochemistries and presented some evidence to support this possibility in a biological research journal)[62][63] 1975: Serge Hutin (book, Alien Races and Fantastic Civilizations) 1975: Doctor Who (British television series): the serial Pyramids of Mars featured a conflict on Earth between aliens of a race named the Osirans forming the basis of Egyptian mythology, and a number of other Doctor Who serials have used similar ideas.[64] 1976: Robert K. G. Temple (book, The Sirius Mystery) 1976: John Baxter, Thomas Atkins (book The Fire Came By: The Riddle of the Great Siberian Explosion) 1977: John Philip Cohane (book, Paradox: The Case for the Extraterrestrial Origin of Man) 1977: Warren Smith (book, UFO Trek) 1978: George Sassoon and Rodney Dale (book, Manna Machine) 1978: Zecharia Sitchin (book, The 12th planet) 1984: Don Elkins, James McCarthy, Carla Rueckert (book, The Ra Material: An Ancient Astronaut Speaks (The Law of One, No 1)) 1988: Riley Martin (book, The Coming of Tan) 1993: David Icke (book, --and the truth shall set you free) 1996: Alan F. Alford (book, Gods of the New Millennium) 1996: Murry Hope (book, The Sirius Connection: Unlocking the Secrets of Ancient Egypt) 1996: Richard C. Hoagland (book, The Monuments of Mars: A City on the Edge of Forever) 1998: Lloyd Pye (book, Everything You Know is Wrong Book One: Human Evolution) 1998: James Herbert Brennan (book, Martian Genesis) 1999: David Hatcher Childress (book, Technology of the Gods, The Incredible Science of the Ancients) 1999: Laurence Gardner (book, Genesis of the Grail Kings: The Explosive Story of Genetic Cloning) 2003: Burak Eldem 2010: Ancient Aliens (documentary television series)

257

Ancient astronauts

258

Notes
[1] Lieb, Michael (1998). Children of Ezekiel: Aliens, Ufos, the Crisis of Race, and the Advent of End Time. Duke University Press. p.250. ISBN0-8223-2268-4. [2] Cithara. St. Bonaventure University. 1961. p.12. [3] Von Dniken, Erich (1984). Chariots of the Gods. Berkley Pub Group. ISBN0-4250-7481-1. [4] Harrold,. Noah's ark and ancient astronauts: Pseudoscientific beliefs about the past among a sample of college students. The Skeptical inquirer 11.1 1986: 61. Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal. 13 Dec 2010. [5] See section on Ancient Astronauts in The human myth: an introduction to anthropology by Michael D. Olien, Harper & Row, 1978 [6] (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=evADAAAAMBAJ& pg=PT17& dq=ancient+ astronauts+ civilization& hl=en& ei=3of1TZjNMcmr-gb2y-mABw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=book-preview-link& resnum=9& ved=0CFIQuwUwCA#v=onepage& q=ancient astronauts civilization& f=false) Article on Ancient astronauts in Weekly World News Apr 3, 2001 [7] Sagan, Carl. Broca's Brain. 1979 [8] Joseph A. Angelo, Encyclopedia of space and astronomy, 2006 p. 444 [9] Gold, T. "Cosmic Garbage," Air Force and Space Digest, 65 (May 1960). [10] "Ancient Aliens" (http:/ / www. history. com/ shows/ ancient-aliens). History.com. 2011-06-14. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [11] "Erich von Dniken's Chariots of the Gods: Science or Charlatanism?", Robert Sheaffer. First published in the "NICAP UFO Investigator", October/November, 1974. http:/ / www. debunker. com/ texts/ vondanik. html [12] Sitchin's Nibiru Hypothesis (http:/ / sitchiniswrong. com/ nibiru/ nibiru. htm) [13] Sumerian Lexical Lists and Sitchin's "Translations" (http:/ / sitchiniswrong. com/ sumerian/ sumerian. htm) [14] Open Letter to Zecariah Sitchin (http:/ / sitchiniswrong. com/ letter/ letter. htm) [15] Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL) (http:/ / www-etcsl. orient. ox. ac. uk) maintained by Oxford University [16] Temple, Robert K. G., The Sirius Mystery, 1976. ISBN 0-09-925744-0 [17] Sagan, Carl, Broca's Brain, published by Random House, Inc. in 1974 [18] Investigating the Sirius "Mystery" (http:/ / www. csicop. org/ si/ 7809/ sirius. html) - Skeptical Inquirer (1978) Ian Ridpath [19] Walter E. A. van Beek: "Dogon Restudied: A Field Evaluation of the Work of Marcel Griaule." Current Anthropology, 32 (1991): 139-167. [20] Shklovski, I.S and Carl Sagan. Intelligent Life in the Universe. San Francisco: Holden-Day, 1966 [21] "The Possible Consequences of Direct Contact," authored mostly by Sagan, according to line-by-line indications of individual or collaborative sections. [22] "civilizations, aeons more advanced than ours, must be plying the spaces between stars." Shklovski and Sagan, p. 464 [23] Even allowing for millions of years between visits from a hypothetical "Galactic survey ship", Sagan calculated ~104 such visits could have occurred "during [Earth's] geologic time". Shklovski and Sagan, p. 461; [24] Sagan cites the 1786 expedition of French explorer Jean-Franois de Galaup, comte de La Prouse, which made the earliest contact between European and Tlingit cultures. This contact story was preserved as an oral tradition by the preliterate Tlingit, and was first recorded by anthropologist George T. Emmons over a century after its occurrence. Though framed in a Tlingit cultural and spiritual paradigm, the story remained an accurate telling of the 1786 encounter. According to Sagan, this proved how "under certain circumstances, a brief contact with an alien civilization will be recorded in a reconstructable manner. The reconstruction will be greatly aided if (1) the account is committed to written record soon after the event; (2) a major change is effected in the contacted society; and (3) no attempt is made by the contacting civilization to disguise its exogenous nature." Shklovski and Sagan, p. 453 [25] "stories like the Oannes legend, and representations especially of the earliest civilizations on Earth, deserve much more critical studies than have been performed heretofore, with the possibility of direct contact with an extraterrestrial civilization as one of many possible alternative explanations". Shklovski and Sagan, p. 461 [26] Sagan, Broca's Brain, p. 67 [27] Partridge, C.H. (2003). UFO religions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zHT8CeeiWlIC). Routledge. ISBN9780415263245. . [28] "http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ faculty/ watkins/ cargocult. htm" [29] Sacred Texts: RMYAN OF VLMKI translated by Ralph T H Griffith (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ hin/ rama/ index. htm) [30] Erich von Dniken, Chariots of the Gods? ("Chapter 6: Ancient Imagination and Legends or Ancient Facts?"), 1968 [31] "http:/ / www. main. org/ polycosmos/ glxywest/ vimanas. htm" [32] James Orr says "it is not easy to be certain of the interpretation of this strange passage." "Nephilim," The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, James Orr, ed., (Chicago: Howard-Severance, 1930), Vol. IV, p. 2133. [33] Book of Enoch (English and Swedish translations) (http:/ / enoksbok. se/ cgi-bin/ slaupp. cgi?|1|1||jmf) [34] Ancient Aliens, Series 2 Episode 7: Angels and Aliens [35] Missler, Chuck, and Mark Eastman, Alien Encounters: The Secret Behind the UFO Phenomenon (Coeur d'Alene, ID: Koinonia House, 1997), 207. [36] von Dniken, 37. Le Poer Trench had previously speculated that a space vehicle had used nuclear weapons to destroy Sodom; Brinsley Le Poer Trench, The Sky People (New York: Award Books, 1970; copyright 1960, London) 64-5. [37] Gordon Stein, The encyclopedia of the paranormal, Prometheus Books, 1996 p. 29 [38] Ezekiel 1, New International Version [39] von Daniken, 38-9. Morris K. Jessup, UFO and the Bible (New York: Citadel Press, 1956) 56-59.

Ancient astronauts
[40] Arthur W. Orton: "The Four-Faced Visitors of Ezekiel", Analog Science Fact & Fiction, March 1961, p. 99 (e-text at Project Gutenberg: http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ ebooks/ 30252). [41] Josef F. Blumrich: The Spaceships of Ezekiel, Corgi Books, 1974. [42] "AncientDimensions Mysteries: De-Coded: The Ark Of The Covenant" (http:/ / farshores. org/ a06ark. htm). Farshores.org. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [43] Profile of Paul Misraki in UFOs in the 1980s by Jerome Clark, Apogee Books, 1990 [44] Philip H. Melling, Fundamentalism in America: millennialism, identity and militant religion, 1999, p. 183 [45] The Bible and Flying Saucers First Edition 1968. Second edition published in 1997 ISBN 1569247455 [46] "Hell is on the planet Venus" Weekly World News Aug 31, 1993 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QO0DAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA35& dq=venus+ hell& hl=en& ei=38L0TZ6NKdG38gO--ZCaBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=book-preview-link& resnum=3& ved=0CDUQuwUwAg#v=onepage& q=venus hell& f=false). Books.google.com. 1993-08-31. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [47] Cave paintings and locations such as Wondinja and are discussed in the book UFO: the continuing enigma, Reader's Digest Association, 1991 [48] UFO Evidence (http:/ / www. etcontact. net/ AncientAstronauts. htm) [49] "Art and UFO - Part 5" (http:/ / sprezzatura. it/ Arte/ Arte_UFO_5_eng. htm). Sprezzatura.it. 2002-11-23. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [50] "The Mysterious Nazca Lines" (http:/ / www. onagocag. com/ nazca. html). Onagocag.com. 1982-08-07. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [51] "Strange Artifacts, Ancient Flying Machines" (http:/ / www. world-mysteries. com/ sar_7. htm). World Mysteries. 1903-12-17. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [52] Christopher Penczak, Ascension Magick: Ritual, Myth & Healing for the New Aeon, 2007, p. 226 [53] "NOVA | Transcripts | Secrets of Lost Empires | Stonehenge" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ transcripts/ 2403stone. html). PBS. 1997-02-11. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [54] "NOVA Online | Mysteries of the Nile | August 27, 1999: The Third Attempt" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ egypt/ dispatches/ 990827. html). Pbs.org. 1999-08-27. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [55] History Channel "Mega Movers: Ancient Mystery Moves" [56] Kevin Burns (executive producer) (2011). Ancient Aliens, Series 3, Episode 8: Aliens and Lost Worlds (motion picture). A+E Networks. [57] David Hatcher Childress, Renato Vesco. Man-Made UFOs. 2007. p.179 [58] "Ancient Astronauts" (http:/ / www. eridu. co. uk/ Author/ human_origins/ ancient_astronauts. html). Eridu.co.uk. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [59] Clifford Wilson, Crash Go the Chariots, Lancer Books, 1972 [60] "Charioteer of the Gods" (http:/ / jcolavito. tripod. com/ lostcivilizations/ id26. html). Jcolavito.tripod.com. 2001-03-10. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [61] "Lhote, Henri (1903-1991)" (http:/ / www. daviddarling. info/ encyclopedia/ L/ Lhote. html). Daviddarling.info. 2007-02-01. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [62] A case for an alien ancestry, A. G. Cairns-Smith, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 189, 249-74, 1975 [63] "A Case for an Alien Ancestry" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1975RSPSB. 189. . 249C). Adsabs.harvard.edu. . Retrieved 2011-06-18. [64] Richards, Justin (2006) (in English). Doctor Who: Aliens and Enemies. United Kingdom: BBC Books. p.72. ISBN0563486465.

259

References
Charroux, Robert (1974). Masters of the world. Berkley Pub. Corp. ASIN B0006WIE1O. Colavito, Jason (2005). The Cult of Alien Gods: H. P. Lovecraft and Extraterrestrial Pop Culture. Prometheus Books. ISBN1-59102-352-1. Dniken, Erich von (1972). Chariots of the Gods. Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN0-425-16680-5. Grnschlo, Andreas (June 2006). ""Ancient Astronaut" Narrations: A Popular Discourse on Our Religious Past" (http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2006/gruenschloss2006.pdf) (PDF). Marburg Journal of Religion 11 (1). ISSN 1612-2941. Ral (1974). The Message Given by Extra-terrestrials. Nova Dist. ISBN2-940252-20-3. Sitchin, Zecharia (1999). The 12th Planet (The Earth Chronicles, Book 1). Avon. ISBN0-380-39362-X.

Ancient astronauts

260

Further reading
Avalos, Hector (2002) "The Ancient Near East in Modern Science Fiction: Zechariah Sitchin's The 12th Planet as Case Study." Journal of Higher Criticism, vol. 9, no. 1, pp.4970. Harris, Christie (1975) Sky Man on the Totem Pole? New York: Atheneum.

External links
'Fringe' or 'cult' archaeology examined by professional archaeologist Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews (http://www. kmatthews.org.uk/cult_archaeology/index.html)

List of largest monoliths in the world

This is a list of monoliths organized according to the size of the largest block of stone on the site. A monolith is a large stone which has been used to build a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. In this list at least one colossal stone over ten tons has been moved to create the structure or monument. In most cases the ancient civilizations had little, if any, advanced technology that would help the moving of these monoliths. The most notable exception is that of the ancient Greeks and Romans who had cranes and treadwheels to help lift colossal stones (see List of ancient monoliths).
People on Nias Island in Indonesia move monoliths to a construction site, circa

Documented in recent times, there is a list of 1915 efforts to move colossal stones that used technology that wasn't more advanced than the technology the ancient civilizations used. Most of these weights are based on estimates by published scholars; however, there have been numerous false estimates of many of these stones presented as facts. To help recognize exaggerations, an introductory description shows how to calculate the weight of colossal stones by calculating volume and density.

List of largest monoliths in the world

261

Calculating the weight of monoliths

In the cases of the smaller monoliths it may be possible to weigh them. However in most cases the monoliths were too large or they may have been part of an ancient structure so this method could not be used. If you know the volume of a stone and the density you can calculate the weight by multiplying them. The density of most stones is between two and three tons per cubic meter. The average weight of granite is about 2.75 metric tons per cubic meter, limestone 2.3 metric tons per cubic meter, sandstone or marble 2.5 tons per cubic meter.[1][2][3][4][5] Some softer stones may be lighter than 2 tons per cubic meter like volcanic tuff or basalt which weighs about 1.9 tons per cubic meter.[6][7] Since the density of most of these stones fluctuates it is necessary to know the source for the stone and volume to obtain accurate measurements.
[8][9]

The unfinished base for the stele commissioned by the Yongle Emperor

Rock density
The discussion above is accurate as far as it goes, which is only to the first significant figure. To go any further one needs to be relatively sophisticated about surveying the monolith (including realistic and explicit assessment of the shapes of inaccessible portions of the monolith), then about calculating the volume (and volumetric errors, which vary crudely as the cube of linear uncertainties). Finally and crucially the rock density needs to be measured with appropriate precision. Identifying the rock type is not going to be sufficient as this table (from[10]) illustrates:

Densities of common rocks

Material Sediments Sandstone Shale Limestone Granite Density (g/cm3) 1.72.3 2.02.6 2.02.7 2.52.8 2.52.8

Metamorphic Rock 2.63.0 Basalts 2.73.1

Simply identifying the monolith as being "sandstone" would allow a reasonable 15% uncertainty in the weight estimate. In practice, one would measure the density of the monolith itself, and preferably document any variation in density within the monolith as they are made of natural materials, which have not been engineered for homogeneous parameters. Non-destructive methods of density measurements are available (e.g. electron back-scatter); alternatively the site may contain already-separated fragments of the monolith which can be used for laboratory measurements or on-site techniques. At the crudest, a weighing device and a bucket can give you two significant figures for a density value.

List of largest monoliths in the world

262

Quarried monoliths
This list includes only quarried, but not moved monoliths.

The Unfinished obelisk of Assuan

Weight 16,250 t [11]

Name/Site

Type

Location Nanjing, China

Builder Ming Empire

Comment 30.35 m long, 13 m wide, 16 m high [12]

Stele Base in Block the Yangshan Quarry Unnamed monolith Unfinished obelisk Block

1,242 t 1,100 t

[13] [14]

Baalbek, Lebanon

Roman Empire 19.520.5 m long, 4.3456 m wide, 4.5 m high Ancient Egypt 41.75 m long, 2.54.4 m wide

Obelisk Assuan, Egypt Block Baalbek, Lebanon

1,000.12 t 207 t [16]

[15] Stone of the South Granite column

Roman Empire 20.3176 m long, 45.29 m wide, 4.2132 m high

Column Mons Claudianus, Egypt Roman Empire Ca. 17.7m (59 feet) long[17]

Moved monoliths
This list includes only quarried and moved monoliths.

The 1,250 t heavy Thunder Stone in Saint Petersburg. On top an equestrian statue of Peter the Great

List of largest monoliths in the world

263

The 53.3 t heavy capital block (the rectangular platform fitted with a railing) of Trajan's Column was lifted by Roman cranes to a record height of about 34 m.

The Western Stone of the Western Wall in Jerusalem weighs 517 t.

List of largest monoliths in the world

264

Neolithic Carnac Stones, France

Weight 1,250 t [18]

Name/Site Thunder Stone

Type

Location

Builder Russian Empire

Comment Moved 6km overland for shipment [18]

Boulder Saint Petersburg, Russia Statue Thebes, Egypt

1,000 [19][20] t 800 t each 700 t each

Ramesseum

Ancient Egypt

Transported 170 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) by ship from Aswan Plus about 24 blocks 300 tons each [22]

[21] Trilithon (3x) Colossi of Memnon (2x)

Blocks Statues

Baalbek, Lebanon Roman Empire Thebes, Egypt Ancient Egypt

Transported 420 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) from el-Gabal el-Ahmar (near modern-day Cairo) over land without using the [19][20][23] Nile.

600 t

Alexander Column

Column Saint Petersburg, Russia Jerusalem, Israel

Russian Empire

550 to 600 [24][25] t 520 tons, 170 tons and 160 tons 400-600 t

Western Stone, Jewish Block Holy Temple

Herod, King of the Jews during the Second Temple period The stelae were moved about 2.6 miles (unknown [19] operator: u'strong'km). 60 feet (18 m) tall over 30 feet (9 m) wide

Great Stele, King Ezana's Stele, Obelisk of Axum Gomateshwara

Stelae

Axum, Ethiopia

Statue

Hassan district of Karnataka state, India Giza, Egypt

400 t

[26]

Temple in complex for Khafre's Pyramid [27] Masuda no iwafune

300-500 t [19]

Asuka, Nara, Japan Brittany, France

large stone structure approximately 11 meters in length, 8 meters in width, and 4.7 meters In height Moved 7.5 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km).

300 t

Broken Menhir of Er Grah Pompey's Pillar Mausoleum of Theodoric Menkaure's Pyramid Sahure's pyramid

285 t 230 t

[28] [29]

Column Alexandria, Egypt Roman Empire Roof slab Ravenna, Italy Ostrogothic Kingdom

220 t 200 t

[30] [31]

Giza, Egypt Saqqara, Egypt

largest stones in mortuary temple largest stones over king's chamber

List of largest monoliths in the world

[32]

265
Korea largest stone

200 t

Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites Name/Site Type

Weight

Location

Builder

Comment

Colossal statue of Tlaloc, in Coatlinchan. Made of basalt, weighing 168 tons.[33][34][35] Cueva de Menga. Dolmen made of megaliths, weighing up to 180 tons. The Kerloas menhir, Brittany, France. Largest, 150 tons.[36] Dol-de-Bretagne, France. Menhir, almost 150 tons. Pyramid of Khendjer at Saqqara, Egypt. 150-ton, one-piece quartzite burial chamber.[37][38] Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Several ashlars, 100 to 130 tons, were transported 6 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km).[39][40] Sacsayhuamn, wall near Cusco, Peru. Largest stones over 125 tons.[41][42] Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, Greece. Largest lintel stone, 120 tons.[41] The Pyramid of Amenemhet III, at Hawara, Egypt. 110-ton, one piece quartzite burial chamber.[43][44][45] Luxor, Egypt. Obelisk, 227 tons. The largest colossal statue of Ramses, well over 100 tons. Ollantaytambo, Peru. Perhaps 6 stones well over 100 tons. Brownshill Dolmen, weighing an estimated 100 metric tons.[46] Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy. Granite columns close to 100 tons.[41] Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. Columns close to, if not more than, 100 tons. Fortress of Mycenae, Greece. Largest stones close to 100 tons.[41] Pyramid of Nyuserre Ini. 12 megalithic limestone beams 10 meters long weighing 90 tons each, forming the roof of burial chamber and antechamber.[47] Moai at Easter Island. Largest Moai 70 to 86 tons. The tallest one, Paro, was moved 3.75 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km).[48] Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt. Largest slabs on burial chamber, 80 tons. The granite was transported 580 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) from Aswan by barge on the Nile river.[41] Karnak, Egypt. Obelisk, 328 tons. Largest architraves, 70 tons. Sandstone transported from Gebel Silsila 100 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km).[49][50] Trajan's Column, Rome, Italy. Pedestal blocks: 77 t[51] Ishibutai Kofun in Asuka, Nara, Japan. Largest stone, 75 tons.[52] Quirigua, Guatemala. Largest stele, 65 tons. Osireion Abydos, Egypt. Columns and lintels, about 60 tons. Pantheon, Rome, Italy. Granite columns, 39 feet (11.8 m) tall, five feet (1.5 m) in diameter, and 60 tons in weight were transported from Egypt by barge.[41][53] Olmec heads, Mexico, gulf coast. Largest Olmec head, almost 50 tons. Transported 37 to 62 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km).[41] aar Qim, one of the Megalithic Temples of Malta. Its largest stone weighs 57 tons and measures approximately 19 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm) long by 9 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm) tall by 2 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm) thick.[54] The Maltese temples are the oldest free standing structures on Earth.[55] Ashoka Pillars, weighing up to about 50 tons, were transported throughout India to territory ruled by Ashoka.[56] Machu Picchu, Peru. Largest stones 20 to 50 tons. Gbekli Tepe, Turkey. Megaliths from 10 to a 50 ton pillar still in its quarry[57] transported up to a 1/4 mile.[58] Neval ori, Turkey. Megalithic site. Avebury stone circle, England. Largest stone over 40 tons. Stonehenge, England. Largest stones over 40 tons were moved 18 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km), smaller bluestones up to 5 tons were moved 130 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km).[41]

List of largest monoliths in the world Trajan's column Rome, Italy. Forty-ton drums. The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons.[59] Rameses IV reopened the stone quarries of Wadi Hammamat and had stones dragged 60 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) across land to the Nile, then barged to Temples and his tomb in Thebes. Some of these weighed over 40 tons.[60] Dur-Sharrukin, Iraq. Largest colossal Bull, 40 tons.[61] Nineveh, Iraq. Largest colossal Bulls, 30 tons each, were transported 30 miles (48km) from quarries at Balatai, then lifted up 65 feet (20 m) once they arrived at the site.[41] Nimrud, Iraq. Largest colossal Bull, 30 tons.[62] Maeshowe Orkney Islands, Scotland. Largest flagstone, 30 tons.[63] Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens), Greece. Caesarea Maritima, Israel Harbor of Caesarea. Largest stone 20 tons.[41] Persepolis, Iran Teotihuacan, Mexico. 22-ton water deity on top of the Pyramid of the Moon.[64] Aztec calendar stone at Tenochtitlan, Mexico. Weight, 24 tons.[65] Hattusas, Turkey. Largest stones, 20 tons. List of Egyptian pyramids - most, if not all, Egyptian pyramids have monoliths over 20 tons, including monolithic roof slabs, plugs and burial vaults, some of which weigh over 100 tons. Nemrud Dagi, Turkey. Palenque, Mexico. The largest stones weigh 12 to 15 tons.[41] Ha'amonga 'a Maui, in the Kingdom of Tonga. The Parthenon in Athens, Greece. Largest stones 10 tons.[41] Nubian pyramids. Sarcophagus, weighing 15.5 tons, and heavier granite statues up to at least 18 feet tall.[66] Copan Ruinas. Dolmen. Dolmens of Russia. Carnac stones. Khajuraho, India. Konark Sun Temple in India. Vijayanagara, India. Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom and other Angkor temples, Cambodia. Five million tons of sandstone were transported 25 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) along the river just for Angkor Wat.[41][67] Didyma, Turkey. Stone spheres of Costa Rica. Largest sphere weighs 16 tons. Plain of Jars. Over 400 monolithic jars weighing from 5 to 15 tons, ranging from the Khorat Plateau in Thailand in the south, through Laos and to the North Cachar Hills of Dima Hasao district, Northerneastern India. Dovbush rocks. A neolithic pagan shrine and observatory in western Ukraine. Newgrange, Ireland. Built in 3200 BC. Callanish Stones, Western Isles of Scotland. San Agustn, Huila, Colombia. Gallardet dolmen or Pouget dolmen in Languedoc, France. Consists of a 12 metre long alley within a large tumulus. The main chamber is sill covered by three large capstones, and entry is made through a superb "oven door" entrance stone. Puma Punku is part of a large temple complex or monument group that is part of the Tiwanaku Site near Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Huge blocks, some weighing over 100 tons, at the Valley Temple.[68]

266

List of largest monoliths in the world

267

Lifted monoliths
These lists include only quarried, moved and lifted monoliths. Monoliths known or assumed to have been lifted by cranes into an upright position:

Luxor Obelisk's erection on the Place de la Concorde, Paris (1836)

Erected in upright position

Weight 361 t 250 t Name/Site Type Location Builder Pope Sixtus V Comment Relocated and lifted in upright position by Domenico Fontana in 1586

[69] Vatican Obelisk Obelisk Rome, Italy Luxor Obelisk

Obelisk Paris, France Louis-Philippe I Relocated and lifted in upright position by Apollinaire Lebas in 1836

Lifted clear off the ground

Monoliths known or assumed to have been lifted clear off the ground by cranes into their position:
Weight 108 t 63 t [70] Height Name/Site 19 m 19 m Jupiter temple Jupiter temple Type Cornice block Location Builder Comment

Baalbek, Lebanon Roman Empire

[70]

Architrave-frieze block Baalbek, Lebanon Roman Empire Rome, Italy Roman Empire Dedicated in 113 AD

53.3 t

[71] ~34 m

Trajan's Column Capital block

List of efforts to move and install stones

These are listed with the largest experiments first; for additional details of most experiments see related pages. Marinos Carburis, lieutenant-colonel in the Russian Army, organized the move of an enormous boulder called the Thunder Stone (Russian, -) from the Gulf of Finland in 1768 to Saint Petersburg, Russia for the purpose of using it as a pedestal for the Bronze Horseman statue. Based on the density of granite, the mass of the Thunder Stone has been estimated to be around 1500 tonnes. This was done by rolling it on bronze ball bearings on a track. It took an estimated 400 men 9 months to move it.[72] In 1997 Julian Richards teamed up with Mark Witby and Roger Hopkins to conduct several experiments to replicate the construction at Stonehenge for NOVA's "Secrets of Lost Empires" mini series. They initially failed to tow a 40 ton monolith with 130 men but after adding additional men towing as well as some men using levers to prod the megalith forward they succeeded in inching it forward a small distance.[73]

List of largest monoliths in the world Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner teamed up with a NOVA crew to conduct an Obelisk erecting experiment, they successfully erected a 25 ton obelisk in late summer of 1999. They also managed to tow it a short distance.[74][75][76] Thor Heyerdahl organized an effort to pull a 10 ton Moai on a sledge with a group of 180 men. Approximately 18 men pulled each ton.[77][78][79] Charles Love experimented with a 10-ton replica of a Moai on Easter Island. His first experiment found rocking the statue to walk it was too unstable over more than a few hundred yards. He then found that placing the statue upright on two sled runners atop log rollers, 25 men were able to move the statue 150 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm) in two minutes. Approximately 2.5 men pulled each ton.[80] Austen Henry Layard organized an effort to transport 2 10 ton colossal Statues of a winged Lion and a winged Bull with a group of 300 men in 1847. He loaded them on a wheeled cart and towed them from Nimrud to the river and loaded on a barge where it was sent to London. Approximately 30 men pulled each ton.[81] Paul Emile Botta and Victor Place attempted to move 2 additional 30 ton colossi to Paris from Khorsabad in 1853. In order to facilitate their shipment to Paris they were sawed in pieces and they still ran into problems. One of them fell into the Tigris river never to be retrieved. The other made it to Paris.[81] Giovanni Battista Belzoni organized an effort to pull a 7.5 ton fragment of a statue of Ramses on rollers with a group of 130 men in 1815. This statue was towed to the river and loaded on a barge where it was sent to London. Progress increased with practice as they went along. Approximately 17 or 18 men pulled each ton.[82] Henri Chevrier organized an effort to pull a 6 ton block on a sledge with a group of 6 men. Approximately 1 man pulled each ton.[83] other reports claim that Chevier's experiment required 3 men to pull each ton.[84] Josh Bernstein and Julian Richards organized an effort to pull a 2 ton stone on wooden tracks with a group of about 16 men. Approximately 8 men pulled each ton.[85] Mark Lehner and NOVA organized an experiment to tow stones and to build a pyramid 9 meters wide by 9 meters deep by 6 meters high. They were able to tow a 2 ton block on a sledge across wood tracks with 12 to 20 men. Approximately 6 to 10 men pulled each ton. The pyramid was 54 cubic meters total estimated weight 135 tons. It was built out of 186 stones. The average weight of each stone was almost 1500lb (unknown operator: u'strong'kg). (.75 tons) They found that 4 or 5 men could use levers to flip stones less than a ton and roll them to transport them. 44 men took 22 days to complete the pyramid including the carving of the stones. They used iron to carve the stones that wasn't available to the ancient Egyptians. Egyptians had to use copper. They also used a modern front end loader to accelerate the work on the lower courses. They were unable to use the front end loader to install the capstone since it was too high and had to use levers to raise it to 20 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm).[86] In a 2001 exercise in experimental archaeology, an attempt was made to transport a large stone along a land and sea route from Wales to Stonehenge. Volunteers pulled it for some miles (with great difficulty) on a wooden sledge over land, using modern roads and low-friction netting to assist sliding, but once transferred to a replica prehistoric boat, the stone sank in Milford Haven, before it even reached the rough seas of the Bristol Channel.[87] Roger Hopkins and Vince Lee both theorized about how the megalithic stones were moved at Baalbek, these theories involved either towing them or flipping them.[88] Vince Lee participated in experiments to test his theories about how the walls of Sacsayhuamn were built.[88]

268

List of largest monoliths in the world

269

References
[1] Kumagai, Naoichi; Sadao Sasajima, Hidebumi Ito (15 February 1978), "Long-term Creep of Rocks: Results with Large Specimens Obtained in about 20 Years and Those with Small Specimens in about 3 Years" (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?hl=en& sl=ja& u=http:/ / ci. nii. ac. jp/ naid/ 110002299397/ & sa=X& oi=translate& resnum=4& ct=result& prev=/ search?q=Ito+ Hidebumi& hl=en), Journal of the Society of Materials Science (Japan) (Japan Energy Society) 27 (293): 157161, , retrieved 2008-06-16 [2] "PALM - Task with Student Directions" (http:/ / palm. sri. com/ palm/ tasks/ 6-8/ Dminerals/ directs. html). Palm.sri.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [3] "Glossary" (http:/ / strata. geol. sc. edu/ terminology/ densitylog. html). Strata.geol.sc.edu. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [4] "density & specific gravity of meteorites" (http:/ / meteorites. wustl. edu/ id/ density. htm). Meteorites.wustl.edu. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [5] "Eurostone Marble Inc.com" (http:/ / www. eurostonemarble. com/ tips. htm). Eurostonemarble.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [6] "Basalt Continuous Fiber" (http:/ / www. albarrie. com/ techfabrics/ continuousfiber. aspx). Albarrie.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [7] "Energy Citations Database (ECD) - - Document #5461391" (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ energycitations/ product. biblio. jsp?osti_id=5461391). Osti.gov. 1985-04-01. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [8] "Calculating Density" (http:/ / www. onekama. k12. mi. us/ m2001/ mwarman/ warman00/ dens_calculating. htm). Onekama.k12.mi.us. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [9] "Nuts & Bolts of Density" (http:/ / www. onekama. k12. mi. us/ onekama98-99/ gr6/ density. htm). Onekama.k12.mi.us. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [10] "Density Variations of Earth Materials" (http:/ / www. earthsci. unimelb. edu. au/ ES304/ MODULES/ GRAV/ NOTES/ densities. html). Earthsci.unimelb.edu.au. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [11] See e.g. YANGSHAN TABLET - THE FIRST TABLET IN THE WORLD / (http:/ / www. tsxc. gov. cn/ ziyuan. asp?topid=3& bigclassname=) for the commonly given weight estimates. [12] Yang, Xinhua ( ); Lu, Haiming ( ) (2001), (Ming and Qing architecture of Nanjing), (Nanjing University Press), pp.616617, ISBN7-305-03669-2 [13] Ruprechtsberger 1999, p.17 [14] Klemm & Klemm 1993, pp.323f. [15] Ruprechtsberger 1999, p.15 [16] Maxfield 2001, p.158 [17] Scaife 1953, p.37 [18] Adam 1977, p.4245 [19] "The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Chris Scarre 1999 [20] "Giant Statue of Ancient Egypt Queen Found" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2008/ 03/ 080331-egypt-statue. html). News.nationalgeographic.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [21] Adam 1977, p.52 [22] Alouf, Michael M., 1944: History of Baalbek. American Press. p. 129 [23] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) [24] The History Channel cited the 16.5 depth 567 ton estimate in "Lost Worlds of King Herod" [25] Dan Bahat: Touching the Stones of our Heritage, Israeli ministry of Religious Affairs, 2002 [26] Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt" p.62 [27] "Text Browse by Country, County and Type of Site : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map:" (http:/ / www. megalithic. co. uk/ search. php?query=& topic=& author=& sitetype=44& county=602& category=& type=stories). Megalithic.co.uk. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [28] Adam 1977, pp.50f. [29] Heidenreich & Johannes 1971, p.63 [30] Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 147-163 [31] source: Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 175-6, 180-1, 275 [32] "Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites - World Heritage Site - Pictures, info and travel reports" (http:/ / www. worldheritagesite. org/ sites/ dolmen. html). World Heritage Site. 2010-01-01. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [33] Time Life Lost Civilizations series:Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor (1992) p.45-47 [34] "Non-Western - Rain God, Tlaloc" (http:/ / instructional1. calstatela. edu/ bevans/ Art446-03-Teotihuacan/ WebPage-Info. 00033. html). Instructional1.calstatela.edu. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [35] "MexicoS Lord Of The Waters" (http:/ / www. chapala. com/ chapala/ ojo2006/ tlaloc. html). Chapala.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [36] "Kerloas menhir - Menhir de Kerloas [Sophies maze]" (http:/ / sophie-g. net/ photo/ bret/ brest/ kerloas01. htm). Sophie-g.net. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [37] Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 246-9 [38] "Egypt: The Pyramid of Khendjer at South Saqqara" (http:/ / www. touregypt. net/ featurestories/ khendjerp. htm). Touregypt.net. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [39] Browman, D. L., 1981, New light on Andean Tiwanaku. New Scientist. vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 408-419. [40] Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, 1986 "Atlas of Ancient America" p. 190 [41] "Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Chris Scarre 1999

List of largest monoliths in the world

[42] Readers Digest: "Mysteries of the Ancient Americas" The New World Before Columbus 1986 p. 220-1 [43] Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 237-240 [44] "Egypt: Amenemhet III's Pyramid at Hawara" (http:/ / www. touregypt. net/ featurestories/ amenemhet3hp. htm). Touregypt.net. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [45] Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt" [46] Weir, A (1980), Early Ireland. A Field Guide, Belfast: Blackstaff Press, pp.p101 [47] Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p. 148-9 ISBN 0-500-05084-8 [48] "NOVA Online | Secrets of Easter Island | Paro" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ easter/ explore/ paro. html). Pbs.org. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [49] Walker, Charles, 1980 "Wonders of the Ancient World" p24-7 [50] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) p. 53-54 [51] Lancaster 1999, p.430 [52] "ASUKA/isibutai kofun" (http:/ / www. asukanet. gr. jp/ asukahome/ ASUKA2/ ASUKAKOFUN/ isibutaiK. html). Asukanet.gr.jp. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [53] Parker, Freda (2009-05-12). "The Pantheon - Rome - 126 AD | Monolithic" (http:/ / static. monolithic. com/ thedome/ pantheon/ index. html). Static.monolithic.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [54] http:/ / www. art-and-archaeology. com/ malta/ hq7. html [55] "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Temples of Malta" (http:/ / www. bradshawfoundation. com/ malta/ ). Bradshawfoundation.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [56] "KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times" (http:/ / www. cs. colostate. edu/ ~malaiya/ ashoka. html). Cs.colostate.edu. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [57] Taracha, Piotr (2009). Religions of second millennium Anatolia (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=xTE7o8aKI7IC& pg=PA12& dq="Gbekli+ Tepe"+ "50+ tons"& hl=en& ei=vU1ZTr7xJIrF8QOh-MDEDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false). Eisenbrauns. p.12. ISBN978-3447058858. . [58] "The World's First Temple" (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 0811/ abstracts/ turkey. html). Archaeology.org. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [59] Lynne Lancaster,Building Trajan's Column, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 103, No. 3. (Jul., 1999) p.426 [60] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 133 [61] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings p118-119 [62] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. (1995) p. 112-121 [63] Lost Worlds: The Pagans (of Britain) History Channel series with contributions from historian Prof. Ronald Hutton, Archeologists Erika Guttmann and Martin Carruthers [64] Walker, Charles, 1980 "Wonders of the Ancient World" p. 150-3 [65] Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor. Virginia:Time Life, 1992. [66] Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p.196-7 ISBN 0-500-05084-8. [67] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Southeast Asia: A Past Regained (1995) [68] Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt" p.63-9 [69] Lancaster 1999, p.428 [70] Coulton 1974, p.19 [71] Lancaster 1999, pp.419, 426 [72] "(French) Transport du pidestal de la statue de Pierre le Grand (http:/ / cnum. cnam. fr/ CGI/ fpage. cgi?4KY28. 19/ 351/ 100/ 432/ 0/ 0) La Nature magazine, second semester 1882.. http:/ / cnum. cnam. fr/ CGI/ fpage. cgi?4KY28. 19/ 351/ 100/ 432/ 0/ 0. Retrieved April 22, 2007. [73] "NOVA | Transcripts | Secrets of Lost Empires | Stonehenge" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ transcripts/ 2403stone. html). PBS. 1997-02-11. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [74] "NOVA Online | Mysteries of the Nile | August 27, 1999: The Third Attempt" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ egypt/ dispatches/ 990827. html). Pbs.org. 1999-08-27. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [75] "NOVA Online | Mysteries of the Nile | March 14, 1999: Pulling Together" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ egypt/ dispatches/ 990314. html). Pbs.org. 1999-03-14. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [76] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 56-57 [77] "NOVA Online | Secrets of Easter Island | Past Attempts" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ easter/ move/ past. html). Pbs.org. . Retrieved 2010-09-12. [78] Heyerdahl, Thor Aku-Aku; The 1958 Expedition to Easter Island. [79] Heyerdahl, Thor. Easter Island - A Mystery Solved. 1988. ISBN 951-30-8952-5 [80] John Flenley and Paul G. Bahn (2003). The Enigmas of Easter Island: Island on the Edge, p 150. ISBN 0192803409 [81] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings.(1995) p. 112-121 [82] Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993) p. 47-48 [83] Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947 p. 273-4 [84] Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p.224 ISBN 0-500-05084-8. [85] Josh Bernstein: Digging for the Truth p. 133-5 book based on History Chennel series [86] Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997)p.202-225 ISBN 0-500-05084-8.

270

List of largest monoliths in the world

[87] Theories about Stonehenge [88] History Channel "Mega Movers: Ancient Mystery Moves"

271

Sources
Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), " propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mgalithes", Syria 54 (1/2): 3163 Coulton, J. J. (1974), "Lifting in Early Greek Architecture", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 94: 119 Heidenreich, Robert; Johannes, Heinz (1971), Das Grabmal Theoderichs zu Ravenna, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Klemm, Rosemarie; Klemm, Dietrich D. (1993), Steine und Steinbrche im Alten gypten, Berlin: Springer, ISBN3540546855 Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", American Journal of Archaeology 103 (3): 419439 Maxfield, Valerie A. (2001), "Stone Quarrying in the Eastern Desert with Particular Reference to Mons Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites", in Mattingly, David J.; Salmon, John, Economies Beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, 9, London: Routledge, pp.143170, ISBN0-415-21253-7 Ruprechtsberger, Erwin M. (1999), "Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon)", Linzer Archologische Forschungen 30: 756 Scaife, C. H. O. (1953), "The Origin of Some Pantheon Columns", The Journal of Roman Studies 43: 37

272

Unexplained in Modernity
Maury Island incident

Location of Maury Island, Washington The Maury Island Incident is said to be an early modern UFO encounter incident, which allegedly took place in June 1947, three days before the famous sighting by Kenneth Arnold, widely considered the original encounter with flying saucers. It is also one of the earliest reported instances of an alleged encounter with so-called Men in Black. Opinions remain divided on whether the case was a genuine flying saucer sighting, a hoax or an attempt to cover up the leak of an advanced, classified aerospace project.

Background
The incident took place shortly after June 21, 1947. On that date, seaman Harold A. Dahl, out scavenging for drifting logs, claimed to have seen six UFOs near Maury Island (which is now a peninsula of Vashon Island, in Puget Sound, near Tacoma, Washington, United States; Maury Island is located directly across a narrow section of Puget Sound from Sea-Tac International Airport and Boeing Field). Dahl, his son Charles, an unnamed hand and Dahl's dog were on the boat. Dahl reported seeing four, five or six (the initial FBI report says four or five) "doughnut-shaped objects" flying in formation over the area where his boat was. He said he could see blue sky through the holes in the center of the discs, and that there appeared to be port holes lining the inside of the ring. One of the craft appeared to be malfunctioning, Dahl reported, and another craft edged up to it, then retreated. At this point the troubled craft began ejecting objects through the inner port holes. Slag-like material began hitting the boat and damaged the windshield, the wheel house and a light fixture, and killed his dog on the deck. He said his son was also slightly injured by falling debris. Dahl claimed to have taken a number of photographs of the UFOs, and recovered some type of slag ejected from the craft that malfunctioned. Dahl also recovered samples of sheaves of lightweight white sheets of metal that fluttered like "newspapers" out from the inner ring of the troubled UFO to the ground. The next morning, Dahl reported a man arrived at his home and invited him to breakfast at a nearby diner; Dahl accepted the invitation. He described the man as wearing a black suit and driving a new 1947 Buick; Dahl assumed he was a military or government representative. Dahl claimed the man told him details of the UFO sighting while they ate, though Dahl had not related his account publicly. The man also allegedly gave Dahl a non-specific warning which Dahl took as a threat that his family might be harmed if he related details of the sighting. Some confusion and debate over Dahl's statements have occurred. Dahl later claimed the UFO sighting was a hoax, but has also claimed the sighting was accurate, but he had claimed it was a hoax to avoid bringing harm to his family.

Maury Island incident

273

Investigation
In spite of the threat, Dahl had reported the incident to his employee at his sawmill operation, Fred Crisman, who had long claimed to have experience with unusual phenomena (and who was later alleged to be linked to the John F. Kennedy assassination)[1] and who also was the owner, or co-owner, of the boat used by Dahl. Crisman and Dahl also had a joint-venture to retrieve drifting logs from Puget Sound as a source of raw lumber. Crisman sailed to the island the following day and said he spotted a craft briefly, but it went behind a cloud. He gathered more of the slag which he found littering the beach area. He then sent a sample to Chicago with a request it be tested. According to the FBI report, Crisman either sent it to Ray Palmer, science fiction writer and editor of Amazing Science Fiction, or sent it to a friend at the University of Chicago who failed to identify the material and then sent it on to Ray Palmer. While the "rock formation" was being passed around in Chicago, the famous sighting by Kenneth Arnold took place at Mount Rainier in Washington state. Palmer contacted Arnold and asked him to investigate the incident for the story Arnold was writing for one of Palmer's publications (the FBI report states Palmer was the editor of the magazines Venture and Fantacy [sic, given as "Fantasy" elsewhere in the report] at this time, although both Venture Science Fiction Magazine and The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction first appeared long after the incident. Palmer inaugurated the first issue of Fate magazine in January, 1948 with a cover featuring flying disks and the article he paid Kenneth Arnold to write [2]). Arnold flew from Boise, Idaho, to Tacoma and met with Crisman, Dahl and at least three military intelligence officers at the Winthrop Hotel there. During the meetings over several days, an unknown person (the FBI agent who wrote up the main report on the incident believed Crisman was the most likely suspect) began leaking details of the UFO sighting at Maury Island, the meeting in the hotel room and details of the conversation there to reporters at the Tacoma Times and at United Press, the latter reporter also working for Tacoma News Tribune. The anonymous caller also contacted the Seattle Post-Intelligencer and the Boise Statesman. The two United States Army Air Corps investigating officers who arrived at Arnold's request, Captain William L. Davidson and Lietuenant Frank M. Brown of Army A-2 Intelligence, decided to fly back to Hamilton Field the same day they arrived in Tacoma after interviewing Crisman in the hotel room. Dahl had decided to leave, citing possible danger to himself if the story got out, presumably because of the warning he received from the man in black previously. The two intelligence officers said they had to return to Hamilton Field in California quickly because the next day was Air Force Day, when the Air Force officially became a new service branch distinct from the Navy, Marines and Army. As the investigators were preparing to leave, Crisman produced samples of the "rock formation" from his automobile and gave it to the investigators to take back to California.[3] The plane carrying the two investigators and the slag crashed near Kelso, Washington, shortly after leaving Tacoma, killing both men.[3] In April 2007 it was reported that the crash site had been rediscovered and some material recovered, although the initial military investigation did recover exhibits and remove the bodies.[4][5] The FBI report notes that investigators from McChord Field near Tacoma had investigated the wreckage and were convinced there was no sabotage involved. The FBI report further mentions that two other people on board the airplane survived by parachuting from the airplane after it lost its left wing and the tail section due to a fire in the left engine. One of the survivors was named as a member of the flight crew and the other was referred to as "a hitch-hiker." The Seattle Post-Intelligencer identified them as Sergeant Elmer L. Taft and Technical Sergeant Woodrow D. Matthews. Initially the Air Force denied the men had been carrying a secret cargo, but in later years admitted that they had been officially investigating the Dahl report. Crisman alerted Arnold of the crash early the next morning and Dahl and Crisman returned to the hotel to discuss the situation with Arnold. Arnold had invited another person, accidentally identified in the FOI copy of the FBI report as a Mr. Smith of Seattle (probably Captain E. H. Smith (elsewhere E. J. Smith) of United Airlines, identified in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer article under External links below), to Tacoma to attend the UFO conference, and this informant related to the FBI field agent that a Mr. Lantz (elsewhere identified as Paul Lance) of the Tacoma Times contacted Arnold at the hotel and informed him of the leaks, including information that the Army intelligence

Maury Island incident officers had been shot down in the B-25 airplane over Kelso by 20mm cannon, and that a Marine airplane whose wreck that had allegedly been found earlier at Mt. Rainier had also been shot down with the same weapon. The anonymous caller claimed knowledge of on-going investigations by military intelligence. He was not identified but claimed to be a switchboard operator. Mr. Smith informed the FBI the switchboard operator at the Winthrop Hotel in Tacoma was not a male. The anonymous caller also said he was not interested in providing a scoop to any certain media outlet but wanted the news "to get back to New Jersey." Asked to produce the photographs he had made of the UFOs over Maury Island, Dahl and the group left the hotel and went to Dahl's automobile parked outside. Dahl then claimed the photographs had disappeared from his glove compartment. Initially he had said the photographs didn't turn out and were marred by white spots that appeared on them. He didn't change his story and the group knew the photographs were of poor quality. Later UFOlogists revisited the issue of the photographs with Crisman, prompting the claim some copies had survived, but UFOlogists were unable to acquire this piece of evidence. The ad hoc group in Tacoma in 1947 also decided to sail to Maury Island. This plan failed when the boat failed to start. Asked where the UFO had damaged the boats, Crisman pointed to the windshield, the klaaxon and a light. Smith told the FBI there were signs of recent repair to these parts. Alarmed by the deaths, Dahl disappeared, although the FBI report mentions his son, allegedly injured by the slag from the malfunctioning UFO, had run away from home to Montana for some reason. The anonymous caller informed the press that one of the two witnesses would shortly be sent to Alaska. Crisman, a WWII veteran, was recalled to service hastily and sent to Alaska (A UFO was spotted northwest of Bethel, Alaska on August 4 by Captain Jack Peck and copilot Vince Daly from a Douglas DC-3 they operated for Al Jones flying service and was reported to the headquarters of the Fourth Air Force in Hamilton, California and the Air Defense Command commander at Mitchell Field in New York.[6]), then posted to Greenland (Thule Air Force Base figures in Milton William Cooper's "Behold a Pale Horse" as a Majestic 12/Operation Majority control terminus). Arnold found himself unable to complete the story for Palmer. Samples of the slag provided to Arnold and Palmer also allegedly went missing. Arnold was allegedly advised by Ted Morello of the United Press: "You're involved in something that is beyond our power here to find out anything about... Get out of this town until whatever it is blows over.".[7] Arnold decided to fly home. He stopped for fuel in Pendleton, Oregon, and shortly after taking off again, his engine froze in mid-air. He managed to land the plane safely despite the emergency. Paul Lance of the Tacoma Times died within two weeks of undetermined causes.[8] United Press stringer Ted Morello moved to New York and until his death due to a stroke on September 15, 2007, at the age of 88, was a well-respected newspaper correspondent to the United Nations. Some believe that the famous case of another allegedly disabled UFO, the Roswell UFO incident, took place about 12 days after Dahl's sighting, although various dates circulate among Roswell investigators and the chronology is less certain than that for the Maury Island Incident. The story of the mysterious crash of the B-25 and the death of the two men investigating the "disk case" who allegedly had a "top-secret cargo" or even "saucer parts" was carried by the wire services and published by newspapers locally and nationally. Albert K. Bender later seized on Dahl's story, and printed it in his newsletter. In 1953, Bender claimed three men in black visited him, and warned him to stop his UFO research, which he did for a decade, closing down his International Flying Saucer Bureau. In 1963 Bender published his story, *Flying Saucers and the Three Men*, placing him beyond the pale of even the UFO research community because of his claims about men in black. Capt. Edward J. Ruppelt, chief of Project Blue Book in the early 1950s, wrote that he was convinced that the entire sighting story was a hoax.[9] The initial FBI field report concluded the story was a hoax as well. In the FBI report the anonymous caller mentioned an incident involving a United Airlines pilot and his co-pilot flying over Montana and coming under fire.

274

Maury Island incident United Airlines pilot E. H. Smith, the likely identity of the main informant in the FBI report and a key figure in the meetings at the Winthrop Hotel in Tacoma, was named as witnessing a UFO event over Boise several weeks prior (on July 4, according to the FBI report) to the crash of the B-25 near Kelso, Washington, according to an Associated Press dispatch with the dateline of San Francisco, August 2, "2 Flyers died in Crash on 'Disc' Mission" (see Seattle Post-Intelligencer, "Is strange rock from UFO or just a piece of poppycock?", April 25, 2007, under External links below). In the FBI report on the Maury Island Incident, Mr. Smith reports he made contact with people he knew inside military intelligence during the meetings with Arnold, Dahl, Crisman and others in Tacoma. Smith reported a meeting between Arnold, him and an unnamed military intelligence figure without Dahl or Crisman present. In subsequent accounts by Arnold a Major Sanders is mentioned as present at the hotel with Crisman. Mr. Smith reported he, his contact from military intelligence and Arnold went to an unidentified Tacoma slag mill to compare the "rock formation" Dahl had collected and provided with generic slag from a smelter, and found they were very alike.

275

Aftermath
This event took place at the very beginning of the modern phase of UFO sightings, usually connected with Kenneth Arnold's report from Mount Rainier and the Roswell incident. It contains elements that became embedded in UFOlogy until now, including men in black, what appeared to be a government cover up, mysterious disappearance of physical evidence, mysterious disappearances of eyewitnesses (Dahl and Crisman), mysterious deaths and inexplicable situations. Dahl claimed the mysterious dark man driving the black 1947 Buick who visited him retold the events on the boat as if he had been there, although Dahl himself hadn't related the story publicly at that point. Dahl began denying the story only after the two Army Air intelligence officers died in the B-25 crash. Dahl and Crisman told the FBI investigator they had concocted the story at the urging of Ray Palmer who wanted the mysterious rock formation to have originated on an alien saucer. They claimed to be playing along with Palmer who wanted a story to publish, and yet the FBI agent also notes that Dahl and Crisman were "obviously" not telling all they knew and were attempting to cover something up. Because Crisman was named in the Garrison case on the Kennedy assassination as a friend of the main suspect, Clay Shaw, he has become a useful figure for UFOlogists arguing in favor of the Majestic 12 conspiracy, which also involves military intelligence, UFOs and the Kennedy assassination. Crisman's automobile was allegedly strafed with bullets less than two weeks before he was subpoenaed to testify by Garrison in 1968.[10] Crisman was accused of being one of the three tramps at Dealy Plaza the day Kennedy was assassinated at the Select Committee on Assassinations of the 95th Congress [11] although he was reportedly at his post as a school teacher in Tacoma at the time of the shooting. When in December 1978 the House Select Committee on Assassinations summoned Stanley Peerboom, the principal at Rainer High School, to produce Crisman's employment records from the time, Peerboom confirmed Crisman's presence that day and provided documentation demonstrating no substitute teacher had been called in. Crisman eventually became a popular radio talk show personality known as John Gold on KAYE radio in Puyallup, Washington, before running for public office in Tacoma, inspired as he said to fight for the right of Gypsies. When his political faction was forced out of city government, the departing mayor named him to a post on the Tacoma Library Board and he died without fanfare in 1975. Ray Palmer did publish the story of Kenneth Arnold's sighting on Mount Rainier, and is considered the father of modern UFOs because of this and other stories and cover artwork he featured in the publications he edited. Palmer has a prior connection with at least one person involved in the Maury Island Incident: he published a series of stories known as the Shaver mysteries, to which Fred Crisman began contributing in the mid-1940s, before the flying saucer sightings. Later Palmer and Arnold co-authored the book "The Coming of the Saucers." The Maury Island Incident and Kenneth Arnold's sighting ushered in an era or epidemic of flying saucer sightings that gained major momentum during the early 1950s. Edward R. Murrow interviewed Arnold for national radio in 1947. Radio, the major medium of the day, took to the reports of flying saucers with enthusiasm, primed back in

Maury Island incident 1938 by The War of the Worlds on Orson Welles' Mercury Theater on the Air. Hollywood Star Playhouse dramatized a saucer encounter in the story "The Tenth Planet," alien invasions and abductions became common fare and even hosts of mainstream programs such as Superman began cracking jokes about them ("I don't believe this flying saucer business at all. Why I just read a report that 20 percent of commercial pilots have never even seen them!" one host quipped). While the radio drama shows went wild with Venusian embassies and Martian invasions, WOR radio's late-night talk show host Long John Nebel popularized the real-life theme on his program "Partyline" in New York, which was heard as far west as Chicago and across the Eastern seaboard into Canada, with guests such as George Adamski, the first "contactee", a term Nebel coined, and numerous other guests, including Ray Palmer, Isaac Asimov and L. Sprague de Camp. Nebel's show featured the gamut of positions on flying saucers, hosting the most obvious frauds as well as the most ironclad skeptics. The flying saucer craze quickly broke out of the late night time slot and went mainstream in a host of Hollywood treatments and on the radio serials. Entertaining Comics treated the topic in both its pulp and scientific aspects, publishing an entire issue of Weird Science-Fantasy (issue 26, carried over from the "Flying Saucer Report" comprising most of issue 25) dedicated to factual accounts of sightings around the country and especially over Washington, D.C., and called on Congress to undertake hearings into the "flying saucer invasion." The new medium of television was accompanied from its very birth by the extraterrestrial flying disc stories. Confronted on the one side with credible testimony by reliable witnesses and even military personnel with top secret security clearances on the one side and clamor in the public media on the other side, some U.S. military organizations undertook studies to determine the nature of and possible threat posed by the UFOs. Many wondered whether the UFOs were extraterrestrial or whether they were a new Soviet espionage method, and the public and intelligence communities noted the tendency of UFOs to appear over military bases during the early years of the Cold War. One of the earliest investigations was Project Twinkle associated with sightings of green fireballs by scientists and staff with the post-WWII Manhattan Project and at Sandia National Laboratories in the American Southwest. Project Grudge soon followed, which in turn was replaced by Project Bluebook.

276

References
[1] Hal Mckenzie. "Fred Crisman:Key Man in JFK/UFO Conspiracy/Coverup" (http:/ / www. conspiracyplanet. com/ channel. cfm?channelid=94& contentid=1033& page=2). . Retrieved 2008-02-01. [2] FATE magazine, "The Truth about the Flying Saucers", Kenneth Arnold, vol 1, No. 1, 1948 [3] Randles, J: "MIB: Investigating the Truth Behind the Men In Black Phenomenon", page 33. Piatkus, 1997 [4] Jack Penning; Joe Vignolo (2007-04-20). "B-25 wreckage found after 60 years, listed as carrying a UFO" (http:/ / www. ksby. com/ global/ story. asp?s=6404199). KSBY 6 Action News. . Retrieved 2008-02-01. [5] Jack Penning (2007-04-21). "Wreckage from secret 1947 mission found" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071009135001/ http:/ / www. kgw. com/ news-local/ stories/ kgw_041907_ufo_bomber. 27b05f12. html). kgw.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. kgw. com/ news-local/ stories/ kgw_041907_ufo_bomber. 27b05f12. html) on 2007-10-09. . Retrieved 2008-02-01. [6] PROJECT 1947 UFO DOCUMENTS - Bethel, Alaska, 1947 (http:/ / www. project1947. com/ fig/ bethel. htm) [7] John Keel, Our Haunted Planet, London, 1971. [8] Kenneth Arnold, "The Maury Island Episode", Proceedings Of The First International UFO Congress, 1980, Warner Books, New York, NY [9] Edward J. Ruppelt, The Report On Unidentified Flying Objects, New York, 1956 [10] Hanohano, UFO Magazine, v.9 # 1, pp. 30-35 [11] The Investigation Of The Assassination Of President John F. Kennedy, Hearings Before The Select Committee on Assassinations Of The United States House Of Representatives, 95th Congress, 2nd Session. Vol I, pp.120-121; vol IV, pp. 22-26 and 376-383; vol VI, pp 257-273

Thomas, Kenn: "Maury Island UFO: The Crisman Conspiracy" GA: IllumiNet, 1999; republished with new material as "JFK & UFO: Military-Industrial Conspiracy and Cover-Up from Maury Island to Dallas" (http:// feralhouse.com/jfk-ufo/), Feral House, 2011 Mcnerthney, Casey (2007-04-23). "Is strange rock from UFO or just a piece of poppycock?" (http://www. seattlepi.com/local/312713_ufo23.html). Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved 2007-05-05.

Maury Island incident

277

External links
background check on Crisman by Department of Energy, includes extensive FBI fieldwork on the Maury Island Incident and circumstances surrounding it (http://www.majesticdocuments.com/pdf/crisman_fbifile.pdf) Before Roswell (Maury Island) (http://www.ufoevidence.org/documents/doc1041.htm) maury island ufo: fred crisman and covert infiltration of ufology (http://www.disinfo.com/archive/pages/ article/id904/pg1/index.html), by Kenn Thomas The Maury Island UFO (http://fatemag.com/issues/2000s/2006-09article3a.html), by Kenn Thomas in Fate, September 2006 Kenneth Arnold's 1947 Sighting Maury Island Sighting and the Kelso Crash (http://www.seattlechatclub.org/ Arnold.html)

278

Interesting hints from the fogs of myth

Atlantis
Atlantis (in Greek, , "island of Atlas") is a legendary island first mentioned in Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias, written about 360 BC. According to Plato, Atlantis was a naval power lying "in front of the Pillars of Hercules" that conquered many parts of Western Europe and Africa 9,000 years before the time of Solon, or approximately 9600 BC. After a failed attempt to invade Athens, Atlantis sank into the ocean "in a single day and night of misfortune".
Athanasius Kircher's map of Atlantis, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. Scholars dispute whether and how much Plato's From Mundus Subterraneus 1669, published in Amsterdam. The map is story or account was inspired by older traditions. oriented with south at the top. In Critias, Plato claims that his accounts of ancient Athens and Atlantis stem from a visit to Egypt by the legendary Athenian lawgiver Solon in the 6th century BC. In Egypt, Solon met a priest of Sais, who translated the history of ancient Athens and Atlantis, recorded on papyri in Egyptian hieroglyphs, into Greek. Some scholars argue Plato drew upon memories of past events such as the Thera eruption or the Trojan War, while others insist that he took inspiration from contemporary events like the destruction of Helike in 373 BC[1] or the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415413 BC.

The possible existence of a genuine Atlantis was discussed throughout classical antiquity, but it was usually rejected and occasionally parodied by later authors. Alan Cameron states: "It is only in modern times that people have taken the Atlantis story seriously; no one did so in antiquity".[2] The Timaeus remained known in a Latin rendition by Calcidius through the Middle Ages, and the allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up by Humanists in utopian works of several Renaissance writers, like Francis Bacon's New Atlantis. Atlantis inspires today's literature, from science fiction to comic books to films. Its name has become a byword for any and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations.

Atlantis

279

Plato's account
Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias, written in 360 BC, contain the earliest references to Atlantis. For unknown reasons, Plato never completed Critias. Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus: For it is related in our records how once upon a time your State stayed the course of a mighty host, which, starting from a distant point in the Atlantic ocean, was insolently advancing to attack the whole of Europe, and Asia to boot. For the ocean there was at that time navigable; for in front of the mouth which you Greeks call, as you say, 'the pillars of Heracles,' there lay an island which was larger than Libya and Asia together; and it was possible for the travelers of that time to cross from it to the other islands, and from the islands to the whole of the continent over against them which encompasses that veritable ocean. For all that we have here, lying within the mouth of which we speak, is evidently a haven having a narrow entrance; but that yonder is a A 15th-century Latin translation of Plato's real ocean, and the land surrounding it may most rightly be Timaeus called, in the fullest and truest sense, a continent. Now in this island of Atlantis there existed a confederation of kings, of great and marvelous power, which held sway over all the island, and over many other islands also and parts of the continent.[3] The four persons appearing in those two dialogues are the politicians Critias and Hermocrates as well as the philosophers Socrates and Timaeus of Locri, although only Critias speaks of Atlantis. In his works Plato makes extensive use of the Socratic dialogues in order to discuss contrary positions within the context of a supposition. The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of the creations and structure of the universe and ancient civilizations. In the introduction, Socrates muses about the perfect society, described in Plato's Republic (c. 380 BC), and wonders if he and his guests might recollect a story which exemplifies such a society. Critias mentions an allegedly historical tale that would make the perfect example, and follows by describing Atlantis as is recorded in the Critias. In his account, ancient Athens seems to represent the "perfect society" and Atlantis its opponent, representing the very antithesis of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic. According to Critias, the Hellenic gods of old divided the land so that each god might own a lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined,[4][5] but it afterwards was sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean. The Egyptians, Plato asserted, described Atlantis as an island comprising mostly mountains in the northern portions and along the shore, and encompassing a great plain of an oblong shape in the south "extending in one direction three thousand stadia [about 555km; 345mi], but across the center inland it was two thousand stadia [about 370km; 230mi]." Fifty stadia [9km; 6mi] from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides...broke it off all round about[6]... the central island itself was five stades in diameter [about 0.92km; 0.57mi].[7] In Plato's myth, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given the extremity of the island towards the pillars of Hercules.[8] The other four pairs of twinsAmpheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and Diaprepeswere also given "rule over many men, and a large territory."

Atlantis Poseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each of the city's rings. The walls were constructed of red, white and black rock quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin and the precious metal orichalcum, respectively.[9] According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules as far as Egypt and the European continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands. But at a later time there occurred portentous earthquakes and floods, and one grievous day and night befell them, when the whole body of your warriors was swallowed up by the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner was swallowed up by the sea and vanished; wherefore also the ocean at that spot has now become impassable and unsearchable, being blocked up by the shoal mud which the island created as it settled down.[10] The logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos wrote an earlier work titled Atlantis, of which only a few fragments survive. Hellanicus' work appears to have been a genealogical one concerning the daughters of Atlas[11] ( in Greek means "of Atlas"), but some authors have suggested a possible connection with Plato's island. John V. Luce notes that when he writes about the genealogy of Atlantis's kings, Plato writes in the same style as Hellanicus and suggests a similarity between a fragment of Hellanicus's work and an account in the Critias.[11] Robert Castleden suggests Plato may have borrowed his title from Hellanicus, and that Hellanicus may have based his work on an earlier work on Atlantis.[12]

280

Reception
Ancient
Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis as fiction while others believed it was real.[13] The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's student Xenocrates, is often cited as an example of a writer who thought the story to be historical fact. His work, a commentary on Plato's Timaeus, is lost, but Proclus, a Neoplatonist of the fifth century AD, reports on it.[14] The passage in question has been represented in the modern literature either as claiming that Crantor actually visited Egypt, had conversations with priests, and saw hieroglyphs confirming the story or as claiming that he learned about them from other visitors to Egypt.[15] Proclus wrote As for the whole of this account of the Atlanteans, some say that it is unadorned history, such as Crantor, the first commentator on Plato. Crantor also says that Plato's contemporaries used to criticize him jokingly for not being the inventor of his Republic but copying the institutions of the Egyptians. Plato took these critics seriously enough to assign to the Egyptians this story about the Athenians and Atlanteans, so as to make them say that the Athenians really once lived according to that system. The next sentence is often translated "Crantor adds, that this is testified by the prophets of the Egyptians, who assert that these particulars [which are narrated by Plato] are written on pillars which are still preserved." But in the original, the sentence starts not with the name Crantor but with the ambiguous He, and whether this referred to Crantor or to Plato is the subject of considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a myth and Atlantis as history have argued that the word refers to Crantor.[16] Alan Cameron, however, argues that it should be interpreted as referring to Plato, and that when Proclus writes that "we must bear in mind concerning this whole feat of the Athenians, that it is neither a mere myth nor unadorned history, although some take it as history and others as myth",

Atlantis he is treating "Crantor's view as mere personal opinion, nothing more; in fact he first quotes and then dismisses it as representing one of the two unacceptable extremes".[17] Cameron also points out that whether he refers to Plato or to Crantor, the statement does not support conclusions such as Otto Muck's "Crantor came to Sais and saw there in the temple of Neith the column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history of Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and he testified that their account fully agreed with Plato's account of Atlantis" or J. V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent "a special enquiry to Egypt" and that he may simply be referring to Plato's own claims.[17] Another passage from Proclus' commentary on the Timaeus gives a description of the geography of Atlantis: That an island of such nature and size once existed is evident from what is said by certain authors who investigated the things around the outer sea. For according to them, there were seven islands in that sea in their time, sacred to Persephone, and also three others of enormous size, one of which was sacred to Hades, another to Ammon, and another one between them to Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia [200km]; and the inhabitants of itthey addpreserved the remembrance from their ancestors of the immeasurably large island of Atlantis which had really existed there and which for many ages had reigned over all islands in the Atlantic sea and which itself had like-wise been sacred to Poseidon. Now these things Marcellus has written in his Aethiopica".[18] Marcellus remains unidentified. Other ancient historians and philosophers believing in the existence of Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius.[19] Plato's account of Atlantis may have also inspired parodic imitation: writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his voluminous Philippica, which contains a dialogue between King Midas and Silenus, a companion of Dionysus. Silenus describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on the island of Meropis (Cos?): Eusebes (, "Pious-town") and Machimos (, "Fighting-town"). He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Gnther Nesselrath has argued that these and other details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, for the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.[20] Zoticus, a Neoplatonist philosopher of the 3rd century AD, wrote an epic poem based on Plato's account of Atlantis.[21] The 4th century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work by Timagenes, a historian writing in the 1st century BC, writes that the Druids of Gaul said that part of the inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Some have understood Ammianus's testimony as a claim that at the time of Atlantis's actual sinking into the sea, its inhabitants fled to western Europe; but Ammianus in fact says that the Drasidae (Druids) recall that a part of the population is indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and lands beyond the Rhine" (Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that the immigrants came to Gaul from the north (Britain, the Netherlands or Germany), not from a theorized location in the Atlantic Ocean to the south-west.[22] Instead, the Celts that dwelled along the ocean were reported to venerate twin gods (Dioscori) that appeared to them coming from that ocean.[23]

281

Atlantis

282

Jewish and Christian

The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo in the early 1st century AD wrote about the destruction of Atlantis in his On the Eternity of the World, xxvi. 141: ...And the island of Atalantes which was greater than Africa and Asia, as Plato says in the Timaeus, in one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea in consequence of an extraordinary earthquake and inundation and suddenly disappeared, becoming sea, not indeed navigable, but full of gulfs and eddies.[24] Some scholars believe Clement of Rome cryptically referenced Atlantis in his First Epistle of Clement, 20: 8: ...The ocean which is impassable for men, and the worlds beyond it, are directed by the same ordinances of the Master.[25] On this passage the theologian Joseph Barber Lightfoot (Apostolic Fathers, 1885, II, p.84) noted: "Clement may possibly be referring to some known, but hardly accessible land, lying without the pillars of Hercules. But more probably he contemplated some unknown land in the far west beyond the ocean, like the fabled Atlantis of Plato..."[26] Other early Christian writers wrote about Atlantis, though they had mixed views on whether it once existed or was an untrustworthy myth of pagan origin.[27] Tertullian believed Atlantis was once real and wrote that in the Atlantic Ocean once existed "(the isle) that was equal in size to Libya or Asia"[28] referring to Plato's geographical description of Atlantis. The early Christian apologist writer Arnobius also believed Atlantis once existed but blamed its destruction on pagans.[29] Cosmas Indicopleustes in the 6th century AD wrote of Atlantis in his Christian Topography in an attempt to prove his theory that the world was flat and surrounded by water: ...In like manner the philosopher Timaeus also describes this Earth as surrounded by the Ocean, and the Ocean as surrounded by the more remote earth. For he supposes that there is to westward an island, Atlantis, lying out in the Ocean, in the direction of Gadeira (Cadiz), of an enormous magnitude, and relates that the ten kings having procured mercenaries from the nations in this island came from the earth far away, and conquered Europe and Asia, but were afterwards conquered by the Athenians, while that island itself was submerged by God under the sea. Both Plato and Aristotle praise this philosopher, and Proclus has written a commentary on him. He himself expresses views similar to our own with some modifications, transferring the scene of the events from the east to the west. Moreover he mentions those ten generations as well as that earth which lies beyond the Ocean. And in a word it is evident that all of them borrow from Moses, and publish his statements as their own.[30] A Hebrew treatise on computational astronomy dated to AD 1378/79, alludes to the Atlantis myth in a discussion concerning the determination of zero points for the calculation of longitude: Some say that they [the inhabited regions] begin at the beginning of the western ocean [the Atlantic] and beyond. For in the earliest times [literally: the first days] there was an island in the middle of the ocean. There were scholars there, who isolated themselves in [the pursuit of] philosophy. In their day, that was the [beginning for measuring] the longitude[s] of the inhabited world. Today, it has become [covered by the?] sea, and it is ten degrees into the sea; and they reckon the beginning of longitude from the beginning of the western sea.[31]

Atlantis

283

Modern
Francis Bacon's 1627 essay The New Atlantis describes a utopian society that he called Bensalem, located off the western coast of America. A character in the narrative gives a history of Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in America. It is not clear whether Bacon means North or South America. The Swedish scholar Olaus Rudbeck published Atland in A map showing the supposed extent of the Atlantean Empire. From Ignatius L. several volumes, starting in 1679. This [32] Donnelly's Atlantis: the Antediluvian World, 1882. attempted to prove that Sweden was Atlantis, the cradle of civilization, and Swedish the original language of Adam from which Latin and Hebrew had evolved.[33] The Latin parallel title is Atlantica and the subtitle of both is Manheim, that is, home of mankind. According to Rudbeck, Atland means fatherland, and it was the original name of Atlantis. Isaac Newton's 1728 The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended studies a variety of mythological links to Atlantis.[34] In the middle and late 19th century, several renowned Mesoamerican scholars, starting with Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, and including Edward Herbert Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to Mayan and Aztec culture. The 1882 publication of Atlantis: the Antediluvian World by Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated much popular interest in Atlantis. Donnelly attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were descended from Atlantis, which he saw as a technologically sophisticated culture, saying that Atlanteans invented gunpowder and the compass thousands of years before the rest of the world invented written language. During the late 19th century, ideas about the legendary nature of Atlantis were combined with stories of other lost continents such as Mu and Lemuria. The esoteric text Oera Linda, published in 1872, mentions it under the name Atland (the name used by Olaus Rudbeck). The book claims that it was submerged in 2193 BC, the same year that 19th century almanacs, following traditional Biblical chronology, gave for Noah's flood.[35] Helena Blavatsky wrote in The Secret Doctrine (1888) that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato who describes them mainly as a military threat), and are the fourth "Root Race", succeeded by the "Aryan race". Furthermore, she expressed the belief that it was Homer before Plato who first wrote of Atlantis.[36] Theosophists believe the civilization of Atlantis reached its peak between 1,000,000 and 900,000 years ago but destroyed itself through internal warfare brought about by the inhabitants' dangerous use of Ignatius L. Donnelly, American congressman, magical powers. William Scott-Elliot in The Story of Atlantis (1896) and writer on Atlantis. elaborated on Blavatsky's account, claiming that Atlantis eventually split into two linked islands, one called Daitya, and the other Ruta, which was later reduced to a final remnant called Poseidonis.[37] Scott-Elliot's information came from the clairvoyant Charles Webster Leadbeater. Rudolf Steiner wrote of the cultural evolution of Atlantis[38] in much the same vein.

Atlantis Edgar Cayce first mentioned Atlantis in 1923,[39] and later suggested that it was originally a continent-sized region extending from the Azores to the Bahamas, holding an ancient, highly evolved civilization which had ships and aircraft powered by a mysterious form of energy crystal. He also predicted that parts of Atlantis would rise in 1968 or 1969. The Bimini Road, a submerged rock formation of large rectangular stones just off North Bimini Island in the Bahamas, was claimed by Robert Ferro and Michael Grumley[40] to be evidence of the lost civilization. Edgar Cayce and others have often described Atlantis using techniques associated with Psychic archaeology. According to Herodotus (c. 430 BC), a Phoenician expedition had circumnavigated Africa at the behest of Pharaoh Necho, sailing south down the Red Sea and Indian Ocean and northwards in the Atlantic, re-entering the Mediterranean Sea through the Pillars of Hercules. His description of northwest Africa makes it very clear that he located the Pillars of Hercules precisely where they are located today. Nevertheless, a supposed belief that they had been placed at the Strait of Sicily prior to Eratosthenes has been cited in some Atlantis theories. Nazism and occultism The concept of Atlantis attracted Nazi theorists (see Nazism and occultism). Reichsfhrer-SS Heinrich Himmler organized a German expedition to Tibet in 1939. It has been suggested that this was to search for Aryan Atlanteans,[41] although this suggestion has been criticised as inaccurate,[42] it being suggested that the expedition was more likely looking for the origins of the "Europoid" race or that it was a more general biological expedition.[43] According to Julius Evola, writing in 1934,[44] the Atlanteans were HyperboreansNordic supermen who originated on the North pole (see Thule). Similarly, Alfred Rosenberg (The Myth of the Twentieth Century, 1930) spoke of a "Nordic-Atlantean" or "Aryan-Nordic" master race. Recent times As continental drift became more widely accepted during the 1960s, American psychic Edgar Cayce, 1910 and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past,[45] most Lost Continent theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity. Plato scholar Dr. Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, had this to say on the matter: The continuing industry of discovering Atlantis illustrates the dangers of reading Plato. For he is clearly using what has become a standard device of fictionstressing the historicity of an event (and the discovery of hitherto unknown authorities) as an indication that what follows is fiction. The idea is that we should use the story to examine our ideas of government and power. We have missed the point if instead of thinking about these issues we go off exploring the sea bed. The continuing misunderstanding of Plato as historian here enables us to see why his distrust of imaginative writing is sometimes justified.[46] Kenneth Feder points out that Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. In the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society: And when you were speaking yesterday about your city and citizens, the tale which I have just been repeating to you came into my mind, and I remarked with astonishment how, by some mysterious coincidence, you agreed in almost every particular with the narrative of Solon. ...[47] Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not be told much more plainly that the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about Atlantis are an invention of Plato's

284

Atlantis fancy."[48]

285

Location hypotheses
Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account. This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic or other pseudoscientific means. Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis.

In or near the Mediterranean Sea

Most of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such as Sardinia, Crete and Santorini, Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy,[49] Tartessos, and Tantalus (in the province of Manisa), Turkey; Israel-Sinai or Canaan; and northwestern Africa.[50][51] The Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story.[52] A. G. Galanopoulos argued that Plato's dating of 9,000 years before Solon's time was the result of an error in translation, probably from Egyptian into Greek, which produced "thousands" instead of "hundreds". Such an Satellite image of the islands of Santorini. This location is one of error would also rescale Plato's Atlantis to the size of many sites purported to have been the location of Atlantis Crete, while leaving the city the size of the crater on Thera; 900 years before Solon would be the 15th century BC.[53] In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah[54][55] (a legendary place near Trabzon).

In the Atlantic Ocean and Europe

In 2011, a team, working on a documentary for the National Geographic Channel,[56] led by Professor Richard Freund, from the University of Hartford, claimed to have found evidence of the city in the Doana National Park mud flats in South Western Andalusia, in Spain.[57] The team identified its possible location within the marshlands of the Doana National Park, in the area that once was the Lacus Ligustinus,[58] between Huelva, Cdiz and Seville provinces, and speculated that Atlantis had been destroyed by a tsunami,[59] by extrapolating results from a previous study by Spanish researchers, published four years earlier.[60] Spanish scientists have dismissed Freund's claims claiming that he was sensationalising their work. The anthropologist Juan Villaras-Robles, who works with the Spanish National Research Council, said "Richard Freund was a newcomer to our project and appeared to be involved in his own very controversial issue concerning King Solomon's search for ivory and gold in Tartessos, the well documented settlement in the Doana area established in the first millennium BC" and described his claims as 'fanciful'.[61] A similar theory had previously been put forward by a German researcher, Rainer W. Khne, but based only on satellite imagery and placing Atlantis in the Marismas de Hinojos, North of the city of Cdiz.[62] Before that, the historian Adolf Schulten had stated in the 1920s that Plato had used Tartessos as the basis for his Atlantis myth.[63]

Atlantis The location of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean has certain appeal given the closely related names. Popular culture often places Atlantis there, perpetuating the original Platonic setting. Several hypotheses place the sunken island in northern Europe, including Doggerland in the North Sea, and Sweden (by Olof Rudbeck in Atland, 16721702). Some have proposed the Celtic Shelf as a possible locations, and that there is a link to Ireland.[64] The Canary Islands and Madeira Islands have also been identified as a possible location,[65][66][67][68] west of the Straits of Gibraltar but in relative proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the Azores.[67][68][69] However detailed geological studies of the Canary Islands, the Azores, Madeira, and the ocean bottom surrounding them found a complete lack of any evidence for the catastrophic subsidence of these islands at any time during their existence and a complete lack of any evidence that the ocean bottom surrounding them was ever dry land at any time in the recent past. The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also been suggested.[62]

286

Other locations
Several writers have speculated that Antarctica is the site of Atlantis,[70][71] while others have proposed Caribbean locations such as Batabano Bay[72] south of Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Bermuda Triangle.[73] Areas in the Pacific and Indian Oceans have also been proposed including Indonesia (i.e. Sundaland).[74] Likewise some have speculated that the continent of South America bears striking similarities to the description of Atlantis by Plato, particularly the Altiplano region of the Andes. The stories of a lost continent off the coast of India, named "Kumari Kandam," have inspired some to draw parallels to Atlantis.[75]

References
Notes
[1] Plato's Timaeus is usually dated 360 BC; it was followed by his Critias. [2] Alan Cameron, Greek Mythography in the Roman World (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=R6_g1cNj2jMC), Oxford University Press (2004) p. 124 [3] Timaeus 24e25a, R. G. Bury translation (Loeb Classical Library). [4] "AtlantisBritannica Online Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9010107/ Atlantis). Britannica.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-27. [5] Also it has been interpreted that Plato or someone before him in the chain of the oral or written tradition of the report accidentally changed the very similar Greek words for "bigger than" ("meson") and "between" ("mezon") - Luce, J.V. (1969). The End of Atlantis - New Light on an Old Legend. London: Thames and Hudson. p.224. [6] Critias 113, Bury translation. [7] Critias 116a, Bury translation. [8] The name is a back-formation from Gades, the Greek name for Cadiz. [9] Critias 116bc [10] Timaeus 25cd, Bury translation. [11] John V Luce (1978). "The Literary Perspective". In Edwin S. Ramage. Atlantis, Fact or Fiction?. Indiana University Press. p.72. ISBN0-253-10482-3. [12] Castleden 2001 p. 164 [13] Nesselrath (2005), pp. 161171. [14] Timaeus 24a: . [15] Cameron 2002 [16] Castleden 2001, p,168 [17] Cameron 1983 [18] Proclus, Commentary on Plato's Timaeus, p. 117.1030 (=FGrHist 671 F 1), trans. Taylor, Nesselrath. [19] Strabo 2.3.6 [20] Nesselrath 1998, pp. 18. [21] Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, 7=35. [22] Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Keith. Lost Continents: Atlantis (http:/ / www. kmatthews. org. uk/ cult_archaeology/ lost_continents. html). [23] (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Text/ DiodorusSiculus4A. html) Bibliotheca historica - Diodorus Siculus 4.56.4: "And the writers even offer proofs of these things, pointing out that the Celts who dwell along the ocean venerate the Dioscori above any of the gods, since they have a tradition handed down from ancient times that these gods appeared among them coming from the ocean. Moreover, the country which skirts

Atlantis
the ocean bears, they say, not a few names which are derived from the Argonauts and the Dioscori." [24] http:/ / www. earlychristianwritings. com/ yonge/ book35. html [25] http:/ / www. earlychristianwritings. com/ text/ 1clement-lightfoot. html [26] Lightfoot, translator, The Apostolic Fathers, II, 1885, P. 84, Edited & Revised by Michael W. Holmes, 1989. [27] L. Sprague de Camp, Lost Continents, 1954, p. 307 [28] http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ fathers/ 0401. htm [29] http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ schaff/ anf06. xii. iii. i. v. html [30] http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ fathers/ cosmas_12_book12. htm [31] Selin, Helaine 2000, Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, pg 574. ISBN 0-7923-6363-9 [32] Ignatius L. Donnelly (1882). [[Atlantis: The Antediluvian World (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ atl/ ataw/ ataw402. htm)]]. Harper. p.295. . Retrieved 11 May 2011. [33] Auroux, Sylvain, ed. (2006). History of the Language Sciences: An International Handbook on the Evolution of Language Sciences. Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3110167352, pp. 1125-1126. [34] Isaac Newton (1728). The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 15784/ 15784-h/ 15784-h. htm) [35] Jensma, Goffe (November 2007). Meder, Theo. ed. "How to Deal with Holy Books in an Age of Emerging Science. The Oera Linda Book as a New Age Bible" (http:/ / www. atypon-link. com/ WDG/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1515/ FABL. 2007. 017). Fabula 48 (34): 229249. doi:10.1515/FABL.2007.017. . [36] "It was not he [Plato] who invented it, since Homer, who preceded him by many centuries, also speaks of the Atlantes and of their island in his Odyssey. Secret Doctrine, vol 2. pt3, ch6. [37] William Scott Elliot, The Story of Atlantis, Theosophical Publishing Society, 1896, p.18 [38] Steiner, Rudolf (1922), An Outline of Occult Science (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 30718) [39] Robinson, Lytle, 1972, Edgar Cayces Story of the Origin and Destiny of Man, Berkeley Books, New York, pg 51. [40] Ferro and Grumley, Atlantis: the Autobiography of a Search (New York: Doubleday) 1970. [41] Christopher Hale, Himmler's Crusade (Hoboken: Wiley, 2003), p. 26. [42] Fortean Times, October 2003, Christopher Hale, Page 31 [43] Fortean Times, October 2003, Christopher Hale, Page 38 [44] Evola, Revolt Against the Modern World, 1934. [45] Runnels, Curtis; Murray, Priscilla (2004). Greece Before History: An Archaeological Companion and Guide (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rg4rTjo0OCQC& pg=PA130). Stanford: Stanford UP. p.130. ISBN0-8047-4036-4. . Retrieved 17 January 2010. [46] J. Annas, Plato: A Very Short Introduction (OUP 2003), p.42 (emphasis not in the original) [47] Timaeus 25e, Jowett translation. [48] Feder, Kenneth L., Frauds, Myths and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology, Mayfield Publishing, 1999, p. 164. [49] Zangger, Eberhard, The Flood from Heaven: Deciphering the Atlantis legend, New York: William Morrow and Company, 1993 [50] "Plato's Atlantis in South Morocco?" (http:/ / asalas. org/ doku. php). Asalas.org. . Retrieved 2010-11-27. [51] http:/ / www. atlantis-bakhu. com/ Atlantis-Bakhu [52] The wave that destroyed Atlantis (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 6568053. stm) Harvey Lilley, BBC News Online, 2007-04-20. Retrieved 2007-04-21. [53] Galanopoulos, Angelos Gergiou, and Edward Bacon, Atlantis: The Truth Behind the Legend, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969 [54] Atlantis and Lost city of Ancomah (http:/ / www. yeniansiklopedi. com/ atlantis/ ) [55] Ancomah myth in Turkish Folklore (http:/ / www. karalahana. com/ english/ archive/ folklore. html) [56] "Finding Atlantis" (http:/ / channel. nationalgeographic. com/ episode/ finding-atlantis-4982/ Overview). National Geographic Channel. . Retrieved 10 July 2011. [57] Howard, Zach (12 March 2011). "Lost city of Atlantis, swamped by tsunami, may be found" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ 2011/ 03/ 12/ us-tsunami-atlantis-idUSTRE72B2JR20110312). Reuters. . Retrieved 13 March 2011. [58] Ivar Lissner (1962). The Silent Past: Mysterious and forgotten cultures of the world. Putnam. p.156. [59] Zoe Fox (March 14, 2011). "Science Lost No Longer? Researchers Claim to Have Found 'Atlantis' in Spain." (http:/ / newsfeed. time. com/ 2011/ 03/ 14/ lost-no-longer-researchers-claim-to-have-found-atlantis-off-mainland-spain/ ). Time.com. . Retrieved March 14, 2011. [60] Francisco Ruiz; Manuel Abad et al. (2008). "The Geological Record of the Oldest Historical Tsunamis in Southwestern Spain" (http:/ / gte526. geoma. net/ uploads/ 122469523654Ruiz et al 2008. pdf). Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia (Universit degli Studi di Milano) 114 (1): 145154. ISSN0035-6883. . [61] Owen, Edward (14 March 2011). "Lost city of Atlantis 'buried in Spanish wetlands'" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ europe/ spain/ 8381219/ Lost-city-of-Atlantis-buried-in-Spanish-wetlands. html). The Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 18 March 2011. [62] Khne, Rainer W. (June 2004). Antiquity (Department of Archaeology, University of York) 78 (300). ISSN0003598X. http:/ / antiquity. ac. uk/ ant/ 078/ 300/ default. htm. Retrieved 10 July 2011. [63] Schulten, Adof (1927). "Tartessos und Atlantis" (in German). Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 73: 284288. [64] Lovgren, Stefan (2004-08-19). "Atlantis "Evidence" Found in Spain and Ireland" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 08/ 0819_040819_atlantis. html). National Geographic. . Retrieved 2007-12-05.

287

Atlantis
[65] Afonso, Leoncio (1980). "El mito de la Atlntida" (in Spanish). Geografa fsica de Canarias: Geografa de Canarias. Editorial Interinsular Canaria. p.11. ISBN9788485543151. [66] Rodrguez Hernndez, Mara Jess (2011) (in Spanish). Imgenes de Canarias 1764-1927. Historia y ciencia. Fundacin Canaria Orotava. p.38. ISBN9788461451104. [67] Sweeney, Emmet (2010). Atlantis: The Evidence of Science. Algora Publishing. p.84. ISBN9780875867717. [68] Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2005) (in French). L'Atlantide: Petite histoire d'un mythe platonicien. Belles Lettres. p.92. ISBN9782251380711. [69] Stein, Wendy (1989). Atlantis: Opposing Viewpoints. Greenhaven Press. pp.6166. ISBN9780899080567. [70] The Atlantis Blueprint: Unlocking the Ancient Mysteries of a Long-Lost Civilization. Delta; Reprint edition. May 28, 2002. ISBN0-440-50898-3. [71] Earth's shifting crust: A key to some basic problems of earth science. Pantheon Books. 1958. ASIN B0006AVEEU. [72] "Lost City Found Off Cuba" (http:/ / www. andrewcollins. com/ page/ articles/ lostcity. htm). Andrewcollins.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-27. [73] Hanson, Bill. The Atlantis Triangle. 2003. [74] Atlantis - The Lost Continent Finally Found (http:/ / www. atlan. org/ book/ ) Santos, Arysio; Atlantis Publications, August 2005, ISBN 0-9769550-0-8. [75] Ramaswamy, Sumathi (2005). The lost land of Lemuria: fabulous geographies, catastrophic histories (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=elYyJuYuAhwC& pg=PA205& dq=Kavatam+ measurement#v=onepage& q=kavatam& f=false). University of California Press. ISBN978-0520244405. . Retrieved 28 September 2010

288

Further reading Ancient sources Plato, Timaeus, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1572); alternative version (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0180&layout=& loc=Tim.+1a) with commentary. Plato, Critias, translated by Benjamin Jowett at Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1571); alternative version (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0180&layout=& loc=Criti.+106a) with commentary. Modern sources Bichler, R (1986). 'Athen besiegt Atlantis. Eine Studie ber den Ursprung der Staatsutopie', Canopus, vol. 20, no. 51, pp.7188. Cameron, Alan (1983). 'Crantor and Posidonius on Atlantis', The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 33, No. 1 (1983), pp.8191 Cayce, Edgar Evans (1968). Edgar Cayce's Atlantis. ISBN 9780876045121 Christopher, Kevin Atlantis: No way, No how, No where (http://www.csicop.org/sb/show/ atlantis_no_way_no_how_no_where/) Crowley, Aleister - Lost Continent De Camp, LS (1954). Lost Continents: The Atlantis Theme in History, Science, and Literature, New York: Gnome Press. Castleden, Rodney (2001) Atlantis Destroyed', London:Routledge. Collina-Girard, Jacques, L'Atlantide retrouve: enqute scientifique autour d'un mythe (Paris: Belin - pour la science, 2009). Donnelly, I (1882). Atlantis: The Antediluvian World, New York: Harper & Bros. Retrieved November 6, 2001, from Project Gutenberg (http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4032). Ellis, R (1998). Imaging Atlantis, New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-679-44602-8 Erlingsson, U (2004). Atlantis from a Geographer's Perspective: Mapping the Fairy Land, Miami: Lindorm. ISBN 0-9755946-0-5 Flem-Ath R, Wilson C (2001). The Atlantis Blueprint: Unlocking the Ancient Mysteries of a Long-Lost Civilization, Delacorte Press Frau, S (2002). Le Colonne d'Ercole: Un'inchiesta, Rome: Nur neon. ISBN 88-900740-0-0 Gill, C (1976). 'The origin of the Atlantis myth', Trivium, vol. 11, pp.89. Gordon, J.S. (2008). 'The Rise and Fall of Atlantis: and the mysterious origins of human civilization', Watkins Publishing, London. ISBN 978-1-905857-24-1

Atlantis Grgemanns, H (2000). 'Wahrheit und Fiktion in Platons Atlantis-Erzhlung', Hermes, vol. 128, pp.405420. Griffiths, JP (1985). 'Atlantis and Egypt', Historia, vol. 34, pp.35f. Heidel, WA (1933). 'A suggestion concerning Platon's Atlantis', Daedalus, vol. 68, pp.189228. Jakovljevic, Ranko (2005) Gvozdena vrata Atlantide, IK Beoknjiga Belgrade. ISBN 86-7694-042-8 Jakovljevic, Ranko (2008) Atlantida u Srbiji IK Pesic i sinovi Belgrade. ISBN 978-86-7540-091-2 Jordan, P (1994). The Atlantis Syndrome, Stroud: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3518-9 King, D. (1970). Finding Atlantis: A true story of genius, madness, and an extraordinary quest for a lost world. Harmony Books, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4752-8 Luce, J V (1982). End of Atlantis: New Light on an Old Legend, Efstathiadis Group: Greece Martin, TH [1841] (1981). 'Dissertation sur l'Atlantide', in TH Martin, tudes sur le Time de Platon, Paris: Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, pp.257332. Morgan, KA (1998). 'Designer history: Plato's Atlantis story and fourth-century ideology', Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 118, pp.101118. Muck, Otto Heinrich, The Secret of Atlantis, Translation by Fred Bradley of Alles ber Atlantis (Econ Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf-Wien, 1976), Times Books, a division of Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co., Inc., Three Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016, 1978

289

Nesselrath, HG (1998). 'Theopomps Meropis und Platon: Nachahmung und Parodie', Gttinger Forum fr Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 1, pp.18. Nesselrath, HG (2001a). 'Atlantes und Atlantioi: Von Platon zu Dionysios Skytobrachion', Philologus, vol. 145, pp.3438. Nesselrath, HG (2001b). 'Atlantis auf gyptischen Stelen? Der Philosoph Krantor als Epigraphiker', Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 135, pp.3335. Nesselrath, HG (2002). Platon und die Erfindung von Atlantis, Mnchen/Leipzig: KG Saur Verlag. ISBN 3-598-77560-1 Nesselrath, HG (2005). 'Where the Lord of the Sea Grants Passage to Sailors through the Deep-blue Mere no More: The Greeks and the Western Seas', Greece & Rome, vol. 52, pp.153171. Phillips, ED (1968). 'Historical Elements in the Myth of Atlantis', Euphrosyne, vol. 2, pp.338 Ramage, ES (1978). Atlantis: Fact or Fiction?, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-10482-3 Settegast, M. (1987). Plato Prehistorian: 10,000 to 5000 B.C. in Myth and Archaeology, Cambridge, MA, Rotenberg Press. Spence, L [1926] (2003). The History of Atlantis, Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-42710-2 Stiebing, William H., Jr. (1984). Ancient Astronauts, Cosmic Collisions and Other Popular Theories about Man's Past. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN0-87975-285-8.. Szlezk, TA (1993). 'Atlantis und Troia, Platon und Homer: Bemerkungen zum Wahrheitsanspruch des Atlantis-Mythos', Studia Troica, vol. 3, pp.233237. Vidal-Naquet, P (1986). 'Athens and Atlantis: Structure and Meaning of a Platonic Myth', in P Vidal-Naquet, The Black Hunter, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp.263284. ISBN 0-8018-3251-9 Whitshaw, Elena Maria (1928, Reprint 1994), Atlantis in Spain ISBN 0-9328-1322-4 Wilson, Colin (1996). From Atlantis to the Sphinx ISBN 1-85227-526-X Zangger, E (1993). The Flood from Heaven: Deciphering the Atlantis legend, New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-11350-8 Zhirov, Nikolai F., Atlantis Atlantology: Basic Problems, Translated from the Russian by David Skvirsky, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1970

Atlantis

290

External links
Ancient Atlantis Texts : Plato, Diodorus Siculus, et al. (http://www.theoi.com/Phylos/Atlantes.html) Atlantis, at sacred-texts.com (http://www.sacred-texts.com/atl/index.htm) New Findings on the Location of Atlantis (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42072469/ns/ technology_and_science-science) Sinking Atlantis - PBS (http://video.pbs.org/feature/67/)

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

Location hypotheses of Atlantis are various proposed real-world settings for the island of Atlantis, ( ) a lost civilization mentioned in Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias, written about 360 B.C. In these dialogues, a character named Critias claims that an island called Atlantis was swallowed by the sea about 9,200 years previously. This story was passed down to him through his grandfather, Dropides, who in turn got A map showing the supposed extent of the Atlantean Empire. From Ignatius L. [1] it from Solon, the famous Athenian Donnelly's Atlantis: the Antediluvian World, 1882. lawmaker who got the story from an Egyptian sanctuary. Plato's dialogues locate the island in the Atlantic Pelagos Atlantic Sea,[2] "in front of" the Pillars of Hercules ( ) and facing a district called modern Gades or Gadira (Gadiron), a location that many modern scholars associate with modern Gibraltar; however various locations have been proposed.

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

291

A 17th century artwork of Olof Rudbeck dissecting the world and revealing the secret location of Atlantis (which he believed to be hidden in Sweden.) He is surrounded by other well-known figures of antiquity such as Plato, Aristotle and Homer.

North-West of Egypt: From Greece to Spain

Most theories of the placement of Atlantis center on the Mediterranean, influenced largely by the geographical location of Egypt from which the story allegedly is derived.

Hypothesized locations of Atlantis in the Mediterranean.

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

292

Thera (Santorini)
The theory that Thera has been the site of the capital of Atlantis has been suggested by Angelos Galanopoulos in 1960.[3] Soon after the discovery of the Minoan civilization at Knossos on Crete by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900, theories linking the disappearance of this advanced empire with the destruction of Atlantis were proposed by K. T. Frost in 1913 and E. S. Balch in 1917. This theory was revived by Spyridon Marinatos in 1950 and P. B. S. Andrews in 1967.[4] More recent archaeological, seismological, and vulcanological evidence[5][6][7] (Recent arguments for Akrotiri being Atlantis have been popularized on television in shows such as The History Channel show Lost Worlds episode "Atlantis"[8][9]) has expanded the asserted connection of Crete, the island of Santorini, and the Minoan civilization with Plato's description of Atlantis. Evidence said to advance this idea includes:

Satellite image of the Island of Thera, also called Santorini. Clockwise from center: Nea Kameni; Palea Kameni; Aspronisi; Therasia; Thera

The Minoan palace and buildings discovered at the digs at Knossos on Crete and at Akrotiri on the island of Thera have revealed that the Minoans possessed advanced engineering knowledge enabling the construction of three- and four-story buildings with intricate water piping systems, advanced air-flow management, and earthquake-resistant wood and masonry walls. This level of technology was, it is said, far ahead of that found on mainland Greece at the time. Thera (also called Santorini) is the site of a massive volcanic caldera with an island at its center. Vulcanologists have determined that the island was engulfed by a volcanic eruption, the Thera eruption, around 1600 BC. The event, referred to as the Minoan eruption, was among the most powerful eruptions occurring in the history of civilization, ejecting approximately 60km of material, leaving a layer of pumice and ash 10 to 80 meters thick for 20 to 30km in all directions and having widespread effects across the eastern Mediterranean region.[10] Volcanic events of this magnitude are known to generate tsunamis and archaeological evidence suggests that such a tsunami may have devastated the coastal Minoan settlements on Crete.[7] Plato did not describe a volcanic eruption, although the events he described as "sunk by an earthquake" or "violent earthquakes, and only a flood (in singular)", could perhaps be intrepreted as consistent with such an eruption and the resulting tsunami.[11] Plato described quarries on Atlantis where "one kind of stone was white, another black, and a third red",[12] writing that these stones were quarried from the island and used in the construction. Rocks like this are found on Santorini. The center of the metropolis of Atlantis was described as being laid out in circular manner, surrounded by three circular concentric pits of seawater and two earth-rings, each connected to the sea by a deep canal. Docks for a large number of ships, with a causeway, were also mentioned. Scientists reconstructing the shape of the island prior to the eruption have concluded that the there was a ring configuration with only one narrow entrance to a larger lagoon with islands inside, much as Plato described.[13] One fresco in the ruins of Akrotiri is believed to be a landscape of the city. It shows a large city in an island in the center of the caldera lagoon. The ancient Greek for "between" and "larger" are easily confused in transcription and translation, so "larger than Asia and Libya," might have originally read "between Asia and Libya," which is how Classical Greeks would have described Thera and Crete.

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

293

Fresco found at Akrotiri

Near Cyprus
It has been argued by Robert Sarmast, an American architect, that the lost city of Atlantis lies at the bottom of the eastern Mediterranean Sea within the Cyprus Basin.[14] In his book and on his web site, he argues that images prepared from sonar data of the sea bottom of the Cyprus Basin southeast of Cyprus show features resembling man-made structures on it at depths of 1,500 meters. He interprets these features as being artificial structures that are part of the lost city of Atlantis as described by Plato. According to his ideas, several characteristics of Cyprus, including the presence of copper and extinct Cyprus Dwarf Elephants and local place names and festivals (Kataklysmos), support his identification of Cyprus as once being part of Atlantis. As with many other theories concerning the location of Atlantis, Sarmast speculates that its destruction by catastrophic flooding is reflected in the story of Noah's Flood in Genesis. In part, Sarmast[14] bases his claim that Atlantis can be found offshore of Cyprus beneath 0.9 mile (1.5km) of water on an abundance of evidence that the Mediterranean Sea dried up during the Messinian Salinity Crisis when its level dropped by 2 to 3 miles (3.2 to 4.9km) below the level of the Atlantic Ocean as the result of tectonic uplift blocking the inflow of water through Strait of Gibraltar.[15] Separated from the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea either partly or completely dried up as the result of evaporation. As a result, its formerly submerged bottom turned into a desert with large saline and brackish lakes. This area all was flooded when a ridge collapsed allowing the catastrophic flooding of through the Straits of Gibraltar. However, Sarmast disagrees with mainstream geologists, oceanographers, and paleontologists[16][17] in arguing that the closing of the Straits of Gibraltar; the desiccation and subaerial exposure of the floor of the Mediterranean Sea; and its catatstrophic flooding has occurred "forty times or more times in its long and turbulent existence" and that "the age of each of these events is unknown."[18] In the same interview, he also contradicts what mainstream geologists, oceanographers, and paleontologists argue[16][17] in claiming that "Scientists know that roughly 18,000 years ago, there was not just one Mediterranean Sea, but three." However, he does not specify who these scientists are; nor does he cite peer-reviewed scientific literature that supports this claim. Marine and other geologists,[15][19] who have also studied the bottom of the Cyprus basin, and professional archaeologists completely disagree with his interpretations.[20] Investigations by Dr. C. Hbscher of the Institut fr Geophysik, Universitt Hamburg, Germany, and others of the salt tectonics and mud volcanism within the Cyprus Basin, eastern Mediterranean Sea, demonstrated that the features which Sarmast interprets to be Atlantis consist only of a natural compressional fold caused by local salt tectonics and a slide scar with surficial compressional folds at the downslope end and sides of the slide.[19] This research collaborates seismic data shown and discussed in the Atlantis: New Revelations 2-hour Special episode of Digging for the Truth, a History Channel documentary television series. Using reflection seismology, this documentary demonstrated techniques that what Sarmast interpreted to be artificial walls are natural tectonic landforms. Furthermore, the interpretation of the age and stratigraphy of sediments blanketing the bottom of the Cyprus Basin from sea bottom cores containing Pleistocene and older marine sediments and thousands of kilometers of seismic lines from the Cyprus and adjacent basins clearly demonstrates that the Mediterranean Sea last dried up during the Messinian Salinity Crisis between 5.59 and 5.33 million years ago.[15][19][21][22][23] For example, research conducted south of Cyprus as part of Leg 160 of the Ocean Drilling Project recovered from Sites 963, 965, and 966 cores of sediments underlying the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea at depths as shallow as 470, 1506, and 1044 meters

Location hypotheses of Atlantis (1540, 4940, and 3420ft) below sea level. Thus, these cores came from parts of sea bottom of the eastern Mediterranean Sea that either lie above or at the depth of Sarmast's Atlantis, which lies at depths between 1460 and 1510 meters (4820 and 4950ft) below mean sea level.[19] These cores provide a detailed and continuous record of sea level that demonstrates that for millions of years at least during the entire Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene epochs that the feature that Sarmast interprets to be Atlantis and its adjacent sea bottom were always submerged below sea level.[21] Therefore, the entire Cyprus Basin, including the ridge where Sarmast claims that Atlantis is located, has been submerged beneath the Mediterranean Sea for millions of years.[17] Since its formation, the sea bottom feature identified by Sarmast as Atlantis has always been submerged beneath over a kilometer of water.[19]

294

Helike
A. Giovannini has argued that the submergence of the Greek city of Helike in 373 BC, i.e. while Plato was alive, may have been the inspiration for a totally fictional story about Atlantis.[24] The claim that Helike is the inspiration for Plato's Atlantis is also supported by Dora Katsonopoulou and Steven Soter.[25]

Sardinia
In 2002 the Italian journalist Sergio Frau published a book, Le colonne d'Ercole ("Pillars of Hercules"), in which he states that before Eratosthenes, all the ancient Greek writers located the Pillars of Hercules on the Strait of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia, while only Alexander the Great's conquest of the east obliged Eratosthenes to move the pillars at Gibraltar in his description of the world.[26] According to his thesis, the Atlantis described by Plato could be identified with Sardinia. He argues that a tsunami once hit Sardinia which destroyed the enigmatic Nuragic civilization and that the survivors migrated to the nearby Italian peninsula, founding the Etruscan civilization (which is now thought to have come from the Eastern Mediterranean). In April 2005, the theories of the Sergio Frau were debated at a conference organized by UNESCO in Paris. At the same time, an exposition of his findings was on display in the UNESCO building.[27]

Sicily
The concept of the identification of Atlantis with the island of Sicily is the idea that the Italians were involved in the Sea Peoples movement (a similar story to Plato's account), that the name "Atlas" may have been derived from "Italos" via the Middle Egyptian language, and Plato's descriptions of the city of Atlantis share several unlikely traits with the sanctuary of the Palici (Twin brothers, similar procreation myth, low mountain near to plain, two fountains etc.).[28][29]

Malta
Malta, being situated in the dividing line between the western and eastern Mediterranean sea, and being the home to the oldest man-made structures in the world, is considered a possible location of Atlantis both by some current researchers[30] and by Maltese amateur enthusiasts.[31] In Malta: Echoes of Platos Island (2000), Anton Mifsud, Simon Mifsud, Chris Agius Sultana and Charles Savona Ventura catalogues the many archaeological sites and ancient remains in Malta that could be related to Atlantis.[32] In Malta fdal Atlantis (Maltese remains of Atlantis) (2002), Francis Galea writes about several older studies and hypotheses, particularly that of Maltese architect Giorgio Grongnet, who in 1854 claimed that the Maltese Islands are the remnants of Atlantis.[33]

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

295

North-East of Egypt: From Middle East to the Black Sea

Middle East
Jaime Manuschevich argues that the real place of the mythical civilization is the territory that today corresponds to Israel and Sinai,[34] and that this region was an island in the Great Rift Valley,[35] surrounded by the Jezreel Valley on the north, the Dead Sea and Red Sea on the east and the Gulf of Suez and the Mediterranean Sea on the west until 5600 BC. In addition, Manuschevich proposes that Atlantean civilization corresponds to the Natufian peoples, the first food-producing people, whose main political and harbor center was Jericho. These people lived in the region in the dates established by Plato (11,600 BC).

Turkey
The Sinai peninsula and the present day Israel,

Peter James, in his book The Sunken Kingdom, identifies Atlantis with Egypt and the Palestinian territories the kingdom of Zippasla. He argues that Solon did indeed gather the story on his travels, but in Lydia, not Egypt as Plato states; that Atlantis is identical with Tantalis, the city of Tantalus in Asia Minor, which was (in a similar tradition known to the Greeks) said to have been destroyed by an earthquake; that the legend of Atlantis' conquests in the Mediterranean is based on the revolt by King Madduwattas of Zippasla against Hittite rule; that Zippasla is identical with Sipylus, where Greek tradition placed Tantalis; and that the now vanished lake to the north of Mount Sipylus was the site of the city.[36]

Troy
The geoarchaeologist Eberhard Zangger has proposed the hypothesis that Atlantis was in fact the city state of Troy.[37] He both agrees and disagrees with Rainer W. Khne: He too believes that the Trojans-Atlanteans were the sea peoples, but only a minor part of them. He proposes that all Greek speaking city states of the Aegean civilization or Mycenae constituted the sea peoples and that they destroyed each other's economies in a series of semi-fratricidal wars lasting several decades.[38]

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

296

Black Sea
German researchers Siegfried and Christian Schoppe locate Atlantis in the Black Sea. Before 5500 BC, a great plain lay in the northwest at a former freshwater-lake. In 5510 BC, rising sea level topped the barrier at today's Bosporus. They identify the Pillars of Hercules with the Strait of [41] Bosporus. They gave no explanation how the ships of the merchants coming from all over the world had arrived at the harbour of Atlantis when it was 350 feet below global sea-level.

They claim Oreichalcos means the obsidian stone that used to be a cash-equivalent at that time and was replaced by the spondylus shell around 5500 BC, which would suit the red, white, black motif. The geocatastrophic event led to the neolithic diaspora in Europe, also beginning 5500 BC. In 2000, the Guardian reported that Robert Ballard, in a small submarine, found remains of human habitation around 300 feet underwater in the Black Sea off the north coast of Turkey. The area flooded around 5000 BC. This flood is also believed to have inspired the Biblical story of Noah's Ark known as the Black Sea deluge theory. Another candidate bordering the Black Sea, suggested by Hasan Umur in the 1940s, would be Ancomah, a legendary place near Trabzon.[42]

The rectangle has dimensions of approximately 555 km by 370 km (3000 to 2000 stadia [39] plain of Atlantis ). Circle held around Snake Island (potential candidate for the Capital [40] of Atlantis ), located 35km east of the Danube Delta

Around Gibraltar: Near to the Pillars of Hercules

Andalusia
Andalusia is a region in modern day southern Spain which once included the "lost" city of Tartessos, which disappeared in the 6th century BC. The Tartessians were traders known to the Ancient Greeks who knew of their legendary king Arganthonios. The Andalusian hypothesis was originally developed by the Spanish author Juan de Mariana and the Dutch author Johannes van Gorp (Goropius Becanus), both of the 16th century, later by Jose Pellicer de Ossau y Tovar in 1673, who suggested that the metropolis of Atlantis was between the islands Mayor and Menor, located almost in the center of the Doana Marshes,[43] and expanded upon by Juan Fernndez Amador y de los Ros in 1919, who suggested that the metropolis of Atlantis was located precisely where today are the 'Marismas de Hinojo'.[44] These claims were made again in 1922 by the German author Adolf Schulten, and further propagated by Otto Jessen, Richard Hennig, Victor Berard, and Elena Wishaw in the 1920s. The suggested locations in Andalusia lie outside the Pillars of Hercules, and therefore beyond but close to the Mediterranean itself. In 2005, based upon the work of Adolf Schulten, the German teacher Werner Wickboldt also claimed this to be the location of Atlantis.[45] Wickboldt suggested that the war of the Atlanteans refers to the war of the Sea Peoples who attacked the Eastern Mediterranean countries around 1200 BC and that the Iron Age city of Tartessos may have been built at the site of the ruined Atlantis. In 2000, Georgeos Diaz-Montexano published an article explaining his belief that Atlantis was located somewhere between Andalusia and Morocco.[46] An Andalusian location was also supported by Rainer W. Khne in his article that appeared in the journal Antiquity.[47][48] Khne's theory says: "Good fiction imitates facts. Plato declared that his Atlantis tale is philosophical fiction invented to describe his

Location hypotheses of Atlantis fictitious ideal state in the case of war. Khne suggests that Plato has used three historical elements for this tale. (i) Greek tradition on Mycenaean Athens for the description of ancient Athens, (ii) Egyptian records on the wars of the Sea Peoples for the description of the war of the Atlanteans, and (iii) oral tradition from Syracuse about Tartessos for the description of the city and geography of Atlantis." According to Wickboldt, Satellite images show two rectangular shapes on the tops of two small elevations inside the marsh of Doana which he hypothesizes are the "temple of Poseidon" and "the temple of Cleito and Poseidon".[49] On satellite images parts of several "rings" are recognizable, similar in their proportion with the ring system by Plato.[45] It is not known if any of these shapes are natural or manmade and archaeological excavations are planned.[50] Geologists have shown that the Doana National Park experienced intense erosion from 4000 BC until 9th century AD, where it became a marine environment. For thousands of years until the Medieval Age, all that occupied the area of the modern Marshes Doana was a gulf or inland sea-arm, but there was not even a small island with sufficient space to house a small village.[51][52] In 2011, a team led by Richard Freund claimed to have found strong evidence for the location in Doana National Park based on underground and underwater surveys, and the existence of what they characterized as "memorial cities" rebuilt in Atlantis's image.[53][54] Spanish scientists have dismissed Freund's claims claiming that he was sensationalising their work. The anthropologist Juan Villaras-Robles, who works with the Spanish National Research Council, said "Richard Freund was a newcomer to our project and appeared to be involved in his own very controversial issue concerning King Solomon's search for ivory and gold in Tartessos, the well documented settlement in the Donaa area established in the first millennium BC" and described his claims as 'fanciful'.[55] Simcha Jacobovici, involved in the production of a documentary on Freund's work for the National Geographic Channel, stated that the biblical Tarshish (which he believes is the same as Tartessos) was Atlantis, and that "Atlantis was hiding in the Tanach". Aren Maeir, a professor of archeology at Bar-Ilan University said a lot of people have made many crazy claims about Atlantis its one of those classic places where you have a lunatic fringe looking for all types of things. And Richard Freund is known as someone who makes sensational finds. I would say that I am exceptionally skeptical about the thing, but I wouldnt discount it 100% until I see the details, which havent been published as far as I know...every few years we hear something like this from him... And the fact that its on National Geographic doesnt mean much. Unfortunately, over the past years theyve had many questionable programs.".[56]

297

Spartel Bank
Two hypotheses have put Spartel Bank, a submerged former island in the Strait of Gibraltar, as the location of Atlantis. The more well-known hypothesis was proposed in a September 2001 issue of Comptes Rendus de l'academie des Sciences by French geologist Jacques Collina-Girard.[57] The lesser-known hypothesis was first published by Spanish-Cuban investigator Georgeos Daz-Montexano in an April 2000 issue of Spanish magazine Ms All de la Ciencia (Beyond Science), and later in August 2001 issues of Spanish magazines El Museo (The Museum) and Ao Cero (Year Zero).[58] The origin of Collina-Girard's hypothesis is disputed, with Daz-Montexano claiming it as plagiarism of his own earlier hypothesis, and Collina-Girard denying any plagiarism. Both individuals claim the other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.[58][59] Collina-Girard's hypothesis states that during the most recent Glacial Maximum of the Ice Age sea level was 135 m below its current level, narrowing the Gibraltar Strait and creating a small half-enclosed sea measuring 70km by 20km between the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. The Spartel Bank formed an archipelago in this small sea with the largest island measuring about 10 to 12 kilometers across. With rising ocean levels the island began to slowly shrink, but then at around 9400 BC (11,400 years ago) there was an accelerated sea level rise of 4 meters per century known as Meltwater Pulse 1A, which drowned the top of the main island. The occurrence of a great earthquake and tsunami in this region, similar to the 1755 Lisbon earthquake (magnitude 8.5-9) was proposed by marine geophysicist Marc-Andr Gutscher as offering a possible explanation for the described catastrophic destruction (reference - Gutscher, M.-A., 2005. Destruction of Atlantis by a great earthquake and tsunami? A geological analysis of the Spartel Bank hypothesis. Geology, v. 33, p.685-688.) .[60] Collina-Girard proposes that the

Location hypotheses of Atlantis disappearance of this island was recorded in prehistoric Egyptian tradition for 5,000 years until it was written down by the first Egyptian scribes around 4000-3000 BC, and the story then subsequently inspired Plato to write a fictionalized version interpreted to illustrate his own principles. A detailed review in the Bryn Mawr Classical Review comments on the discrepancies in Collina-Girard's dates and use of coincidences, concluding that he "has certainly succeeded in throwing some light upon some momentous developments in human prehistory in the area west of Gibraltar. Just as certainly, however, he has not found Plato's Atlantis."[61]

298

Morocco
According to Michael Hbner, Atlantis core region was located in South-West Morocco at the Atlantic Ocean. In his papers[62][63][64] an approach to the analysis of Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias is described. By means of a hierarchical constraint satisfaction procedure, a variety of geographically relevant indications from Plato's accounts are used to infer the most probable location of Plato's Atlantis Nesos. The outcome of this is the Souss-Massa plain in today's South-West Morocco. This plain is surrounded by the High Atlas, the Anti-Atlas, the Sea of Atlas (Atlantis Thalassa, today's Atlantic Ocean). Because of this isolated position, Hbner argued, this plain was called Atlantis Atlantis Nessos - The Island of Atlas. Nesos, the Island of Atlas by ancient Greeks before the Greek Dark Ages. The Amazigh (Berber) People actually call the Souss-Massa plain island. Of major archaeological interest is the fact that in the North-West of the Souss-Massa plain a large annular caldera-like geomorphologic structure was discovered. This structure has almost the dimensions of Plato's capital of Atlantis and is covered with hundreds of large and small prehistoric ruins of different types.[65] These ruins were made out of rocks coloured red, white and black. Hbner also shows possible harbour remains, a unusually geomorphological structure, which applies to Plato's description of roofed over docks, which were cut into red, white and black bedrock. Docks cut into red-white-black bedrock near Cap These 'docks' are located close to the annular geomorphological Ghir. structure and close to Cape Ghir, which was named Cape Heracles in antiquity. Hbner also argued, that Agadir is etymologically related to the semitic g-d-r and probably to Platos Gadir. The semitic g-d-r means enclosure, fortification and sheep fold.[66] The meaning of enclosure, sheep fold corresponds to the Greek translation of the name Gadeiros (Crit. 114b) which is Eumelos = Rich in Sheep.[67]

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

299

Atlantic Ocean: West

It has been claimed that when Plato wrote of the Sea of Atlantis, he may have been speaking of the area now called the Atlantic Ocean. The ocean's name, derived from Greek mythology, means the "Sea of Atlas". Plato remarked that, in describing the origins of Atlantis, this area was allotted to Poseidon. In Ancient Greek times the terms "Ocean" and "Atlas" both referred to the 'Giant Water' which Hypothesized location of Atlantis in worldwide, click image for greater detail surrounded the main landmass known at that time by the Greeks, which could be described as Eurafrasia (although this whole supercontinent was far from completely known to the Ancient Greeks), and thus this water mass was considered to be the 'end of the (known) world', for the same reason the name "Atlas" was given to the mountains near the Ocean, the Atlas Mountains, as they also denoted the 'end of the (known) world'.

Azores Islands
One of the suggested places for Atlantis is around the Azores Islands, a group of islands belonging to Portugal located about 900 miles (1500km) west of the Portuguese coast. Some people believe the islands could be the mountain tops of Atlantis. Ignatius L. Donnelly, an American congressman, was perhaps the first one to talk about this possible location in his book "Atlantis: The Antediluvian World".[68] The Azores are steep-sided volcanic seamounts that drop rapidly 1000 meters (about 3300 feet) to a plateau.[69] Cores taken from the plateau and other evidence shows that this area has been an undersea plateau for millions of years.[70][71] Ancient indicators, i.e. relict beaches, marine deposits, and wave cut-terraces, of Pleistocene shorelines and sea level show that the Azores Islands have not subsided to any significant degree. Instead, they demonstrate that some of these islands have actually risen during the Late and Middle Pleistocene. This is evidenced by relict, Pleistocene wave-cut platforms and beach sediments that now lie well above current sea level. For example, they have been found on Flores Island at elevations of 15-20, 35-45, ~100, and ~250 meters above current sea level.[72] Ignatius L. Donnelly also makes a connection to the mythical Aztln.

Canary Islands, Madeira and Cape Verde

The Canary Islands have been identified as remnants of Atlantis by numerous authors. For example in 1803, Bory de Saint-Vincent in his Essai sur les les fortunes et l'antique Atlantide proposed that the Canary Islands, along with the Madeira, and Azores, are what remained after Atlantis broke up. Many later authors, i.e. Lewis Spence in his The Problem of Atlantis, also identified the Canary Islands as part of Atlantis leftover from when it catastrophically sank. Detailed geomorphic and geologic studies of the Canary Islands clearly demonstrate that over the last 4 million years, they have been steadily uplifted, without any significant periods of subsidence, by geologic processes such as erosional unloading, gravitational unloading, lithospheric flexure induced by adjacent islands, and volcanic underplating.[73] For example, Pliocene pillow lavas, which solidified underwater and now exposed on the northeast flanks of Gran Canaria, have been uplifted between 46 and 143 meters above sea level.[73] Also, marine deposits associated with lavas dated as being 4.1 and 9.3 million years old in Gran Canaria, ca. 4.8 million years old in Fuerteventura, and ca. 9.8 million years old in Lanzarote demonstrate that the Canary Islands have for millions of years undergone long term uplift without any significant, much less catastrophic, subsidence.[74][75] A series of

Location hypotheses of Atlantis raised, Pleistocene marine terraces, which become progressively older with age, on Fuerteventura indicate that it has risen in elevation at about 1.7cm per thousand years for the past one million years. The elevation of the marine terrace for the highstand of sea level for the last interglacial period shows that this island has experienced neither subsidence nor significant uplift for the past 125,000 years.[76] Within the Cape Verde Islands, the detailed mapping and dating of 16 Pleistocene marine terraces and Pliocene marine conglomerate found that they have been uplifted throughout most of the Pleistocene and remained relatively stable without any significant subsidence since the last interglacial period.[77] Finally, detailed studies of the sedimentary deposits surrounding the Canary Islands have demonstrated, except for a narrow rim around each island exposed during glacial lowstands of sea level, a complete lack of any evidence for the ocean floor surrounding the Canary Islands having ever been above water.[78][79]

300

Northern Spain
According to Jorge Maria Ribero-Meneses,[80] Atlantis was in northern Spain. He specifically argues that Atlantis is the underwater plateau, known internationally as "Le Danois Bank" and locally as "The Cachucho". It is located located about 25 kilometers from the continental shelf and about 60km off the coast of Asturias, and Lastres between Ribadesella. Its top is now 425 meters below the sea. It is 50 kilometers from east to west and 18km from north to south. Ribero-Meneses hypothesized that is part of the continental margin that broke off at least 12000 years ago as the result of tectonic processes that occurred at the end of the last ice age. He argues that they created a tsunami with waves with heights of hundreds of meters and that the few survivors had to start virtually from scratch.[81] Detailed studies[82] of the geology of the Le Danois Bank region have refuted the hypothesis proposed by Jorge Maria Ribero-Meneses that the Le Danois Bank was created by the collapse of the northern Cantabrian continental margin about 12,000 years ago. The Le Danois Bank represents part of the continental margin that have been uplifted by thrust faulting when the continental margin overrode oceanic crust during the Paleogene and Neogene periods. Along the northern edge of the Le Danois Bank, Precambrian granulite and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks have been thrust northward over Miocene and Oligocene marine sediments. The basin separating the Le Danois Bank from the Cantabrian continental margin to the south is a graben that simultaneously formed as a result of normal faulting associated with the thrust faulting.[82][83] In addition, marine sediments that range in age from lower Pliocene to Pleistocene, cover large parts of Le Danois Bank, and fill the basin separating it from the Cantabrian continental margin demonstrate that this bank has been submerged beneath the Bay of Biscay for millions of years.[84][85]

Atlantic Ocean: North

Irish Sea
In his book Atlantis of the West: The Case For Britain's Drowned Megalithic Civilization (2003), Paul Dunbavin argues that a large island once existed in the Irish Sea and that this island was Atlantis. He argues that this Neolithic civilization in Europe was partially drowned by rising sea levels caused by a comet impact that caused a pole shift and changed the earth's axis around 3100 BC.[86]

Great Britain
William Comyns Beaumont believed that Great Britain was the location of Atlantis[87] and the Scottish journalist Lewis Spence claimed that the ancient traditions of Britain and Ireland contain memories of Atlantis. On December 29, 1997, the BBC reported that a team of Russian scientists believed they found Atlantis in the ocean 100 miles off of Land's End, Cornwall, Britain. The BBC stated that Little Sole Bank, a relatively shallow area, was believed by the team to be the capital of Atlantis. This may have been based on the myth of Lyonesse.[88]

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

301

Ireland
The idea of Atlantis being located in Ireland was presented in the book Atlantis from a Geographer's Perspective: Mapping the Fairy Land (2004) by Swedish geographer Dr. Ulf Erlingsson from Uppsala University. It hypothesized that the empire of Atlantis refers to the Neolithic Megalithic tomb culture, based on their similar geographic extent, and deduced that the island of Atlantis then must correspond to Ireland. Erlingsson found the similarities of size and landscape to be statistically significant, while he rejected his null hypothesis that Plato invented Atlantis as fiction.[89] Based on this result, the speculation was made that the capital of Atlantis could be connected with Newgrange, Knowth, and Tara, Ireland. As regards the sinking of Atlantis, it was suggested that it is a memory from another time and place, notably the Dogger Bank area. It was an island that sank in the North Sea about 6100 BC. While the world sea level rose gradually as the Ice Age ice sheets melted, there was a sudden sea level rise at this time due to the final drainage of Lake Agassiz. At about the same time a tsunami from the Storegga Slide is believed to have devastated the island in the manner described by Plato. (See also entry on North Sea below.) Other hypotheses place the location of Atlantis between Britain and France on the Celtic Shelf.[90] This hypothesis was first developed by Lewis Spence and has been recently revived by some oceanographers.

North Sea
The North Sea is known to contain lands that were once above water; the medieval town of Dunwich in East Anglia, for example, crumbled into the sea. The land area known as "Doggerland", between England and Denmark, was inundated by a tsunami around 8200BP (6200BC), caused by a submarine landslide off the coast of Norway known as the Storegga Slide,[91] and prehistoric human remains have been dredged up from the Dogger Bank.[92] Atlantis itself has been identified besides Heligoland off the north-west German coast by the author Jrgen Spanuth,[93] who postulates that it was destroyed during the Bronze Age around 1200 BC, only to partially re-emerge during the Iron Age. Ulf Erlingsson hypothesized that the island that sank referred to Dogger Bank, and the city itself referred to the Silverpit crater at the base of Dogger Bank. A book allegedly by Oera Linda claims that a land called Atland once existed in the North Sea, but was destroyed in 2194 BC.
Satellite image of the North Sea, which has also been suggested as the location of Atlantis.

Denmark
In his book The Celts: The People Who Came Out of the Darkness (1975), author Gerhard Herm links the origins of the Atlanteans to end of the ice age and the flooding of eastern coastal Denmark.[94]

Finland
Finnish eccentric Ior Bock located Atlantis in the Baltic sea, at southern part of Finland where he claimed a small community of people lived during the Ice Age. According to Bock, this was possible due to Gulf Stream which brought warm water to the Finnish coast. This is a small part of a large saga that he claims has been told in his family through the ages, dating back to the development of language itself. The family saga tells the name Atlantis comes from Swedish words allt-land-is ("all-land-ice") and refers to the last Ice-Age. Thus in the Bock family saga it's more a time period than an exact geographical place. According to this the Atlantis disappeared in 8016 BC when the Ice-Age ended in Finland and the ice melted away.[95]

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

302

Sweden
In 1679 Olaus Rudbeck wrote Atland (Atlantica), where he argues that Scandinavia, specifically Sweden, is identical with Atlantis. According to Rudbeck the capital city of Atlantis was identical to the ancient burial site of Swedish kings Gamla Uppsala.

Americas
When Columbus returned from his voyage to the west, some historians of the period such as Francisco Lpez de Gmara ,[96] writing in 1552 thought that what Columbus had discovered was the Atlantic Island of Plato. In 1556 Agustn de Zrate stated that the Americas was Atlantis which at one time began from the straits of Gibraltar and extended westwards to include North and South America and that it was as a result of Plato that the new continent was discovered. He also said it had all the attributes of the continent described by Plato yet at the same time mentioned that the ancient peoples crossed over by a route from the island of Atlantis. Zarate also mentions that the 9,000 years of Plato were 9,000 months.[97]

Olaus Rudbeck's Atlantica.

This was also repeated and clarified by historian Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa in 1572 in his History of the Incas,[98] who by calculation of longitude stated that Atlantis must have stretched from within two leagues of the strait of Gibraltar westwards to include all the rest of the land from the mouth of the Maraon (Amazon River) and Brazil to the South Sea, which is what they now call America. He thought the sunken part to be now in the Atlantic Ocean but that it was from this sunken part that the original Indians had come to populate Peru via one continuous land mass. He says that South America was also known by the name of the Isla Atlanticus. It first appeared as the Atlantic Island (Insula Atlantica) on a map of the New World by cartographer Sebastian Mnster in 1540[99] and again on the map titled Atlantis Insula by Nicolas Sanson and son (1669) which identified both North and South America as Atlantis Insula, the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean as Oceanus Atlanticus and the western part of the Atlantic Ocean plus the Pacific Ocean as Atlanticum Pelagus. This edition was further embellished with features from the Atlantis legend by his son Guillaume Sanson including the names of the ten kings of Atlantis with Atlas portion being in Mexico. Sanson's map supposedly showed what the earth looked like 200,000 years before there were any humans on it.[100]

South America
A hypothesis by author Jim Allen argues that Plato's description exactly fits South America with the island capital in what is now Bolivia because he describes a level rectangular-shaped plain which he said lay in the center of the continent, next to the sea and midway along the longest side of the continent.[101] He also described the capital city of Atlantis which was built on a small volcanic island and also called Atlantis. The city lay on the level rectangular plain, five miles from the sea and according to Plato the whole region was high above the level of the ocean sea, rising sheer out of the ocean sea to a great height on that side of the continent. Allen contends that the Altiplano region of Bolivia meets these characteristics.

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

303

Mexico
Author Gene Matlock claims that he found Atlantis in Mexico. He claims in his The last Atlantis Book You'll Ever Have to Read! that the Sanskrit language spoken in the Indian subcontinent is the progenitor of most world languages, that this explains the meaning of the name "Atlantis", and that this suggests a connection between Mexico and India and a Mexican location for Atlantis.[102][103]

Cuba
Author Andrew Collins has advocated a Cuban connection to Atlantis in his book Gateway to Atlantis: The Search for the Source of a Lost Civilization. Collins supports his hypothesis with indirect historical and geographical evidence. He suggests Isle of Youth and the shallow sea bottom that surrounds it as a possible location for Atlantis.[104]

Other locations
There have been suggestions for Atlantis to be placed outside of the Mediterranean Sea or the Atlantic Ocean. Such locations would tend to fall outside of the known world of the original sources of the legend.

Antarctica
The theory that Antarctica was Atlantis was particularly fashionable during the 1960s and 1970s, spurred on partly both by the isolation of the continent, and also the Piri Reis map, which purportedly shows Antarctica as it would be ice free, suggesting human knowledge of that period. Charles Berlitz, Erich Von Dniken and Peter Kolosimo are some of the popular authors who made this proposal. More recently Rand and Rose Flem-Ath have proposed this in their book, When the Sky Fell; the theory was revised and made more specific in Rand's work with author Colin Wilson, in The Atlantis Blueprint (published in 2002). The second work theorized that Atlantis was to be found in Lesser Antarctica, near the coast of the Ross Ice Shelf. A geological theory known as "Earth Crust Displacement" forms the basis of their work. The Atlantis Blueprint uses both scientific and pseudoscientific (such as mere speculation and assumptions) means to back up the theory.[105] Charles Hapgood came up with the "Earth Crustal Displacement theory". Hapgood's theory suggests that Earth's outer crust is able to move upon the upper mantle layer rapidly up to a distance of 2,000 miles, placing Atlantis in Antarctica, when considering the movements of the crust in the past. It is to be noted that Albert Einstein was one of the few voices to answer Hapgood's theory. Einstein wrote a preface for Hapgood's book Earth's shifting crust, published in 1958. This theory is particularly popular with Hollow Earthers, and can be seen as a mirror of the Hyperborean identification.[106] In his book "Fingerprints of the Gods", author Graham Hancock argues for the Earth Crustal Displacement theory in general, and the Atlantis/Antarctica connection specifically, then goes on to propose archaeological exploration of Antarctica in search of Atlantis. What is now known about the Quaternary and Holocene history of Antarctica completely discredits any hypothesis about it being the location of Atlantis. Mapping and dating of the edges of the Antarctic ice sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum; mapping and dating of glacial erratics, tills, and striations within now ice-free areas; microfossils from post-glacial lake deposits; coring and analysis of glacial tills and marine sediments underlying the Ross and Wedell seas; coring and analysis of ice cores; and other research has accumulated an enormous amount of data that has disproved the various hypotheses that any sizable part of Antarctica was sufficiently ice-free and temperate in climate during the last 100,000 years and earlier to have supported any civilization.[107][108] This research soundly refutes Flem-Aths proposal that lesser (West) Antarctica was ice-free and temperate prior to 9,600 B.C. (11,600 B.P.)[109][110][111]

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

304

Indonesia/Sundaland
The South China Sea north of Indonesia and Java Sea have been advocated as a site for Atlantis. Key to this argument that Sundaland was the location of Atlantis is that the Ocean of Atlantis refers to the ocean which encircles Eurasia and Africa, which was the historical understanding until the time of Christopher Columbus. Proponents of this idea claim that natives of Sundaland who fled the rising waters or volcanic explosions eventually had contact with Ancient Egyptians, who later passed the story onto Plato who gets some but not all of the details correct, including location and time period. The main advocate of this theory is the Brazilian professor of nuclear physics Arysio Nunes dos Santos.[112]

Areas exposed during lowstands of sea level during the Last Glacial Maximum.

During the Last Glacial Maximum, what is now known as the Sunda Shelf was the location of a large subaerial coastal plain that was part of Sundaland. During the Last Glacial Maximum, Sundaland extended northward from Indonesia to Borneo and northwestward to the coast of Southeast Asia.[113][114][115] Sundaland is quite tectonically stable lacking any known prehistory of any significant, much less cataclysmic, tectonic subsidence.[113][116] Numerous studies by petroleum and Quaternary geologists have found a complete lack of any evidence for any Neogene and Quaternary volcanic activity within the Sunda Shelf despite its proximity to Indonesia.[116][117][118] Detailed studies[116][117] of late glacial and postglacial sea level rise for this part of the Sunda Shelf demonstrates that the first significant submergence of Sundaland by rising sea level occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago. Periods of abrupt rise in sea level submerged a significant part of Sundaland beneath the South China Sea between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. Between 14,300 and 14,600 years ago, a period of 300 years, sea level rose 16m (62feet). Between 12,000 and 13,000 years ago, the submergence of Sundaland by rising sea level was relatively minor. A final period of rapid flooding of Sundaland by the South China Sea occurred between 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. The submergence of Sundaland during this period was minor in extent relative to the area submerged between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. Evidence for any significant or cataclysmic submergence of Sundaland as the result of tectonic processes is completely lacking.[116][117][119]

North Pole
The professor of systematic theology at Boston University William Fairfield Warren (18331929) wrote a book promoting his belief that the original centre of mankind once sat at the North Pole entitled Paradise Found: The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole (1885). In this work Warren placed Atlantis at the North Pole, as well as the Garden of Eden, Mount Meru, Avalon and Hyperborea.[120] Warren believed all these mythical lands were folk memories of a former inhabited far northern seat where man was originally created.[121] Warren's identification of Atlantis with the North Pole was maintained by positioning Atlas in the far north by mapping out ancient Greek cosmology. Warren equated the primordial Titan Atlas of Greek mythology who supported the Heavens on his shoulders (or supported the earth on a pillar) to the Atlas described in Plato's dialogue Critias as the first ruler of Atlantis (Critias, 114a). In Warren's view, all the axis mundi or cosmic-axis of ancient legends (Yggdrasil, Irminsul and Atlas' pillar) had to be in the far north "at the top of the world": ...To locate these in right mutual relations, one must begin by representing to himself the earth as a sphere or spheroid, and as situated within, and concentric with, the starry sphere, each having its axis perpendicular, and its north pole at the top. The pole-star is thus in the true zenith, and the heavenly heights centring about it are the abode of the supreme god or gods.[121] Warren noted how Homer, Virgil and Hesiod all placed Atlas or his world pillar at the "ends of the earth", meaning in his view the far northern arctic regions, while Euripides related Atlas to the Pole Star, so as he concluded:

Location hypotheses of Atlantis ......in oldest Greek thought Atlas belongs at the North Pole, and it is only reasonable to locate the kingdom of Atlas in the same locality.[122] Therefore in Warren's view Atlantis sat in the far north, at the North Pole, since the Atlas in his ancient Greek cosmological mapping stood in the far northern zenith, under the Pole Star.

305

References and notes

[1] Ignatius L. Donnelly (1882). [[Atlantis: The Antediluvian World (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ atl/ ataw/ ataw402. htm)]]. Harper. p.295. . Retrieved 11 May 2011. [2] Babiniotis, Lexicon of the Greek Language. Pelagos = Small Open sea [3] Galanopoulos, Angelos G. (1960): On the Location and Size of Atlantis, in: Praktika Akademia Athenai 35 (1960) 401-418. [4] Frost, K. T. (1913): The Critias and Minoan Crete, in: Journal of Hellenic Studies 33 (1913) 189-206. Balch, E. S. (1917): Atlantis or Minoan Crete, in: The Geographical Review 3 (1917) 388-392. Marinatos, Spyridon (1950): Peri ton Thrulon tes Atlantidos, in: Kretica Chronica 4 (1950) 195-213. Andrews, P. B. S. (1967): Larger than Africa and Asia?, in: Greece and Rome 14 (1967) 76-79. [5] "Santorini Eruption (~1630 BC) and the legend of Atlantis" (http:/ / www. geology. sdsu. edu/ how_volcanoes_work/ santorini. html). . Retrieved 2008-03-09. [6] Vergano, Dan (2006-08-27). "Ye gods! Ancient volcano could have blasted Atlantis myth" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ tech/ science/ columnist/ vergano/ 2006-08-27-ancient-volcano_x. htm). USA Today. . Retrieved 2008-03-09. [7] Lilley, Harvey (20 April 2007). "The wave that destroyed Atlantis" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 6568053. stm). BBC Timewatch. . Retrieved 2008-03-09. [8] "Lost Worlds: CGI: Atlantis" (http:/ / www. history. com/ media. do?id=lostworlds_atlantis_broadband& action=clip). History.com. . Retrieved 2008-03-09. [9] "Lost Worlds: Atlantis" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070927230122/ http:/ / www. thehistorychannel. co. uk/ site/ tv_guide/ full_details/ World_history/ programme_3306. php). History Channel UK. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. thehistorychannel. co. uk/ site/ tv_guide/ full_details/ World_history/ programme_3306. php) on 2007-09-27. . Retrieved 2008-03-11. [10] "Santorini eruption much larger than originally believed" (http:/ / www. uri. edu/ news/ releases/ ?id=3654). August 23, 2006. . Retrieved 2007-03-10. [11] "Santorini and the legend of Atlantis: The Minoan eruption on Santorini as possible origin?" (http:/ / www. decadevolcano. net/ santorini/ atlantis. htm). . Retrieved 2008-07-12. [12] Arundell (1885). The Secret of Plato's Atlantis (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=oEQSAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA92). Burns and Oates. p.92. . Retrieved 2008-07-12. [13] "Models of the Pre-Minoan Island (prior to ca. 1645 BC)" (http:/ / www. decadevolcano. net/ santorini/ preminoan. htm). . Retrieved 2008-07-12. [14] Sarmast, R., 2006, Discovery of Atlantis: The Startling Case for the Island of Cyprus. Origin Press, San Rafael, California. 195 pp. ISBN 1579830129 [15] Clauzon, G., J.-P. Suc, F. Gautier, A. Berger, and M.-F. Loutre, 1996, "Alternate interpretation of the Messinian salinity crisis: Controversy resolved?". (http:/ / geology. gsapubs. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 24/ 4/ 363) Geology. v. 24, no. 4, pp. 363366. [16] Stanley, D.J., and F.-C. Wezel, 1985, "Geological Evolution of the Mediterranean Basin" Springer-Verlag, New York, New York. 589 p. ISBN 1-897799-66-7 [17] Hall, J.K., V.A. Krasheninnikov, F. Hirsch, C. Benjamini, and C. Flexer, eds., 2005, "Geological framework of the Levant, Volume II: the Levantine Basin and Israel" (http:/ / www. cybaes. org/ archive/ downloads/ Hall2005/ VolII. pdf), 107 MB PDF version, Historical Productions-Hall, Jerusalem, Israel. 826 p. Additional PDF files of a related book and maps can be downloaded from "CYBAES manuscript downloads" (http:/ / www. cybaes. org/ archive/ downloads/ index. html) [18] Anonymous, 2003, Q&A with Robert Sarmast (http:/ / www. discoveryofatlantis. com/ questions. htm), Discovery of Atlantis web site [19] Hbscher, C., E. Tahchi, I. Klaucke, A. Maillard, and H. Sahling, 2009, Salt tectonics and mud volcanism in the Latakia and Cyprus Basins, eastern Mediterranean. (http:/ / www. marum. de/ Binaries/ Binary_35758/ Huebscher_2009_Tectono. pdf) Tectonophysics. v. 470, no. 1-2, pp. 173-182. [20] Britt, R.R., 2004, Claimed Discovery of Atlantis Called 'Completely Bogus (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ history/ atlantis_theory_041115. html), Live Science. [21] Emeis, K.-C., A.H.F. Robertson, C. Richter, and others, 1996, ODP Leg 160 (Mediterranean I) Sites 963-973 (http:/ / www-odp. tamu. edu/ publications/ 160_IR/ 160TOC. HTM) Proceedings Ocean Drilling Program Initial Reports no. 160. Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. ISSN 1096-2158 [22] Calon, T.J., A.E. Aksu, J. Hall, 2005, The Neogene evolution of the Outer Latakia Basin and its extension into the Eastern Mesaoria Basin (Cyprus), Eastern Mediterranean. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. margeo. 2005. 03. 013) Marine Geology, v. 221, no. 1-4, pp. 61 94. [23] Hall, J., T.J. Calon, A.E. Aksu, and S.R. Meade, 2005, Structural evolution of the Latakia Ridge and Cyprus Basin at the front of the Cyprus Arc, Eastern Mediterranean Sea. (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. margeo. 2005. 03. 007) Marine Geology. v. 221, pp. 261 297. [24] Giovannini, A. (1985). "Peut-on dmythifier l'Atlantide?" (in French). Museum Helveticum 42: 151156. ISSN0027-4054.

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

[25] Paul Kronfield. "Helike Foundation - Discoveries at Ancient Helike" (http:/ / www. helike. org/ paper. shtml). Helike.org. . Retrieved 2009-11-12. [26] Frau, Sergio, Le colonne d'Ercole, NurNeon, ISBN 88-900740-0-0 [27] "Exhibition "Atlantika: Sardinia, Mythical Island"." (http:/ / portal. unesco. org/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=26682& URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201. html). UNESCO Press release. April 26, 2005. . Retrieved 2006-08-10. [28] Thorwald C. Franke: King Italos = King Atlas of Atlantis? A contribution to the Sea Peoples, in: Stavros P. Papamarinopoulos (editor), Proceedings ot the 2nd International Conference on "The Atlantis Hypothesis" (ATLANTIS 2008), 1011 November 2008 Athens/Greece, Publisher: Heliotopos Conferences / Heliotopos Ltd., Athens 2010; pp. 169-180. Cf. Atlantis-scout.de (http:/ / www. atlantis-scout. de/ atlantis_sicily. htm) (English) [29] Thorwald C. Franke: Mit Herodot auf den Spuren von Atlantis, Norderstedt 2006 (German) [30] Times of Malta 2006-11-14: Is Malta really part of Atlantis? (http:/ / www. timesofmalta. com/ articles/ view/ 20061114/ opinion/ is-malta-really-part-of-atlantis. 35351) Retrieved 2011-05-08 [31] Atlantis in Malta (http:/ / atlantisinmalta. art. officelive. com/ default. aspx), Maltese website devoted to proving that Malta is Atlantis. Retrieved 2011-05-08 [32] Atlantipedia: Malta: Echoes of Plato's Island (http:/ / atlantipedia. ie/ samples/ malta-echoes-of-platos-island-2/ ) Retrieved 2011-05-08 [33] Atlantipedia: The Maltese proponents (http:/ / www. atlantipedia. com/ index. php?Itemid=53& option=com_jfusion& do=show& id=malta) Retrieved 2011-05-08 [34] "The Atlantis, the deciphered myth"; Jaime Manuschevich, (2002) [35] Ryan and Pitman [36] James, Peter (1995). The Sunken Kingdom. The Atlantis Mystery Solved. Jonathan Cape. [37] Zangger, Eberhard (1993): Platos Atlantis Account A Distorted Recollection of the Trojan War, in: Oxford Journal of Archaeology 18 (1993) 77-87 [38] Zangger, Eberhard (1992). The Flood from Heaven: Deciphering the Atlantis Legend. William Morrow & Company. ISBN0-688-11350-8. [39] PREHISTORIC DACIA by Nicolae Densusianu (http:/ / www. pelasgians. org/ ) [40] Siegfried Schoppe and Christian Schoppe (2004-08-12). "Atlantis in the Black Sea" (http:/ / www. black-sea-atlantis. com/ black-sea-atlantis/ ). . Retrieved 2006-08-11. [41] Siegfried Schoppe and Christian Schoppe (2004-08-12). "Atlantis in the Black Sea" (http:/ / www. black-sea-atlantis. com/ black-sea-atlantis/ ). . Retrieved 2006-08-11. [42] zhan ztrk. Karadeniz Ansiklopedik Szlk. Heyamola Yaynlar. stanbul, 2005. ISBN 975-6121-00-9. Ancomah (http:/ / www. karalahana. com/ english/ archive/ folklore. html) p.72-73 [43] Joseph Pellicer de Ossau y Tovar (Spaniard). Aparato a la mvonarchia antigua de las Espaas en los tres tiempos del mundo, el adelon, el mithico y el historico : primera parte... / por don Ioseph Pellicer de Ossau y Touar... (En Valenia : por Benito Mac..., 1673 (the first extensive study about Atlantis in Iberia, with the hypothesis about Doana) [44] Juan Fernndez Amador de los Ros (Spaniard). Antigedades ibricas / por Juan Fernndez Amador de los Rios. Pamplona : Nemesio Aramburu, 1911. (first part about the Atlantis in Iberia, with the hypothesis about Doana, Sea Peoples, etc.) [45] Werner Wickboldt: Locating the capital of Atlantis by strict observation of the text by Plato. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on "The Atlantis Hypothesis: Searching for a Lost Land"(Milos island 2005) . Athen 2007. ISBN 978-960-89882-1-7 pp.517-524 [46] Magazine Ms All de la Ciencia, MarchApril of the 2000 (n 134), where was published a report about the Georgeos Daz-Montexano's theory of Atlantis between Andalusia and Morocco. [47] Rainer W. Khne (June 2004). "A location for "Atlantis"?" (http:/ / antiquity. ac. uk/ ProjGall/ kuhne/ ). Antiquity.ac.uk. . Retrieved 2006-08-10. [48] Rainer W. Khne: "Did Ulysses Travel to Atlantis?" in: " Science and Technology in Homeric Epics (http:/ / www. springer. com/ engineering/ mechanical+ eng/ book/ 978-1-4020-8783-7)" (ed. S. A. Paipetis), Series: History of Mechanism and Machine Science, Vol. 6, Springer, 2008, ISBN 978-1-4020-8783-7 [49] Paul Rincon (June 6, 2004). "Satellite images 'show Atlantis" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 3766863. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2006-08-10. [50] Search for Tartessos-Atlantis in the Donana National Park (http:/ / www. beepworld. de/ members/ archiv_rainer_kuehne_17/ ) [51] A. Rodriguez-Ramirez et al., Recent coastal evolution of the Doana National Park (SW Spain), in: Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 15 (1996) pp.803 -809 [52] Paleogeografa de las costas atlnticas de Andaluca durante el Holoceno medio-superior : prehistoria reciente, protohistoria y fases histricas / Francisco Borja Barrera En: Tartessos : 25 aos despus, 1968-1993 : Jerez de la Frontera, 1995, ISBN 84-87194-64-8, pags. 73-97 [53] Has the real lost city of Atlantis finally been found... buried under mud flats in Spain? (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ news/ article-1365824/ Has-real-lost-city-Atlantis-finally--buried-mud-flats-Spain. html?ito=feeds-newsxml), Daily Mail Reporter, Daily Mail, 3/13/11. [54] Canadians part of search for fabled city of Atlantis. In: Montreal Gazette 3/13/11 (http:/ / www. montrealgazette. com/ technology/ Canadians+ part+ search+ fabled+ city+ Atlantis/ 4435954/ story. html) [55] Owen, Edward (2011-03-14). "Lost city of Atlantis 'buried in Spanish wetlands'" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ europe/ spain/ 8381219/ Lost-city-of-Atlantis-buried-in-Spanish-wetlands. html). The Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 18 March 2011.

306

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

[56] Hartman, Ben (20 March 2011). "The deepest Jewish encampment?" (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ JewishWorld/ JewishNews/ Article. aspx?id=212935). The Jerusalem Post. . Retrieved 22 March 2011. [57] Collina-Girard, Jacques (2001): LAtlantide devant le dtroit de Gibraltar? Mythe et gologie, in: Comptes Rendus de lAcademie des Sciences (2a) 333 (2001) 233-240. [58] Mara Fdez-Valmayor (possible pseudonym of Diaz-Montexano). "Atlantis in Gibraltar, between Iberia and Africa" (http:/ / usuarios. lycos. es/ atlantisiberia/ release_news. htm). . [59] Little, Greg (September 2004). "Atlantis Insider: Brief Reviews of the Latest in the Search for Atlantis" (http:/ / www. mysterious-america. net/ atlantisinsider. html). . [60] Ornekas, Genevra (2005). "Atlantis Rises Again" (http:/ / sciencenow. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 2005/ 722/ 1). Science 722 (1). . [61] Nesselrath, Heinz-Guenther Bryn Mawr Classical Review September 2009 Brynmawr.edu (http:/ / bmcr. brynmawr. edu/ 2009/ 2009-09-64. html) [62] Michael Hbner. "Circumstantial evidence for Plato's Island Atlantis in the Souss-Massa plain in today's South-Morocco" (http:/ / asalas. org/ doku. php?id=papers:fullversions). . [63] Michael Hbner, Sebastian Hbner. "Evidence for a Large Prehistoric Settlement in a Caldera-Like Geomorphologic Structure in Southwest Morocco" (http:/ / asalas. org/ doku. php?id=papers:fullversions). . [64] Proceedings of the International Conference on "The Atlantis Hypothesis: Searching for a Lost Land". Stavros P. Papamarinopoulos, Athens. tbp. [65] Michael Hbner, Sebastian Hbner. "Large prehistoric settlement in Southwest Morocco discovered.- IC-Nachrichten 91 [[Institutum Canarium (http:/ / www. institutum-canarium. org/ icn_authors_d. html)])"]. . [66] Vycichl, W. (1952). "Punischer Spracheinfluss im Berberischen. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 11.pp. 198-204". [67] Perseus Digital Library (2008). "Eumlus" (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ morph?l=eumhlos& la=greek). . [68] Donnelly, Ignatius L. (2003-03). The Atlantis Blueprint: Unlocking the Ancient Mysteries of a Long-Lost Civilization. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN0-7661-3606-X. [69] Ryall, J. C., Blanchard, M.-C., and Medioli, F., 1983, A subsided island west of Flores, Azores. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. vol. 20, pp. 764-775. [70] Huang, T.C., N.D. Watkins, and L. Wilson, 1979, Deep-sea tephra from the Azores during the past 300,000 years: eruptive cloud height and ash volume estimates. Geological Society of America Bulletin. vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 131-133. [71] Dennielou, B. G.A. Auffret, A. Boelaert, T. Richter, T. Garlan, and R. Kerbrat, 1999, Control of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Gulf Stream over Quaternary sedimentation on the Azores Plateau. Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie II. Sciences de la Terre et des Planetes. v. 328, no. 12, pp. 831-837., [72] Azevedo, J.J.M., M.R., Ferreira, 1999, Volcanic gaps and subaerial records of palaeo-sea-levels on Flores Island, Azores: tectonic and morphological implications. Geodynamics. vol. 17, pp 117-129. [73] Menendez, I., P.G. Silva, M. Martn-Betancor, F.J. Perez-Torrado, H. Guillou, and S. Scaillet, 2009, Fluvial dissection, isostatic uplift, and geomorphological evolution of volcanic islands (Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain) Geomorphology. v. 102, no.1, pp. 189-202. [74] Perez-Torrado, J.F., F. Santana,A. Rodrguez-Santana, A.M. Melian, A. Lomostchitz, D. Gimeno, M.C. Cabrera, and M.C. Baez, 2002, Reconstruccin paleogeogrfica de los depsitos volcano-sedimentarios Pliocenos en el litoral NE de Gran Canaria (Islas Canarias) mediante mtodos topogrficos. Geogaceta. v. 32, pp. 4346. [75] Meco J., S. Scaillet, H. Guillou, A. Lomoschitz , J.C. Carracedo, J. Ballester, J.-F. Betancort, and A. Cilleros, 2007, Evidence for long-term uplift on the Canary Islands from emergent MioPliocene littoral deposits. Global and Planetary Change. v. 57, no. 3-4, pp. 222 234. [76] Zazo, C., J.L.Goy, C. Hillaire-Marcel, P.Y. Gillot, V. Soler, J.A. Gonzalez, C.J. Dabrio, and B. Ghaleb, 2002, Raised marine sequences of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura revisited a reappraisal of relative sea-level changes and vertical movements in the eastern Canary Islands during the Quaternary. Quaternary Science Reviews. v. 21, no. 18-19, pp. 20192046. [77] Zazo, C., J.L. Goy, C.J. Dabrio, V. Soler, Cl. Hillaire-Marcel, B. Ghaleb, J.A. Gonzalez-Delgado, T. Bardajf, and A. Cabero, 2007, Quaternary marine terraces on Sal Island (Cape Verde archipelago). Quaternary Science Reviews. v. 26, no. 7-8, pp. 876893. [78] Weaver, P.P.E., H.-U. Schmincke, J. V. Firth, and W. Duffield, eds., 1998, LEG 157Scientific Results, Gran Canaria and Madeira Abyssal Plain Sites 950-956. Proceedings Ocean Drilling Project, Scientific Results. no. 157, College Station, Texas doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.157.1998 [79] Acosta, J., E. Uchupi, A. Munoz, P. Herranz, C. Palomo, M. Ballesteros, and ZEE Working Group, 2003, Geologic evolution of the Canarian Islands of Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria and La Gomera and comparison of landslides at these islands with those at Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro. Marine Geophysical Researches. vol. 24, pp. 140. [80] "Cantabria cuna de la Humanidad", 1985. "Sant'Ander es Bizcaya, la fuente de la vida". "El verdadero origen de los vascos, la primera humanidad". "El origen cantbrico del homo sapiens". "El euskera madre del castellano" "Genealogical Tree Language" [81] Retablo de la Atlntida (http:/ / www. iberiacunadelahumanidad. net) [82] Viejo, G.F., and J.G. Suarez, 2005, The ESCI-N Project after a decade: A synthesis of the results and open questions. Trabajos de Geologa. no. 25, pp. 9-25. [83] Fugenschuh, B., N. Froitzheim, R. Capdevila, and G. Boillot, 2003, Offshore granulites from the Bay of Biscay margins: fission tracks constrain a Proterozoic to Tertiary thermal history. Terra Nova. v. 15, no. 5, pp. 337-342. [84] Ercilla , G., D. Casas, F. Estrada, J.T. Vzquez, J. Iglesias, M. Garca, M. Gmez, J. Acosta, J. Gallart, A. Maestro-Gonzlez, and Marconi Team, 2008, Morphsedimentary features and recent depositional architectural model of the Cantabrian continental margin. Marine Geology. v.

307

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

247, no. 1-2, pp. 61-83. [85] Hernandez-Molina, F.J., J. Iglesias, D. Van Rooij, G. Ercilla, M. Gmez-Ballesteros, D. Casas and E. Llave, 2008, The Le Danois Contourite Depositional System: an exceptional record of the MOW circulation off the North Iberian margin. Geo-Tema. v. 10, pp. 535-538. [86] Dunbavin, Paul (2003-06). Atlantis of the West: The Case For Britain's Drowned Megalithic Civilization. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN0-7867-1145-0. [87] Karl Shaw, Curing Hiccups with Small Fires: A Delightful Miscellany of Great British Eccentrics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IZNKVA1JcWwC& pg=PA188& dq=comyns+ beaumont+ giants& hl=en& ei=rlr3TcGTBpOctwejoeS_Cg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=book-preview-link& resnum=5& ved=0CEUQuwUwBA#v=onepage& q& f=false) [88] "Russians seek Atlantis off Cornwall" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ 43172. stm). BBC News. 1997-12-29. . Retrieved 2006-08-11. [89] Erlingsson, Dr., Ulf (2004-09). Atlantis from a Geographer's Perspective. Lindorm Publishing. ISBN0-9755946-0-5. [90] Crisp, Dan. "Atlantis was a Real Place" (http:/ / www. grahamhancock. com/ underworld/ CrispDanAtlantis. php?p=3). grahamhancock.com. . [91] Bernhard Weninger et al., The catastrophic final flooding of Doggerland by the Storegga Slide tsunami, Documenta Praehistorica XXXV, 2008 (http:/ / sprint. clivar. org/ soes/ staff/ ejr/ Rohling-papers/ 2008-Weninger et al Documenta Praehistorica. pdf) [92] Leake, Jonathan; Carpenter, Joanna (2007-09-02). "Britains Atlantis under the North Sea" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ uk/ science/ article2368630. ece). The Times (London). . Retrieved 2008-05-12. [93] Spanuth, Jrgen (2000-11-01). Atlantis of the North. Scientists of New Atlantis. ISBN1-57179-078-0. [94] Gerhard Herm The Celts: The People Who Came Out of the Darkness Book Club Associates, London 1975 [95] Bock, Ior. "Atlantis rising magazine" (http:/ / www. bocksaga. com/ links. html). bocksaga.com. . See also: Bock, Ior. Bockin perheen saaga. Helsinki 1996. ISBN 952-5137-00-7 [96] Gmara, Francisco Lpez de, Historia de las Indias (Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain), Zaragoza 1552 [97] Zrate, Agustn de, Historia del descubrimiento y conquista del Per (1556) published in English as The Discovery and History of Peru trans by J.M. Cohen, Pub Penguin Classics 1968 [98] Gamboa, Pedro Sarmiento de Historia de los Incas. (History of the Incas) Peru 1572 and Buenos Aires: Emec Editores, 1943. trans. by Clements Markham, (1907) as History of the Incas, UK, The Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press [99] Sebastian Mnster (1540). "munster map new world" (http:/ / www2. lib. virginia. edu/ exhibits/ lewis_clark/ exploring/ ch1-2. html). . [100] "Atlantis Insula, Nicolao Sanson Antiquitati Restituta" (http:/ / jcb. lunaimaging. com/ luna/ servlet/ detail/ JCB~1~1~833~950003:Atlantis-Insula,--Nicolao-Sanson-A). John Carter Brown Library, Brown University. . [101] Jim Allen (2005-12-15). "Historic Atlantis in Bolivia" (http:/ / www. atlantisbolivia. org/ ). . Retrieved 2006-08-11. [102] Gene Matlock. "Why Not Look for A-Tlan-Tis in Mexico?" (http:/ / www. viewzone. com/ atlantis2. html). . Retrieved 2006-08-11. [103] Matlock, Gene (2002-09-10). The Last Atlantis Book You'll Ever Have to Read!: The Atlantis-Mexico-India. Dandelion Books. ISBN1-893302-20-2. [104] Collins, Andrew (2002-02-09). Gateway to Atlantis: The Search for the Source of a Lost Civilization. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN0-7867-0963-4. [105] The Atlantis Blueprint: Unlocking the Ancient Mysteries of a Long-Lost Civilization. Delta; Reprint edition. May 28, 2002. ISBN0-440-50898-3. [106] Earth's shifting crust: A key to some basic problems of earth science. Pantheon Books. 1958. ASIN B0006AVEEU. [107] Anderson, J.B., S.S. Shipp, A.L. Lowe, J.S. Wellner, J.S., and A.B. Mosola, 2002, The Antarctic Ice Sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum and its subsequent retreat history: a review. Quaternary Science Reviews. vol. 21, pp. 49-70. [108] Ingolfsson, O., 2004, Quaternary glacial and climate history of Antarctica (http:/ / www. hi. is/ ~oi/ AG-326 2006 readings/ Antarctica/ Ingolfsson_SUMMARY. pdf), 2 MB PDF file, in: J. Ehlers and P.L. Gibbard, eds., pp. 3-43, Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology, Part III. Elsevier, New York. [109] Evans, J., C.J. Pudsey, C. OCofaigh, P. Morris, and E. Domack, 2005, Late Quaternary glacial history, flow dynamics and sedimentation along the eastern margin of the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews. vol. 24, pp. 741774. [110] Ingolfsson, O., C. Hjort and O. Humlum, 2003, Glacial and Climate History of the Antarctic Peninsula Since the Last Glacial Maximum (http:/ / www. hi. is/ ~oi/ PDF reprints/ Ingolfsson, Hjort and Humlum aaar 2003. pdf), 392 KB PDF file, Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 175-186. [111] Bentley, M.J., C.J. Fogwill, P.W. Kubik, and D.E. Sugden, 2006, Geomorphological evidence and cosmogenic 10Be/26Al exposure ages for the Last Glacial Maximum and deglaciation of the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet. (http:/ / bulletin. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 118/ 9-10/ 1149) Geological Society of America Bulletin. vol. 118, no. 9-10, pp. 11491159. [112] dos Santos, A.N., 2005, Atlantis, The Lost Continent Finally Found. Atlantis Publications, North Miami Beach, Florida. 367 pp. ISBN 0-9769550-0-8 [113] Ben-Avraham, Z., 1969, Structural Framework of the Sunda Shelf and Vicinity. (https:/ / darchive. mblwhoilibrary. org/ handle/ 1912/ 1265) Unpublished PhD. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, 269 pp. [114] Pelejero, C., M. Kienast, L. Wang, and J.O. Grimalt, 1999, The flooding of Sundaland during the last deglaciation: imprints in hemipelagic sediments from the southern South China Sea. Earth Planetary Science Letters. v. 171, pp. 661671.

308

Location hypotheses of Atlantis

[115] Voris, H.K., 2000, Maps of Pleistocene Sea Levels in Southeast Asia: Shorelines, River Systems and Time Durations. Journal of Biogeography. v. 27, no. 5, pp. 1153-1167. [116] Hanebuth, T.J.J., K. Stattegger, and P.M. Grootes, 2000, Rapid Flooding of the Sunda Shelf: A Late-Glacial Sea-Level Record. Science. v. 288, no. 5468, pp. 1033-1035. [117] Hanebuth, T.J.J., and K. Stattegger, 2004, Depositional sequences on a late PleistoceneHolocene tropical siliciclastic shelf (Sunda Shelf, southeast Asia). Journal of Asian earth Science. v. 23, pp. 113-126. [118] Hutchinson, C. S., 2004, Marginal basin evolution: the southern South China Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology. v. 21, no. 9, pp. 11291148 [119] Department of Zoology, 2006, Pleistocene Sea Level Maps - Sunda Shelf (http:/ / www. fieldmuseum. org/ RESEARCH_COLLECTIONS/ zoology/ zoo_sites/ seamaps/ mapindex1. htm) The Field Museum, Chicago Illinois. [120] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ earth/ pf/ pf46. htm [121] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ earth/ pf/ pf17. htm [122] Paradise Found, p. 185

309

Further reading
General information Pierre Vidal-Naquet. The Atlantis Story: A Short History of Plato's Myth. University of Exeter Press 2007. Edwin S. Ramage. Atlantis, Fact or Fiction?. Indiana University Press 1978. Atlantis Conference Milos 2005 Proceedings of the International Conference "The Atlantis Hypothesis: Searching for a Lost Land" , Athen 2007 ISBN 978-960-89882-1-7 Atlantis Conference Athens 2008 Proceedings of the International Conference "The Atlantis Hypothesis: Searching for a Lost Land" , Athen 2010 ISBN 978-960-6746-10-9 Specific hypotheses Allen, J.M. Atlantis: the Andes Solution 1998, The Atlantis Trail 2000 and Kindle 2010, Atlantis: Lost Kingdom of the Andes Floris Books, 2009 Shirley Andrews, Atlantis. Llewellyn Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-56718-023-X Ashe, Geoffrey, "Atlantis : lost lands, ancient wisdom / Geoffrey Ashe". New York, N.Y., Thames and Hudson; 1992. ISBN 0-500-81039-7 Charles Berlitz, The Bermuda Triangle. 1974. COLLINA-GIRARD, J (2009).-LATLANTIDE RETROUVEE ? Enqute scientifique autour dun mythe, Belin-Pour la Science diteur, Collection Regards, 223 pages. ISSN1773-8016, ISBN978-2-7011-4608-9 COLLINA-GIRARD, J (2001).-L'Atlantide devant le Detroit de Gibraltar ? mythe et gologie. Comptes Rendus de l'Acadmie des Sciences de Paris, Sciences de la Terre et des Plantes. 333 (2001) 233-240 Donnelly, Ignatius L., "Atlantis: The Antediluvian World". New York, Harper, 1882. LCCN 06001749 Paul Dunbavin, Atlantis of the West: The Case For Britain's Drowned Megalithic Civilization, ISBN 0-7867-1145-0 Erlingsson, Ulf, " Atlantis from a Geographer's Perspective: Mapping the Fairy Land (http://atlantisinireland. com/)". Lindorm Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-9755946-0-5 Flem-Ath, Rand & Wilson, Colin, The Atlantis Blueprint, 2000. Flem-Ath, Rand & Flem-Ath, Rose, When The Sky Fell. Galanopoulos, Angelos Gergiou, and Edward Bacon, "Atlantis; the truth behind the legend". Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill; 1969. LCCN 71080738 //r892 Joseph, Frank, "The Destruction of Atlantis: Compelling Evidence of the Sudden Fall of the Legendary Civilization". Bear & Company, 2002. ISBN 1-879181-85-1 Ley, Willy, "Another look at Atlantis, and fifteen other essays". Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday; 1969. LCCN 69011988 Gene Matlock, The last Atlantis book youll ever have to read: the Atlantis-Mexico-India connection. Tempe, AZ: Dandelion Books, 2001.

Location hypotheses of Atlantis Mifsud, Anton, Simon Mifsud, Chris Agius Sultana, and Charles Savona Ventura, "Echoes of Plato's Island". (2nd edition) Malta, 2001. ISBN 99932-15-01-5 Spence, Lewis The Problem of Atlantis, London, 1924 Zangger, Eberhard, "''The Flood from Heaven: Deciphering the Atlantis legend". Sidgwick & Jackson, 1992, ISBN 0-688-11350-8. Zeilinga de Boer, Jelle, et al., "Volcanoes in human history : the far-reaching effects of major eruptions". The Bronze Age eruption of Thera : destroyer of Atlantis and Minoan Crete?. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press; 2002.

310

External links
General information The Atlantis Archives (http://www.atlantisarchives.org) Lost-civilizations.net (http://www.lost-civilizations.net/atlantis.html) International Conference Atlantis 2005 , Milos/Greece (http://milos.conferences.gr/?Atlantis2005) International Conference Atlantis 2008 , Athens/Greece (http://atlantis2008.conferences.gr/) International Conference Atlantis 2011 , Santorini/Greece (http://atlantis2011.conferences.gr/)

Atlantipedia.ie (http://www.atlantipedia.ie/) Atlantipedia.com (http://www.atlantipedia.com/) Systematic Weblink Collection on Plato's Atlantis (http://www.atlantis-scout.de/atlanlinks.htm) Specific hypotheses Skeptics dictionary (http://skepdic.com/atlantis.html) Atlantis article from about.com (http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa090301a.htm) Atlantis: No way, No how, No where (http://www.csicop.org/sb/2001-09/atlantis.html)" Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Atlantis was Antarctica (http://www.lauralee.com/rflemath/default.htm) Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean (http://www.seachild.net/) Atlantis at Gibraltar (http://www.GeorgeosDiazMontexano.com/) Atlantis in Indonesia (http://www.atlan.org/) Atlantis in Israel (http://www.laatlantida.cl/) Atlantis in Algeria (http://www.atlantis-bakhu.com/) Atlantis in Sea of Azov (http://atlantis-today.com/Atlantis_Great_Atlantis_Flood.htm)

Kumari Kandam

311

Kumari Kandam
Kumari Kandam (Tamil:, Kumarikkaam) is the name of a supposed sunken landmass referred to in existing ancient Tamil literature. It is said to have been located in the Indian Ocean, to the south of present-day Kanyakumari district at the southern tip of India.

References in Tamil literature

There are scattered references in Sangam literature, such as Kalittokai 104, to how the sea took the land of the Pandiyan kings, upon which they conquered new lands to replace those they had lost.[1] There are also references to the rivers Pahruli and Kumari, that are said to have flowed in a now-submerged land.[2] The Silappadhikaram, one of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature written in first few centuries of CE, states that the "cruel sea" took the Pandiyan land that lay between the rivers Pahruli and the mountainous banks of the Kumari, to replace which the Pandiyan king conquered lands belonging to the Chola and Chera kings (Maturaikkandam, verses 17-22). Adiyarkkunallar, a 12th century commentator on the epic, explains this reference by saying that there was once a land to the south of the present-day Kanyakumari, which stretched for 700 kavatam from the Pahruli river in the north to the Kumari river in the south. As the modern equivalent of a kavatam is unknown, estimates of the size of the lost land vary from 1400 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) to 7000 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) in length, to others suggesting a total area of 6-7,000 square miles, or smaller still an area of just a few villages.[3] This land was divided into 49 nadu, or territories, which he names as seven coconut territories (elutenga natu), seven Madurai territories (elumaturai natu), seven old sandy territories (elumunpalai natu), seven new sandy territories (elupinpalai natu), seven mountain territories (elukunra natu), seven eastern coastal territories (elukunakarai natu) and seven dwarf-palm territories (elukurumpanai natu). All these lands, he says, together with the many-mountained land that began with KumariKollam, with forests and habitations, were submerged by the sea.[2] Two of these Nadus or territories were supposedly parts of present-day Kollam and Kanyakumari districts. None of these texts name the land "Kumari Kandam" or "Kumarinadu", as is common today. The only similar pre-modern reference is to a "Kumari Kandam" (written , rather than as the land is called in modern Tamil), which is named in the medieval Tamil text Kantapuranam either as being one of the nine continents,[4] or one of the nine divisions of India and the only region not to be inhabited by barbarians.[5] 19th and 20th century Tamil revivalist movements, however, came to apply the name to the territories described in Adiyarkkunallar's commentary to the Silappadhikaram.[6] They also associated this territory with the references in the Tamil Sangams, and said that the fabled cities of southern Madurai and Kapatapuram where the first two Sangams were said to be held were located on Kumari Kandam.[7]

Kumari Kandam

312

Modern revival
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Tamil nationalists came to identify Kumari Kandam with Lemuria, a "lost continent" posited in the 19th century to account for discontinuities in biogeography. In these accounts, Kumari Kandam became the "cradle of civilization", the origin of human languages in general and the Tamil language in particular.[8] These ideas gained notability in Tamil academic literature over the first decades of the 20th century, and were popularized by the Tanittamil Iyakkam, notably by self-taught Dravidologist Devaneya Pavanar, who held that all languages on earth were merely corrupted Tamil dialects.

Kumari Kandam, as identified with Lemuria

R. Mathivanan, then Chief Editor of the Tamil Etymological Dictionary Project of the Government of Tamil Nadu, in 1991 claimed to have deciphered the still undeciphered Indus script as Tamil, following the methodology recommended by his teacher Devaneya Pavanar, presenting the following timeline (cited after Mahadevan 2002): ca. 200,000 to 50,000 BC: evolution of "the Tamilian or Homo Dravida", ca. 200,000 to 100,000 BC: beginnings of the Tamil language 50,000 BC: Kumari Kandam civilisation 20,000 BC: A lost Tamil culture of the Easter Island which had an advanced civilisation 16,000 BC: Lemuria submerged 6087 BC: Second Tamil Sangam established by a Pandya king 3031 BC: A Chera prince in his wanderings in the Solomon Island saw wild sugarcane and started cultivation in Present Tamil nadu. 1780 BC: The Third Tamil Sangam established by a Pandya king 7th century BC: Tolkappiyam (the earliest known extant Tamil grammar)

Popular culture
Kumari Kandam appeared in the The Secret Saturdays episodes "The King of Kumari Kandam" and "The Atlas Pin." This version is a city on the back of a giant sea serpent with its inhabitants all fish people.[9]

Loss and imagination

Sumathi Ramaswamy's book, The Lost Land of Lemuria: Fabulous Geographies, Catastrophic Histories (2004) is a theoretically sophisticated study of the Lemuria legends that widens the discussion beyond previous treatments, looking at Lemuria narratives from nineteenth-century Victorian-era science to Euro-American occultism, colonial, and post colonial India. Ramaswamy discusses particularly how cultures process the experience of loss.

Kumari Kandam

313

Notes
[1] Ramaswamy 2004, p.143 [2] Ramaswamy 2000, p.584 [3] Ramaswamy, Sumathi (2005), The lost land of Lemuria: fabulous geographies, catastrophic histories (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=elYyJuYuAhwC& pg=PA205& dq=Kavatam+ measurement#v=onepage& q=kavatam& f=false), University of California Press, ISBN978-0520244405, , retrieved 28 September 2010 Madras Tamil lexicon, (http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ philologic/ getobject. pl?c. 3:1:3074. tamillex) Ramaswamy 2000, p.582 Ramaswamy & 1999 p97 "The Lemuria Myth" (http:/ / www. frontlineonnet. com/ fl2808/ stories/ 20110422280809000. htm). Frontline (India). 09 April 2011. . S.C.Jayakaran (2004). "Lost land and the myth of Kumari kandam" (https:/ / www. indianfolklore. org/ journals/ index. php/ IFRJ/ article/ view/ 178/ 183). Indian Folklore Research Journal. . Retrieved 24 January 2012. [9] Google Books - The King of Kumari Kandam (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books/ about/ The_King_of_Kumari_Kandam. html?id=5_yCu9lO6HsC) [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

References
Iravatham Mahadevan, Aryan or Dravidian or Neither? A Study of Recent Attempts to Decipher the Indus Script (1995-2000) EJVS (ISSN 1084-7561) vol. 8 (2002) issue 1 (March 8). (http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy. com/ejvs0801/ejvs0801.txt) Ramaswamy, Sumathi (1999), "Catastrophic Cartographies: Mapping the Lost Continent of Lemuria", Representations 67 (67): 92129, doi:10.1525/rep.1999.67.1.01p0048w Ramaswamy, Sumathi (2000), "History at Land's End: Lemuria in Tamil Spatial Fables", The Journal of Asian Studies (The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 59, No. 3) 59 (3): 575602, doi:10.2307/2658944, JSTOR2658944 Ramaswamy, Sumathi (2004), The Lost Land of Lemuria: Fabulous Geographies, Catastrophic Histories, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN0520244400

External links
History Channel Documentary - Kumari Kandam - The Lost Lemuria Continent (Video) (http://tamiltv2u.com/ history/kumari-kandam-the-lost-lemuria-continent) Map of Kumari Kandam as per folklore (http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=13862) An Atlantis in the Indian Ocean (http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/reviews/atlantis.html) Tamil Sangams (http://www.madurai.com/sangam.htm)* A short account on Tamil and (Tamil literary) history by C. V. Narasimhan (http://acharya.iitm.ac.in/mirrors/vv/literature/tlang.html)

Mu

314

Mu
Mu

Map of Mu by James Churchward

Lost Continent of Mu Motherland of Men location

Creator Genre Type James Churchward Pseudoscience Hypothetical continent

Mu is the name of a hypothetical continent that allegedly existed in one of Earth's oceans, but disappeared at the dawn of human history. The concept and the name were proposed by 19th century traveler and writer Augustus Le Plongeon, who claimed that several ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesoamerica, were created by refugees from Muwhich he located in the Atlantic Ocean.[1] This concept was popularized and expanded by James Churchward, who asserted that Mu was once located in the Pacific.[2] The existence of Mu was disputed already in Le Plongeon's time. Today, scientists universally dismiss the concept of Mu (and of other lost continents like Lemuria) as physically impossible, since a continent can neither sink nor be destroyed in the short period of time required by this premise.[3][4] Mu is today considered to be a fictional place.[5][6]

History of the concept

Augustus Le Plongeon
The idea of Mu first appeared in the works of Augustus Le Plongeon (18251908), after his investigations of the Maya ruins in Yucatn.[1] He claimed that he had translated the ancient Mayan writings, which supposedly showed that the Maya of Yucatn were older than the later civilizations of Greece and Egypt, and additionally told the story of an even older continent. Le Plongeon actually got the name "Mu" from Charles tienne Brasseur de Bourbourg who in 1864 mistranslated what was then called the Troano Codex using the de Landa alphabet. Brasseur believed that a word that he read as Mu referred to a land submerged by a catastrophe.[7] Le Plongeon then identified this lost land with Atlantis, and turned it into a continent which had supposedly sunk into the Atlantic Ocean: "In our journey westward across the Atlantic we shall pass in sight of that spot where once existed the pride and life of the ocean, the Land of Mu, which, at the epoch that we have been considering, had not yet been visited by the wrath of Humen, that lord of volcanic fires to whose fury it afterward fell a victim. The description of that land given to Solon by Sonchis, priest at Sais; its destruction by earthquakes, and submergence, recorded by Plato in his Timaeus, have been told and retold so many times that it is useless to encumber these pages with a repetition of it".[1]: ch. VI, p. 66

Mu Le Plongeon claimed that the civilization of ancient Egypt was founded by Queen Moo, a refugee from the land's demise. Other refugees supposedly fled to Central America and became the Mayans.[4]

315

James Churchward
Mu, as a lost Pacific Ocean continent, was later popularised by James Churchward (18511936) in a series of books, beginning with Lost Continent of Mu, the Motherland of Man (1926),[2] re-edited later as The Lost Continent Mu (1931).[8] Other popular books in the series are The Children of Mu (1931), and The Sacred Symbols of Mu (1933). Churchward claimed that "more than fifty years ago," while he was a soldier in India, he befriended a high-ranking temple priest who showed him a set of ancient "sunburnt" clay tablets, supposedly in a long lost "Naga-Maya language" which only two other people in India could read. Having mastered the language himself, Churchward found out that they originated from "the place where [man] first appearedMu." The 1931 edition states that all matter of science in this work are based on translations of two sets of ancient tablets: the clay tables he read in India, and a collection 2,500 stone tablets that had been uncovered by William Niven in Mexico.[8]: p. 7 Churchward gave a vivid description of Mu as the home of an advanced civilization, the Naacal, which flourished between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago, was dominated by a white race,"[8]: p. 48 and was "superior in many respects to our own" [8]: p. 17 At the time of its demise, about 12,000 years ago, Mu had 64,000,000 inhabitants and many large cities, and colonies in the other continents. Churchward claimed that the landmass of Mu was located in the Pacific Ocean, and stretched east-west from the Marianas to Easter Island, and north-south from Hawaii to Mangaia. He claimed that according to the creation myth he read in the Indian tablets, Mu had been lifted above sea level by the expansion of underground volcanic gases. Eventually Mu was completely obliterated in almost a single night[8]: p. 44: after a series of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, "the broken land fell into that great abyss of fire" and was covered by "fifty millions of square miles of water."[8]: p. 50 Churchward claimed that Mu was the common origin of the great civilizations of Egypt, Greece, Central America, India, Burma and others, including Easter Island, and was in particular the source of ancient megalithic architecture. As evidence for his claims, he pointed to symbols from throughout the world, in which he saw common themes of birds, the relation of the Earth and the sky, and especially the Sun. Churchward claims the king of Mu was Ra and he relates this to the Egyptian god of the sun, Ra, and the Rapanui word for Sun, raa, which he incorrectly spells "raa."[8]: p. 48 He claimed to have found symbols of the Sun in Egypt, Babylonia, Peru and all ancient lands and countries it was a universal symbol.[8]: p. 138 Churchward attributed all megalithic art in Polynesia to the people of Mu. He claimed that symbols of the sun are found depicted on stones of Polynesian ruins, such as the stone hats (pukao) on top of the giant moai statues of Easter Island. Citing W.J. Johnson, Churchward describes the cylindrical hats as spheres that "seem to show red in the distance, and asserts that they represent the Sun as Ra.[8]: p. 138 He also incorrectly claimed that some of them are made of "red sandstone" [8]: p. 89 which does not occur in the island. The platforms on which the statues rest (ahu) are described by Churchward as being platform-like accumulations of cut and dressed stone, which were supposedly left in their current positions awaiting shipment to some other part of the continent for the building of temples and palaces.[8]: p. 89 He also cites the pillars erected by the Mori of New Zealand as an example of this lost civilizations handiwork.[8]: p. 158 In Churchward's view, the present-day Polynesians are not descendants of the dominant members of the lost civilization of Mu, responsible for these great works, but survivors of the cataclysm that adopted the first cannibalism and savagery in the world.[8]: p. 54

Mu

316

Modern claims
James Bramwell and William Scott-Elliott claimed that the cataclysmic events on Mu began 800,000 years ago[9]: p. 194 and went on until the last catastrophe, which occurred precisely in 9564 BCE.[9]: p. 195 In 1930s, Atatrk, founder of the Turkish Republic, was interested in Churchward's work and considered Mu as a possible location of the Turkish original homeland.[10] Ruth Montgomery in her book The World Before (1976) wrote that Mu and Lemuria were the same place, located from the northern reaches of California to the tip of Peru, and encompassing a vast pacific area of which Hawaii, Tahiti, Polynesia, and Easter Island are remnants.[11]
Underwater structures claimed to be remnants of Mu, near Yonaguni, Japan

Masaaki Kimura has suggested that certain underwater features located off the coast of Yonaguni Island, Japan (popularly known as the Yonaguni Monument) are ruins of Mu [12][13] (or "ruins of the lost world of Muin" according to CNN [14]).

Criticisms
Geological arguments
Modern geological knowledge rules out "lost continents" of any significant size. According to the theory of plate tectonics, which has been extensively confirmed over the past 40 years, the Earth's crust consists of lighter "sial" rocks (continental crust rich in aluminium silicates) that float on heavier "sima" rocks (oceanic crust richer in magnesium silicates). The sial is generally absent in the ocean floor where the crust is a few kilometers thick, while the continents are huge solid blocks tens of kilometers thick. Since continents float on the sima much like icebergs float on water, a continent cannot simply "sink" under the ocean. It is true that continental drift and seafloor spreading can change the shape and position of continents and occasionally break a continent into two or more pieces (as happened to Pangaea). However, these are very slow processes that occur in geological time scales (hundreds of millions of years). Over the scale of history (tens of thousands of years), the sima under the continental crust can be considered solid, and the continents are basically anchored on it. It is all but certain that the continents and ocean floors have retained their present position and shape for the whole span of human existence. There is also no conceivable event that could have "destroyed" a continent, since its huge mass of sial rocks would have to end up somewhereand there is no trace of it at the bottom of the oceans. The Pacific Ocean islands are not part of a submerged landmass but rather the tips of isolated volcanoes.

Mu

317 This is the case, in particular, of Easter Island, which is a recent volcanic peak surrounded by deep ocean (3,000 m deep at 30km off the island). After visiting the island in the 1930s, Alfred Metraux observed that the moai platforms are concentrated along the current coast of the island, which implies that the island's shape has changed little since they were built. Moreover, the "Triumphal Road" that Pierre Loti had reported ran from the island to the submerged lands below, is actually a natural lava flow.[15] Furthermore, while Churchward was correct in his claim that the island has no sandstone or sedimentary rocks, the point is moot because the pukao are all made of native volcanic scoria.

Map of Easter Island showing locations of the ahu and moai

Archaeological and genetic evidence

The historical details and implications of the Mu theory, which from the start were even more controversial than the physical ones, have been thoroughly discredited by archaeological and genetic research. There is evidence that the civilizations of the Americas and the Old World developed independently of each other[16] and, in fact, agriculture and urban societies probably first developed, after the end of the Ice Age, somewhere in the Levant some 10,000 years ago and gradually spread outwards from there to the rest of the Old World. The development of the oldest known cities, such as atalhyk, can more easily be attributed to local and gradual evolution than to the coming of refugees from a "superior civilization". Finally, genetic studies of the indigenous peoples of America, the Pacific Islanders, and the ancient peoples of the Old World are quite incompatible with the Mu theory. As for Easter Island, it was first settled around 300 AD[17] and the pukao on the moai are regarded as ceremonial[17], or traditional headdresses[17]. In fact there is no evidence of a highly advanced civilisation on what is left of the island's land mass [18].

Troano Codex
Other researchers who have tried to use the de Landa alphabet have reported it produces only gibberish. Recent research into the Mayan alphabet has shown it to not consist of letters but pictograms. Recent translations of the Troano Codex have shown it to be treaties on astrology.[19]

In popular culture
H. P. Lovecraft (18901937) featured the lost continent in his revision of Hazel Heald's short story "Out of the Aeons" (1935).[20] Mu appears in numerous Cthulhu mythos stories, including many written by Lin Carter.[21] Massimo De Vita: Topolino e l'enigma di Mu (Mickey Mouse and the Secret of Mu), comic strip, 1979.[22] Mickey Mouse and Goofy discover the secret of Mu's civilization and its abrupt disappearance. Atragon (1963) and Super Atragon (1996), based on S. Oshikawa's 1902 novel The Undersea Battleship and Komatsuzaki's illustrated short story The Undersea Kingdom (Kaitei Okuku).[23] In The Mysterious Cities of Gold, Tao, one of the young protagonists, is the last descendant of the Mu empire (although this was changed to Hiva in the English dub). The NES game DuckTales 2 features Mu as one of the stages.[24] "Mu", a track on the 1967 album Atlantis by jazz musician Sun Ra. Robert Plant, of the rock group Led Zeppelin, claimed his symbol on the band's fourth album (a feather inside a circle) represents the Mu civilization.[25]

Mu Planet Mu, a British electronic music label, has released albums titled The Sacred Symbols of Mu, The Cosmic Forces of Mu, Children of Mu and Amnition. In the shounen manga "Shaman King" by Hiroyuki Takei, Mu is the location of the final round of the Shaman Fight and where the Shaman King is crowned.

318

References
[1] Le Plongeon, Augustus (1896). Queen Mo & The Egyptian Sphinx (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=x74RAAAAYAAJ). The Author. pp.277 pages. . [2] Churchward, James (1926). The Lost Continent of Mu: Motherland of Man. [3] Haugton, Brian (2007). Hidden History (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fSbRZunGbF4C& pg=PA59). New Page Books. ISBN978-1564148971,. . Page 60. [4] De Camp, Lyon Sprague (1954; reprinted 1971). Lost Continents: Atlantis Theme in History, Science and Literature (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=3YHwFivT-ykC& pg=PA153). Dover Publications. ISBN978-0486226682. . [5] Brennan, Louis A. (1959). No Stone Unturned: An Almanac of North American Pre-history. Random House. Page 228. [6] Witzel, Michael (2006). Garrett G. Fagan Routledge. ed. Archaeological Fantasies (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=oB7pBZ3s6dIC& pg=PA220). London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-30593-8. . Page 220. [7] John Sladek, The New Apocrypha (New York: Stein and day, 1974) 65-66. [8] Churchward, James (1931). The Lost Continent of Mu. Ives Washburn. pp.335 pages. [9] Bramwell, James (1939). Lost Atlantis. [10] Kayp Kta Mu, presentation, Ege-Meta Yaynlar, zmir, 2000, ISBN 975-7089-20-6 [11] Ruth Montgomery The World Before Fawcett, 1995, p. 22 ISBN 034547029X [12] Kimura, Masaaki (1991). Mu tairiku wa Ryukyu ni atta (The Continent of Mu was in Ryukyu). Tokuma Shoten. [13] Schoch, Robert M.. "Ancient underwater pyramid structure off the coast of Yonaguni-jima" (http:/ / www. morien-institute. org/ yonaguni_schoch1. html). . [14] "Japan's Underwater Ruins (video)" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ video/ #/ video/ world/ 2007/ 08/ 24/ vo. japan. underwater. ruins. reut). CNN. . [15] Metraux, Alfred. Mysteries of Easter Island (http:/ / www. davidmetraux. com/ daniel/ docs/ alfred/ alfred_metraux_mysteries_of_easter_island. pdf). . [16] Abramyan, Evgeny (2009). Civilization in the 21st Century (http:/ / www. savefuture. net/ files/ 2009edition-en. pdf). Russia: How to Save the Future?. . :p. 62; [17] Danver, Steven L.. Popular controversies in world history : investigating history's intriguing questions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=slVobUjdzGMC). Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN9781598840773. .:p. 222; [18] The Ryukyuanist (57). Autumn 2002. http:/ / www. uchinanchu. org/ uchinanchu/ ryukyuanist/ ryukyuanist57. pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2012. [19] Citadels of Mystery, L Sprague deCamp and C decamp, Fontana Books 1969, page 10 [20] Lovecraft, Howard P. and Hazel Heald. "Out of the Aeons" (1935) in The Horror in the Museum and Other Revisions, S.T. Joshi (ed.), 1989. Sauk City, WI: Arkham House Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-87054-040-8. [21] Harms, Daniel. "Mu" in The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana (2nd ed.), pp.200202. Chaosium, Inc., 1998. ISBN 1-56882-119-0. [22] http:/ / coa. inducks. org/ story. php?c=I+ TL+ 1238-AP [23] G-Fan #75. Daikaiju Enterprises Ltd. 2006. Pg.80 [24] "Duck Tales 2" (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ exec/ obidos/ ASIN/ B00004SVPB/ retrogamingwi-20). . Retrieved 16 September 2011. [25] (From the book Talking, by Dave Lewis.)

Vimana

319

Vimana
Vimna (Sanskrit: ) is a word with several meanings ranging from temple or palace to mythological flying machines described in Sanskrit epics.

Etymology and usage

Sanskrit vi-mna literally means "measuring out, traversing" or "having been measured out". It can refer to (ref Monier-Williams[1]): The palace of an emperor or supreme monarch The adytum of a Rama temple, or of any other temple A temple or shrine of a particular form, see Vimanam (tower) From that meaning, "a god's palace", Rvana's flying palace Pushpaka in the Ramyana.
The Pushpak Aircraft painted by Balasaheb Pandit Pant Pratinidhi

From that, a chariot of the gods, any mythical self-moving aerial car (sometimes serving as a seat or throne, sometimes self-moving and carrying its occupant through the air; other descriptions make the Vimana more like a house or palace, and one kind is said to be seven stories high. From that, any chariot or vehicle (especially a bier) In medicine, the science of (right) measure or proportion (e.g. of the right relation between the humours of the body, of medicines and remedies etc.) In the Vimanavatthu, a small piece of text used as the inspiration for a Buddhist sermon. In some modern Indian languages, vimna or vimn means "aircraft", for example in the town name Vimanapura (a suburb of Bangalore).

In Sanskrit literature

The Ananta Vasudeva Temple.

Vimana

320

Vedas
The predecessors of the flying vimanas of the Sanskrit epics are the flying chariots employed by various gods in the Vedas: the Sun (see Sun chariot) and Indra and several other Vedic deities are transported by flying wheeled chariots pulled by animals, usually horses (but the Vedic god Psan's chariot is pulled by goats, as is that of Norse Thor). The Rigveda does not mention Vimanas, but verses RV 1.164.47-48 have been taken as evidence for the idea of "mechanical birds": 47. k niyna hraya supar / ap vsn dvam t patanti t vavtran sdand tsyd / d ghtna pthiv vy dyate 48. dvdaa pradhya cakrm ka / tri nbhyni k u tc ciketa tsmin sk triat n akvo / 'rpit ar n calcalsa "Dark the descent: the birds are golden-coloured; up to the heaven they fly robed in the waters.
The Brihadeeswarar Temple.

Again descend they from the seat of Order, and all the earth is moistened with their fatness." "Twelve are the fellies, and the wheel is single; three are the naves. What man hath understood it? Therein are set together spokes three hundred and sixty, which in nowise can be loosened." ("trans." Griffith) In Swami Dayananda Saraswati's "translation", these verses become: "jumping into space speedily with a craft using fire and water ... containing twelve stamghas (pillars), one wheel, three machines, 300 pivots, and 60 instruments."[2] although the 'wheel' is likeliest a metaphorical description of the yearly cycle, and '12' and the '360' are likeliest its months and days.

Ramayana
In the Ramayana, the pushpaka ("flowery") vimana of Ravana is described as follows: "The Pushpaka chariot that resembles the Sun and belongs to my brother was brought by the powerful Ravana; that aerial and excellent chariot going everywhere at will .... that chariot resembling a bright cloud in the sky ... and the King [Rama] got in, and the excellent chariot at the command of the Raghira, rose up into the higher atmosphere.'"[3] It is the first flying vimana mentioned in Hindu mythology (as distinct from the gods' flying horse-drawn chariots). Pushpaka was originally made by Vishwakarma for Brahma the Hindu god of creation, later Brahma gifted it to Kubera, the God of wealth, but was later stolen, along with Lanka, by his half-brother, the demon king Ravana.

The Vimana.

Vimana

321

Mahabharata
One example in the Mahabharata is that the Asura Maya had a Vimana measuring twelve cubits in circumference, with four strong wheels. The Mahabharata compliments "the all-knowing Yavanas" (sarvajnaa yavanaa, said to mean the Greeks), as the creators of the vimanas[4]: The Yavanas, O king, are all-knowing; the Suras are particularly so (sarvajn yavan rajan shurz caiva vishesatah).[5]

Rama being welcomed back to Ayodhya, also shown him flying in the Pushpaka Vimana, which here is depicted as a boat

Jaina literature
Vimna-vsin ('dweller in vimna') is a class of deities who served the trthakara Mah-vra.[6] These Vaimnika deities dwell in the rdhva Loka heavens. According to the Kalpa Stra of Bhadra-bhu, the 24th trthakara Mah-vra himself emerged out of the great vimna Pupa-uttara;[7] whereas the 22nd trthakara Aria-nemi emerged out of the great vimna Aparijita.[8] The trthakara-s Abhinandana (4th) and Sumati-ntha (5th) both[9] traveled through the sky in the "Jayanta-vimna", namely the great vimna Sarva-artha-siddhi, which was owned by[10] the Jayanta deities; whereas the trthakara Dharma-ntha (15th) traveled through the sky in the "Vijaya-vimna".[11] A vimna may be seen in a dream, such as the nalin-gulma.[12][13]

Vimanas and the Vaimanika Shastra

The Vaimanika Shastra is an early 20th century Sanskrit text on aeronautics, claimed to be obtained by mental channeling, about construction of vimnas, the "chariots of the Gods". The existence of the text was revealed in 1952 by G. R. Josyer, according to whom it is due to one Pandit Subbaraya Shastry, who dictated it in 1918-1923. A Hindi translation was published in 1959, the Sanskrit text with an English translation in 1973. It has 3000 shlokas in 8 chapters and was attributed by Shastry to Maharishi Bharadvaja,[14] which makes it of purportedly "ancient" origin, and hence it has a certain notability in ancient astronaut theories. A study by aeronautical and mechanical engineering at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 1974 concluded that the aircraft described in the text were "poor concoctions" and that the author showed complete lack of understanding of aeronautics.[15]

In popular culture
Vimanas have appeared in books, films, internet and games including: Grant Morrison's Vimanarama features vimanas. Vimana is an arcade game from Toaplan wherein the player's ship earns the name. Interstellar propulsion system called "Vimana Drive" is used in the space exploration game Noctis The psy-trance producers Etnica released 'Vimana' in 1997 with samples drawn from the film 'Roswell', which includes references to UFOs and alien life forms. Gouryella, a former trance duo, used Vimana as one of their aliases. In Fate/zero, Archer has a vimana in his arsenal. In The Objective, a US Special Forces ODA searches for vimanas in Afghanistan

Vimana In the game Deep Labyrinth, the labyrinth is referred to as Vimana by its caretakers. There was a Brazilian progressive rock group (19741979) called Vmana (stress on the first syllable) that, in spite of achieving little success, is particularly interesting because three of its former members later became music stars in Brazil: Lobo (drummer), Ritchie (bassist), Lulu Santos (guitarist/vocalist). The band also had in its ranks, for two years (1977/1979), swiss keyboardist Patrick Moraz, then fresh from Yes. They issued one record, in 1976, and disbanded shortly after finishing recording the second. Vimana playing "Marimba" [16] Michael Scott (Irish author) wrote The Alchemyst, a fantasy series that included flying vimanas in the later books. Mainak Dhar wrote Vimana, a fantasy fiction novel. The album Space & Time released in 2000 by the Canadian neo-psychedelic band Orange Alabaster Mushroom features a track called "Aim the Vimana Toward the Dorian Sector". YouTube "Aim the Vimana" [17]

322

References
[1] Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, version 0.1a_12 (http:/ / lexica. indica-et-buddhica. org/ dict/ lexica) [2] cited after Mukunda, H.S.; Deshpande, S.M., Nagendra, H.R., Prabhu, A. and Govindraju, S.P. (1974). "A critical study of the work "Vyamanika Shastra"" (http:/ / cgpl. iisc. ernet. in/ site/ Portals/ 0/ Publications/ ReferedJournal/ ACriticalStudyOfTheWorkVaimanikaShastra. pdf) (PDF). Scientific Opinion: 512. . Retrieved 2007-09-03. p. 5. [3] Dutt, Manatha Nath (translator), Ramayana, Elysium Press, Calcutta, 1892 and New York, 1910. [4] Clive Hart, "The Prehistory of Flight", (Berkeley, 1985) [5] Mahabharata VIII.31.80 [6] Hermann Jacobi : Jaina Stras. p. 169 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8si5ZrsP90UC& pg=PA169& lpg=PA169& dq=Jaina+ vimana+ vehicle& source=web& ots=-5KSiv48Yo& sig=a6_Qw39h8DZhc8tcz8ep-4prwS8& hl=en& ei=ElSRSa6mIZ3etgeHp4jdCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=4& ct=result#PPA169,M1) [7] http:/ / jainsamaj. org/ literature/ bhadrabahu-040806. htm (2) [8] http:/ / jainsamaj. org/ literature/ bhadrabahu-040806. htm (171) [9] Johann Georg Buhler (ed. by James Burgess) : The Indian Sect of the Jainas. London : Luzac, 1903. p. 67 [10] Johann Georg Buhler (ed. by James Burgess) : The Indian Sect of the Jainas. London : Luzac, 1903. p. 74 [11] Johann Georg Buhler (ed. by James Burgess) : The Indian Sect of the Jainas. London : Luzac, 1903. p. 69 [12] Saryu Doshi (transl. by Thomas Dix) : Dharma Vihara, Ranakpur. Axel Menges, 1995. p. 11a. [13] Mewar Encyclopedia, s.v. "Ranakpur, founding of" (http:/ / www. eternalmewar. in/ User/ Research/ WikiDescription. aspx?Id=RANAKPUR, FOUNDING OF) [14] Childress (1991), p. 109 [15] "Flights of fancy? (Part X of XII)" (http:/ / www. hvk. org/ articles/ 0601/ 100. html). The Week. 2001-06-24. . Retrieved 2009-06-29. [16] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=RhEhOjs-V00 [17] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=z450JPEQI4Y

External links
WorldMysteries.com The Anti-Gravity Handbook (Lost Science) (http://www.world-mysteries.com/sar_7. htm#Ancient Indian) by David Hatcher Childress* Vymanika Shastra (http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ vimanas/vimanas.htm#menu) UFOs and Vimanas (http://www.stephen-knapp.com/ufos_and_vimanas.htm) Los Vimanas (a collection of various texts, partially in Spanish and partially in English) http://www. bibliotecapleyades.net/esp_vimanas.htm#inicio

323

Interesting Explorers
Charles Fort
Charles Fort

Charles Fort in 1920. Born Charles Hoy Fort August 6, 1874 Albany, New York, United States May 3, 1932 (aged57) The Bronx, New York, United States

Died

Occupation Researcher

Charles Hoy Fort (August 6, 1874 May 3, 1932) was an American writer and researcher into anomalous phenomena. Today, the terms Fortean and Forteana are used to characterize various such phenomena. Fort's books sold well and are still in print today.

Biography
Charles Hoy Fort was born in 1874 in Albany, New York, of Dutch ancestry. He had two younger brothers, Clarence and Raymond. His grocer father was something of an authoritarian: Many Parts, Fort's unpublished autobiography, relates several instances of harsh treatment including physical abuse by his father. Some observers (such as Fort's biographer Damon Knight) have suggested that Fort's distrust of authority has its roots in his father's treatment. In any case, Fort developed a strong sense of independence in his youth. As a young man, Fort was a budding naturalist, collecting sea shells, minerals, and birds. Curious and intelligent, the young Fort did not excel at school, though he was quite a wit and full of knowledge about the world yet this was a world he only knew through books. So, at the age of 18, Fort left New York on a world tour to "put some capital in the bank of experience". He travelled through the western United States, Scotland, and England, until falling ill in Southern Africa. Returning home, he was nursed by Anna Filing, a girl he had known from his childhood. They were later married on October 26, 1896. Anna was four years older than Charles and was non-literary, a lover of films and of parakeets. She later moved with her husband to London for two years where they would go to the cinema when Charles wasn't busy with his research. His success as a short story writer was intermittent between periods of terrible poverty and depression. In 1916, an inheritance from an uncle gave Fort enough money to quit his various day jobs and to write full time. In 1917, Fort's brother Clarence died; his portion of the same inheritance was divided between Charles and Raymond.

Charles Fort Fort wrote ten novels, although only one, The Outcast Manufacturers (1909), was published. Reviews were mostly positive, but the tenement tale was commercially unsuccessful. In 1915, Fort began to write two books, titled X and Y, the first dealing with the idea that beings on Mars were controlling events on Earth, and the second with the postulation of a sinister civilization extant at the South Pole. These books caught the attention of writer Theodore Dreiser, who attempted to get them published, but to no avail. Disheartened by this failure, Fort burnt the manuscripts, but was soon renewed to begin work on the book that would change the course of his life, The Book of the Damned (1919) which Dreiser helped to get into print. The title referred to "damned" data that Fort collected, phenomena for which science could not account and was thus rejected or ignored. Fort's experience as a journalist, coupled with high wit egged on by a contrarian nature, prepared him for his real-life work, needling the pretensions of scientific positivism and the tendency of journalists and editors of newspapers and scientific journals to rationalise the scientifically incorrect. Fort and Anna lived in London from 1924 to 1926, having moved there so Charles could peruse the files of the British Museum. Although born in Albany, Fort lived most of his life in the Bronx, one of New York City's five boroughs. He was, like his wife, fond of films, and would often take her from their Ryer Avenue apartment to the nearby movie theater, and would always stop at the adjacent newsstand for an armful of various newspapers. Fort frequented the parks near the Bronx where he would sift through piles of his clippings. He would often ride the subway down to the main New York Public Library on Fifth Avenue where he would spend many hours reading scientific journals along with newspapers and periodicals from around the world. Fort also had a small circle of literary friends and they would gather on occasion at various apartments, including his own, to drink and talk which was tolerated by Anna. Theodore Dreiser would lure him out to meetings with phony telegrams and notes and the resultant evening would be full of good food, conversation and hilarity. Charles Fort's wit was always in evidence, especially in his writing. His books earned mostly positive reviews, and were popular enough to go through several printings, including an omnibus edition in 1941. Fort's books were at the time appreciated for both their literary quality and his critique of scientific dogma. Suffering from poor health and failing eyesight, Fort was pleasantly surprised to find himself the subject of a cult following. There was talk of the formation of a formal organization to study the type of odd events related in his books. Clark writes, "Fort himself, who did nothing to encourage any of this, found the idea hilarious. Yet he faithfully corresponded with his readers, some of whom had taken to investigating reports of anomalous phenomena and sending their findings to Fort" (Clark 1998, 235). Fort distrusted doctors and did not seek medical help for his worsening health. Rather, he focused his energies towards completing Wild Talents. After he collapsed on May 3, 1932, Fort was rushed to Royal Hospital in The Bronx. Later that same day, Fort's publisher visited him to show the advance copies of Wild Talents. Fort died only hours afterward, probably of leukemia.[1] He was interred in the Fort family plot in Albany, New York. His more than 60,000 notes were donated to the New York Public Library.

324

Charles Fort

325

Fort and the unexplained

Overview
Fort's relationship with the study of anomalous phenomena is frequently misunderstood and misrepresented. For over thirty years, Charles Fort sat in the libraries of New York and London, assiduously reading scientific journals, newspapers, and magazines, collecting notes on phenomena that lay outside the accepted theories and beliefs of the time. Fort took thousands of notes in his lifetime. In his short story "The Giant, the Insect and The Philanthropic-looking Old Gentleman," published many years later for the first time by the International Fortean Organization in issue #70 of the "INFO Journal: Science and the Unknown", Fort spoke of sitting on a park bench at The Cloisters in New York City and tossing some 60,000 notes, not all of his collection by any means, into the wind. This short story is significant because Fort uses his own data collection technique to solve a mystery. He marveled that seemingly unrelated bits of information were, in fact, related. Fort wryly concludes that he went back to collecting data and taking even more notes. The notes were kept on cards and scraps of paper in shoeboxes, in a cramped shorthand of Fort's own invention, and some of them survive today in the collections of the University of Pennsylvania. More than once, depressed and discouraged, Fort destroyed his work, but always began anew. Some of the notes were published, little by little, by the Fortean Society magazine "Doubt" and, upon the death of its editor Tiffany Thayer in 1959, most were donated to the New York Public Library where they are still available to researchers of the unknown. From this research, Fort wrote four books. These are The Book of the Damned (1919), New Lands (1923), Lo! (1931) and Wild Talents (1932); one book was written between New Lands and Lo! but it was abandoned and absorbed into Lo!.

Fort's writing style

Understanding Fort's books takes time and effort: his style is complex, violent and poetic, profound and occasionally puzzling. Ideas are abandoned and then recalled a few pages on; examples and data are offered, compared and contrasted, conclusions made and broken, as Fort holds up the unorthodox to the scrutiny of the orthodoxy that continually fails to account for them. Pressing on his attacks, Fort shows what he sees as the ridiculousness of the conventional explanations and then interjects with his own theories. Fort suggests that there is, for example, a Super-Sargasso Sea into which all lost things go, and justifies his theories by noting that they fit the data as well as the conventional explanations. As to whether Fort believes this theory, or any of his other proposals, he gives us the answer: "I believe nothing of my own that I have ever written." Writer Colin Wilson suspects that Fort took few if any of his "explanations" seriously, and notes that Fort made "no attempt to present a coherent argument". (Wilson, 200) Moreover, Wilson opines that Fort's writing style is "atrocious" (Wilson, 199) and "almost unreadable" (Wilson, 200). Wilson also compares Fort to Robert Ripley, a contemporary writer who found major success hunting oddities, and speculates that Fort's idiosyncratic prose might have kept him from greater popular success. Jerome Clark writes that Fort was "essentially a satirist hugely skeptical of human beings' especially scientists' claims to ultimate knowledge".[2] Clark describes Fort's writing style as a "distinctive blend of mocking humor, penetrating insight, and calculated outrageousness".[3] Wilson describes Fort as "a patron of cranks"[4] and also argues that running through Fort's work is "the feeling that no matter how honest scientists think they are, they are still influenced by various unconscious assumptions that prevent them from attaining true objectivity. Expressed in a sentence, Fort's principle goes something like this: People with a psychological need to believe in marvels are no more prejudiced and gullible than people with a psychological need not to believe in marvels."[5]

Charles Fort

326

Fortean phenomena
Despite his objections to Fort's writing style, Wilson allows that "the facts are certainly astonishing enough" (Wilson, 200). Examples of the odd phenomena in Fort's books include many of what are variously referred to as occult, supernatural, and paranormal. Reported events include teleportation (a term Fort is generally credited with coining);[6][7] poltergeist events; falls of frogs, fishes, inorganic materials of an amazing range; unaccountable noises and explosions; spontaneous fires; levitation; ball lightning (a term explicitly used by Fort); unidentified flying objects; unexplained disappearances; giant wheels of light in the oceans; and animals found outside their normal ranges (see phantom cat). He offered many reports of Out-of-place artifacts (OOPArts), strange items found in unlikely locations. He also is perhaps the first person to explain strange human appearances and disappearances by the hypothesis of alien abduction and was an early proponent of the extraterrestrial hypothesis, specifically suggesting that strange lights or object sighted in the skies might be alien spacecraft. Fort also wrote about the interconnectedness of nature and synchronicity. His books seem to center around the idea that everything is connected and that strange coincidences happen for a reason. Many of these phenomena are now collectively and conveniently referred to as Fortean phenomena (or Forteana), whilst others have developed into their own schools of thought: for example, reports of UFOs in ufology and unconfirmed animals (cryptids) in cryptozoology. These new disciplines per se are generally not recognized by most scientists or academics however.

Forteana and mainstream science

Frequently in his writing, Fort posits a few basic points that were decades ahead of mainstream scientific acceptance, and that are frequently omitted in discussions of the history and philosophy of science: Fort often notes that the boundaries between science and pseudoscience are "fuzzy": the boundary lines are not very well defined, and they might change over time. Fort also points out that whereas facts are objective, how facts are interpreted depends on who is doing the interpreting and in what context. Fort insisted that there is a strong sociological influence on what is considered "acceptable" or "damned" (see strong program in the sociology of scientific knowledge). Though he never used the term "magical thinking", Fort offered many arguments and observations that are similar to the concept: he argued that most, if not all, people (including scientists) are at least occasionally guilty of irrational and "non scientific" thinking. Fort points out the problem of underdetermination: that the same data can sometimes be explained by more than one theory. Similarly, writer John Michell notes that "Fort gave several humorous instances of the same experiment yielding two different results, each one gratifying the experimenter."[8] Fort noted that if controlled experiments a pillar of the scientific method could produce such widely varying results depending on who conducted them, then the scientific method itself might be open to doubt, or at least to a degree of scrutiny rarely brought to bear. Since Fort's death, scientists have recognized the "experimenter effect", the tendency for experiments to tend to validate given preconceptions. Robert Rosenthal has conducted pioneering research on this and related subjects. There are many phenomena in Fort's works which have now been partially or entirely "recuperated" by mainstream science: ball lightning, for example, was largely rejected as impossible by the scientific consensus of Fort's day, but is now receiving new attention within science. However, many of Fort's ideas remain on the very borderlines of "mainstream science", or beyond, in the fields of paranormalism and the bizarre. This is unsurprising, as Fort resolutely refused to abandon the territory beyond "acceptable" science. Nonetheless, later research has demonstrated that Fort's claims are at least as reliable as his sources. In the 1960s, American writer William R. Corliss began his own documentation of scientific anomalies. Partly inspired by Fort, Corliss checked some of Fort's sources and concluded that Fort's research was "accurate, but rather narrow"; there were many anomalies which Fort did not

Charles Fort include in his books.[9] Many consider it odd that Fort, a man so skeptical and so willing to question the pronouncements of the scientific mainstream, would be so eager to take old stories for example, stories about rains of fish falling from the sky at face value. It is debatable whether Fort did in fact accept evidence at face value: many instances in his books, Fort notes that he regarded certain data and assertions as unlikely, and he additionally remarked, "I offer the data. Suit yourself." In Fort's books, it is often difficult to determine if he took his proposals and "theories" seriously, but he did seem to hold a genuine belief in the presence of extraterrestrial visitations to the Earth. The theories and conclusions Fort presented often came from what he called "the orthodox conventionality of Science". On nearly every page, Fort's works have reports of odd events which were originally printed in respected mainstream newspapers or scientific journals such as Scientific American, The Times, Nature and Science. Time and again, Fort noted, that while some phenomena related in these and other sources were enthusiastically accepted and promoted by scientists, just as often, inexplicable or unusual reports were ignored, or were effectively swept under the rug. And repeatedly, Fort reclaimed such data from under the rug, and brought them out, as he wrote, "for an airing". So long as any evidence is ignored however bizarre or unlikely the evidence might seem Fort insisted that scientists' claims to thoroughness and objectivity were questionable. It did not matter to Fort whether his data and theories were accurate: his point was that alternative conclusions and world views can be made from the same data "orthodox" conclusions are made from, and that the conventional explanations of science are only one of a range of explanations, none necessarily more justified than another. In this respect, he was far ahead of his time. In The Book of the Damned he showed the influence of social values and what would now be called a "paradigm" on what scientists consider to be "true". This prefigured work by Thomas Kuhn decades later. The work of Paul Feyerabend could also be likened to Fort's. Another of Fort's great contributions is questioning the often frequent dogmatism of mainstream science. Although many of the phenomena which science rejected in his day have since been proven to be objective phenomena, and although Fort was prescient in his collection and preservation of these data despite the scorn they often received from his contemporaries, Fort was more of a parodist and a philosopher than a scientist. He thought that far too often, scientists took themselves far too seriously, and were prone to arrogance and dogmatism. Fort used humor both for its own sake, and to point out what he regarded as the foibles of science and scientists. Nonetheless, Fort is considered by many as the father of modern paranormalism, not only because of his interest in strange phenomena, but because of his "modern" attitude towards religion, 19th-century Spiritualism, and scientific dogma.

327

Darwin and evolution

Regarding Darwin and evolution, Charles Fort wrote: "Darwin & Evolution In mere impressionism we take our stand. We have no positive tests nor standards. Realism in art: realism in science they pass away. In 1859, the thing to do was to accept Darwinism; now many biologists are revolting and trying to conceive of something else. The thing to do was to accept it in its day, but Darwinism of course was never proved: The fittest survive. What is meant by the fittest? Not the strongest; not the cleverest Weakness and stupidity everywhere survive. There is no way of determining fitness except in that a thing does survive. "Fitness," then, is only another name for "survival." Darwinism: That survivors survive." (Damned, pp. 23-24)

Charles Fort

328

The Forteans
Fort's work has inspired very many to consider themselves as Forteans. The first of these was the screenwriter Ben Hecht, who in a review of The Book of the Damned declared "I am the first disciple of Charles Fort henceforth, I am a Fortean". Among Fort's other notable fans were John Cowper Powys, Sherwood Anderson, Clarence Darrow, and Booth Tarkington, who wrote the foreword to New Lands. Precisely what is encompassed by "Fortean" is a matter of great debate; the term is widely applied from every position from Fortean purists dedicated to Fort's methods and interests, to those with open and active acceptance of the actuality of paranormal phenomena, a position with which Fort may not have agreed. Most generally, Forteans have a wide interest in unexplained phenomena in wide-ranging fields, mostly concerned with the natural world, and have a developed "agnostic scepticism" regarding the anomalies they note and discuss. For Mr. Hecht as an example, being a Fortean meant hallowing a pronounced distrust of authority in all its forms, whether religious, scientific, political, philosophical or otherwise. It did not, of course, include an actual belief in the anomalous data enumerated in Fort's works. In Chapter 1 of Book of the Damned, Charles Fort states that the ideal is to be neither a "True Believer" nor a total "Skeptic" but "that the truth lies somewhere in between". The Fortean Society was founded at the Savoy-Plaza Hotel in New York City on 26 January 1931 by his friends, many of whom were significant writers such as Theodore Dreiser, Ben Hecht, Alexander Woolcott, and led by fellow American writer Tiffany Thayer, half in earnest and half in the spirit of great good humor, like the works of Fort himself. The board of Founders included Dreiser, Hecht, Booth Tarkington, Aaron Sussman, John Cowper Powys, the former editor of "Puck" Harry Leon Wilson, Woolcott and J. David Stern, publisher of the Philadelphia Record. Active members of the Fortean Society included journalist H.L. Mencken and prominent science fiction writers such as Eric Frank Russell and Damon Knight. Fort, however, rejected the Society and refused the presidency which went to his close friend writer Theodore Dreiser; he was lured to its inaugural meeting by false telegrams. As a strict non-authoritarian, Fort refused to establish himself as an authority, and further objected on the grounds that those who would be attracted by such a grouping would be spiritualists, zealots, and those opposed to a science that rejected them; it would attract those who believed in their chosen phenomena: an attitude exactly contrary to Forteanism. Fort did hold unofficial meetings and had a long history of getting together informally with many of NYC's literati such as Theodore Dreiser and Ben Hecht at their various apartments where they would talk, have a meal and then listen to short reports. Reports of these meetings mention lively discussions accompanied by great good humor and quantities of wine. Fort was not a joiner of established groups and, perhaps, it is ironic that many such Fortean groups have been established. Most notable of these are the magazine, Fortean Times (first published in November 1973), which is a proponent of Fortean journalism, combining humour, scepticism, and serious research into subjects which scientists and other respectable authorities often disdain and the International Fortean Organization (INFO). INFO was formed in the early 1960s (incorporated in 1965) by brothers, the writers Ron and Paul Willis, who acquired much of the material of the original Fortean Society which had begun in 1932 in the spirit of Charles Fort but which had grown silent by 1959 with the death of Tiffany Thayer. INFO publishes the "INFO Journal: Science and the Unknown" and organizes the FortFest, the world's first, and continuously running, conference on anomalous phenomena dedicated to the spirit of Charles Fort. INFO, since the mid-1960s, also provides audio CDs and filmed DVDs of notable conference speakers (Colin Wilson, John Michell, Graham Hancock, John Anthony West, William Corliss, John Keel, Joscelyn Godwin among many others). Other Fortean societies are also active, notably the Edinburgh Fortean Society in Edinburgh and the Isle of Wight. More than a few modern authors of fiction and non-fiction who have written about the influence of Fort are sincere followers of Fort. One of the most notable is British philosopher John Michell who wrote the Introduction to Lo! published by John Brown in 1996. Michell says "Fort, of course, made no attempt at defining a world-view, but the evidence he uncovered gave him an 'acceptance' of reality as something far more magical and subtly organized than

Charles Fort is considered proper today." Stephen King also uses the works of Charles Fort to illuminate his main characters, notably "It" and "Firestarter". In "Firestarter", the parents of a pyrokinetically gifted child are advised to read Fort's Wild Talents rather than the works of baby doctor Benjamin Spock. Loren Coleman is a well-known cryptozoologist, author of "The Unidentified" (1975) dedicated to Charles Fort, and "Mysterious America," which Fortean Times called a Fortean classic. Indeed, Coleman calls himself the first Vietnam era C.O. to base his pacificist ideas on Fortean thoughts. Jerome Clark has described himself as a "sceptical Fortean".[10] Mike Dash is another capable Fortean, bringing his historian's training to bear on all manner of odd reports, while being careful to avoid uncritically accepting any orthodoxy, be it that of fringe devotees or mainstream science. Science-fiction writers of note including Philip K. Dick, Robert Heinlein, and Robert Anton Wilson were also fans of the work of Charles Fort. Fort's work, of compilation and commentary on anomalous phenomena reported in scientific journals and press, has been carried on very creditably by William R. Corliss, whose self-published books and notes bring Fort's collections up to date with a Fortean combination of humor, seriousness and open-mindedness. Mr. Corliss' notes rival those of Fort in volume, while being significantly less cryptic and abbreviated. Ivan T. Sanderson, Scottish naturalist and writer, was a devotee of Fort's work, and referenced it heavily in several of his own books on unexplained phenomena, notably Things (1967), and More Things (1969). Louis Pauwels and Jacques Bergier's The Morning of the Magicians was also heavily influenced by Fort's work and mentions it often. The noted UK paranormalist, Fortean and ordained priest Lionel Fanthorpe presented the Fortean TV series on Channel 4. P.T. Anderson's popular movie Magnolia (1999) has an underlying theme of unexplained events, taken from the 1920s and '30s works of Charles Fort. Fortean author Loren Coleman has written a chapter about this motion picture, entitled "The Teleporting Animals and Magnolia," in one of his recent books. The film has many hidden Fortean themes, notably "falling frogs". In one scene, one of Fort's books is visible on a table in a library and there is an end credit thanking him by name.[11]

329

Quotations
"Now there are so many scientists who believe in dowsing, that the suspicion comes to me that it may be only a myth after all." "One measures a circle, beginning anywhere." "My own notion is that it is very unsportsmanlike to ever mention fraud. Accept anything. Then explain it your way." "But my liveliest interest is not so much in things, as in relations of things. I have spent much time thinking about the alleged pseudo-relations that are called coincidences. What if some of them should not be coincidence?" "If any spiritualistic medium can do stunts, there is no more need for special conditions than there is for a chemist to turn down lights, start operations with a hymn, and ask whether there's any chemical present that has affinity with something named Hydrogen." "The Earth is a farm. We are someone else's property." "Do you want power over something? Be more nearly real than it." "I conceive of nothing, in religion, science or philosophy, that is more than the proper thing to wear, for a while." A quotation often attributed to Fort is "If there is a universal mind, must it be sane?" This quote is from Damon Knight's 1970 biography, Charles Fort : Prophet of the Unexplained.

Charles Fort

330

Partial bibliography
All of Fort's works are available on-line (see External links section below). The Book of the Damned: The Collected Works of Charles Fort, Tarcher, New York, 2008, paperback, ISBN 978-1-58542-641-6 (with introduction by Jim Steinmeyer) The Outcast Manufacturers (novel), 1906 Many Parts (autobiography, unpublished) The Book of the Damned, Prometheus Books, 1999, paperback, 310 pages, ISBN 1-57392-683-3, first published in 1919. New Lands, Ace Books, 1941 and later editions, mass market paperback, first published in 1923. ISBN 0-7221-3627-7 Lo!, Ace Books, 1941 and later printings, mass market paperback, first published in 1931. ISBN 1-870870-89-1 Wild Talents, Ace Books, 1932 and later printings, mass market paperback, first published in 1932. ISBN 1-870870-29-8 Complete Books of Charles Fort, Dover Publications, New York, 1998, hardcover, ISBN 0-486-23094-5 (with introduction by Damon Knight)

References
There are very few books written about Fort. His life and work have been almost completely overlooked by mainstream academia and the books written are mainly biographical expositions relating to Fort's life and ideas. Gardner, Martin has a chapter on Charles Fort in his Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science 1957; Dover; ISBN 0-486-20394-8. Knight, Damon, Charles Fort: Prophet of the Unexplained is a dated but valuable biographical resource, detailing Fort's early life, his pre-'Fortean' period and also provides chapters on the Fortean society and brief studies of Fort's work in relation to Immanuel Velikovsky. Magin, Ulrich, Der Ritt auf dem Kometen. ber Charles Fort is similar to Knight's book, in German language, and contains more detailed chapters on Fort's philosophy. Louis Pauwels has an entire chapter on Fort, "The Vanished Civilizations", in The Morning of the Magicians.[12] There has been more recent interest in Fort: Bennett, Colin (2002) (paperback). Politics of the Imagination: The Life, Work and Ideas of Charles Fort. Head Press. pp.206. ISBN1-900486-20-2. Carroll, Robert Todd. "Fort, Charles (1874-1932)" (pp.148150 in The Skeptic's Dictionary, Robert Todd Carroll, John Wiley & Sons, 2003; ISBN 0-471-27242-6) Clark, Jerome. "The Extraterrestrial Hypothesis in the Early UFO Age" (pp.122140 in UFOs and Abductions: Challenging the Borders of Knowledge, David M. Jacobs, editor; University Press of Kansas, 2000; ISBN 0-7006-1032-4) Clark, Jerome. The UFO Book, Visible Ink: 1998. Dash, Mike. "Charles Fort and a Man Named Dreiser." in Fortean Times no. 51 (Winter 1988-1989), pp.4048. Kidd, Ian James. "Who Was Charles Fort?" in Fortean Times no. 216 (Dec 2006), pp.545. Kidd, Ian James. "Holding the Fort: how science fiction preserved the name of Charles Fort" in Matrix no. 180 (Aug/Sept 2006), pp.245. Lippard, Jim. "Charles Fort" [13] (pp.277280 in Encyclopedia of the Paranormal, Gordon M. Stein, editor; Prometheus Books, 1996; ISBN 1-57392-021-5) Skinner, Doug, "Tiffany Thayer", Fortean Times, June 2005. Steinmeyer, Jim (2008) (hardback). Charles Fort: The Man Who Invented the Supernatural. Heinemann. pp.352 pages. ISBN0434016292.

Charles Fort Wilson, Colin. Mysteries, Putnam, ISBN 0-399-12246-X Ludwigsen, Will. "We Were Wonder Scouts" [14] in Asimov's Science Fiction, Aug 2011

331

Footnotes
[1] "Charles Fort: His Life and Times" (http:/ / www. forteana. org/ html/ fortbiog. html) by Bob Rickard; 1995, revised 1997; URL accessed March 09, 2007 [2] Clark, Jerome: "The Extraterrestrial Hypothesis in the Early UFO Age" in UFOs and Abductions: Challenging the Borders of Knowledge, edited David M. Jacobs, University Press of Kansas: 2000 (ISBN 0-7006-1032-4), p.123. See Pyrrhonism for a similar type of skepticism. [3] Clark, Jerome: The UFO Book, Visible Ink: 1998, p.200. [4] Wilson, Colin, Mysteries, Putnam (ISBN 0-399-12246-X), p.199. [5] Wilson, Colin: ibid., p.201 (emphases not added). [6] "Mostly in this book I shall specialize upon indications that there exists a transportory force that I shall call Teleportation." in Fort. C. Lo! at Sacred Texts.com), retrieved 4 January 2009) (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ fort/ lo/ lo02. htm) [7] "less well-known is the fact that Charles Fort coined the word in 1931" in Rickard, B. and Michell, J. Unexplained Phenomena: a Rough Guide special (Rough Guides, 2000 (ISBN 1-85828-589-5), p.3) [8] Common Ground (http:/ / www. commonground. ca/ iss/ 0410159/ cg159_geoffUniv. shtml). [9] Scientific Exploration (http:/ / www. scientificexploration. org/ jse/ articles/ pdf/ 16. 3_corliss. pdf). [10] Confessions (http:/ / www. magonia. demon. co. uk/ arc/ 80/ confessions. htm). [11] Coleman, Loren (2007). "Mysterious America: The Ultimate Guide to the Nation's Weirdest Wonders, Strangest Spots, and Creepiest Creatures". Simon & Schuster. [12] Pauwels, Louis, The Morning of the Magicians (Stein & Day, 1964), p. 91 et seq. Reprinted by Destiny in 2008, ISBN 1-59477-231-2. [13] http:/ / www. discord. org/ ~lippard/ CharlesFort. html [14] http:/ / www. bestsf. net/ will-ludwigsen-we-were-wonder-scouts-asimovs-august-2011

External links
International Fortean Organization (http://www.forteans.com) The Charles Fort Institute (http://www.forteana.org/index.html) TopFoto - Representing The Fortean Picture Library (http://www.topfoto.co.uk/) The Sourcebook Project homepage (http://www.science-frontiers.com/sourcebk.htm) The Skeptic's Dictionary: Charles Fort (http://www.skepdic.com/fortean.html) A Wild Talent: Charles Hoy Fort (http://www.dur.ac.uk/i.j.kidd/fort.htm), Ian James Kidd's pages on Fort. Charles Fort's House at 39A Marchmont Street, London (http://www.blather.net/shitegeist/2005/12/ charles_forts_house_in_london.htm) Edinburgh Fortean Society (http://www.edinburghforteansociety.org.uk/) Forteana: The Fortean Wiki (http://fortean.wikidot.com/) Google Earth Anomalies (http://www.googleearthanomalies.com)- Satellite imagery of documented, scientific anomaly sites including mound sites and unexplained circular features via Google Earth. The following online editions of Fort's work, edited and annotated by a Fortean named "Mr.X", are at "Mr.X"'s site Resologist.net (http://www.resologist.net/): Book of the Damned (http://www.resologist.net/damnei.htm) New Lands (http://www.resologist.net/landsei.htm) Lo! (http://www.resologist.net/loei.htm) Wild Talents (http://www.resologist.net/talentei.htm) Many Parts (http://www.resologist.net/parte01.htm) (surviving fragments) The Outcast Manufacturers (http://www.resologist.net/ocmei.htm)

Edgar Cayce

332

Edgar Cayce
Edgar Cayce

Circa October 1910 Born Edgar Cayce March 18, 1877 Hopkinsville, Kentucky January 3, 1945 (aged67) Virginia Beach, Virginia

Died

Resting place Riverside Cemetery, Hopkinsville, Kentucky Nationality Occupation American Psychic Clairvoyant Founder of Association for Research and Enlightenment Disciples of Christ Hugh Lynn (b. 1907) Milton Porter (b. 1911) Edgar Evans (b. 1918) Leslie B. Cayce Carrie Cayce Website www.edgarcayce.org [1]

Knownfor Religion Children

Parents

Edgar Cayce (/kesi/; March 18, 1877 January 3, 1945) was an American psychic who allegedly had the ability to give answers to questions on subjects such as healing or Atlantis while in a hypnotic trance. Though Cayce himself was a devout Christian and lived before the emergence of the New Age Movement, some believe he was the founder of the movement and influenced its teachings.[2] Cayce became a celebrity toward the end of his life and the publicity given to his prophecies has overshadowed what to him were usually considered the more important parts of his work, such as healing (the vast majority of his readings were given for people who were sick) and theology (Cayce was a lifelong, devout member of the Disciples of Christ). Skeptics[3] challenge the statement that Cayce demonstrated psychic abilities, and traditional Christians also question his unorthodox answers on religious matters (such as reincarnation and Akashic records, although others accept his abilities as "God-given"). Cayce founded a nonprofit organization, the Association for Research and Enlightenment.[4]

Edgar Cayce

333

Biography
Early life
Edgar Cayce was born on March 18, 1877, near Beverly, Hopkinsville, Kentucky, one of the six children of farmers Leslie B. Cayce and Carrie Cayce.[5]

Marriage and family

Cayce was engaged on March 14, 1897 and married on June 17, 1903 to Gertrude Evans. They had three children: Hugh Lynn Cayce (March 16, 1907-July 4, 1982), Milton Porter Cayce (March 28, 1911-May 17, 1911), and Edgar Evans Cayce (February 9, 1918-).[5]

1877 to 1920: Kentucky period

In December 1893, the Cayce family moved to Hopkinsville, Kentucky, and occupied 705 West Seventh, on the south-east corner of Seventh and Young Street. During this time Cayce received an eighth-grade education, discovered his spiritual vocation and[6] left the family farm to pursue various forms of employment (at Richard's Dry Goods Store and then in Hopper's Bookstore, both located on Main Street). Cayce's education stopped with the ninth grade because his family could not afford the costs involved.[7] A ninth-grade education was often considered more than sufficient for working-class children. Much of the remainder of Cayce's younger years would be characterized by a search for both employment and money. Throughout his life, Cayce was drawn to church as a member of the Disciples of Christ. He read the Bible once for every year of his life, taught at Sunday school,[8] and recruited missionaries. He is said to have agonized over the issue of whether his psychic abilities, and the teachings which resulted, were spiritually legitimate. In 1900, he formed a business partnership with his father to sell Woodmen of the World Insurance but was struck by severe laryngitis in March that resulted in a complete loss of speech.[7] Unable to work, he lived at home with his parents for almost a year. He then decided to take up the trade of photography, an occupation that would exert less strain on his voice. He began an apprenticeship at the photography studio of W.R. Bowles in Hopkinsville. A traveling stage hypnotist and entertainer called "The Laugh Man" was performing at the Hopkinsville Opera House in 1901. He heard about Cayce's condition and offered to attempt a cure. Cayce accepted, and the experiment took place on stage in front of an audience. Remarkably, Cayce's voice apparently returned while in a hypnotic trance but allegedly disappeared on awakening. Hart tried a posthypnotic suggestion that the voice would continue to function after the trance, but this proved unsuccessful.[9] Since Hart had appointments at other cities, he could not continue his hypnotic treatment of Cayce. However, a local hypnotist, Al Layne, offered to help Cayce in restoring his voice. Layne suggested that Cayce describe the nature of his condition and cure while in a hypnotic trance.[9] Cayce described his own ailment from a first person plural point of view ("we") instead of the singular ("I").[9] In subsequent readings he would generally start off with "We have the body." According to the reading, his voice loss was due to psychological paralysis and could be corrected by increasing the blood flow to the voice box. Layne suggested that the blood flow be increased, and Cayce's face supposedly became flushed with blood and his chest area and the throat turned bright red.[9] After 20 minutes Cayce, still in trance, declared the treatment over. On awakening, his voice was alleged to have remained normal. Relapses were said to have occurred but were said to have been corrected by Layne in the same way, and eventually the cure was said to be permanent. Layne had read of similar hypnotic cures effected by the Marquis de Puysgur, a follower of Franz Mesmer, and was keen to explore the limits of the healing knowledge of the trance voice.[10] He asked Cayce to describe Layne's own ailments and suggest cures and reportedly found the results both accurate and effective. Layne suggested that Cayce offer his trance healing to the public, but Cayce was reluctant. He finally agreed on the condition that readings would

Edgar Cayce be free. He began with Layne's help to offer free treatments to the townspeople. Reports of Cayce's work appeared in the newspapers, inspiring many postal inquiries.[10] Cayce was able to work just as effectively using a letter from the individual as with having the person present. Given the person's name and location, he said he could diagnose the physical and/or mental conditions and provide a remedy. He became popular and soon people from around the world sought his advice through correspondence. Cayce's work grew in volume as his fame grew. He asked for voluntary donations to support himself and his family so that he could practice full-time. He continued to work in an apparent trance state with a hypnotist all his life. His wife and eldest son later replaced Layne in this role. A secretary, Gladys Davis, recorded his readings in shorthand.[10]

334

1920 to 1923: Texas period

The growing fame of Cayce coupled with the popularity he received from newspapers attracted several eager commercially-minded men who wanted to seek a fortune by using Cayce's clairvoyant abilities. Even though Cayce was reluctant to help them, he was persuaded to give the readings, which left him dissatisfied with himself and unsuccessful. A cotton merchant offered Cayce a hundred dollars a day for his readings about the daily outcomes in the cotton market. However, despite his poor finances, Cayce refused the merchant's offer.[11] Others wanted to know where to hunt for treasures, while some wanted to know the outcome of horse races.[12] Several times he was persuaded to give the readings as an experiment. However, he was not successful when he used his ability for such purposes, doing no better than chance alone would dictate. These experiments allegedly left him depleted of energy, distraught, and unsatisfied with himself. Finally, he came to the conclusion that he would use his gift only to help the distressed and sick.[10] He was persuaded to give readings on philosophical subjects in 1923 Historic marker in downtown Selma, Alabama, in front of the building in which Cayce lived and by Arthur Lammers, a wealthy printer who, by his own admission, had [13] worked. been "studying metaphysics for years". Cayce was told by Lammers that, while in his supposed trance state, he spoke of Lammers' past lives and of reincarnation, something Lammers believed in. Reincarnation was a popular subject of the day but not an accepted part of Christian doctrine. Cayce questioned his stenographer as to what he had said in his trance state and remained unconvinced. Cayce himself challenged Lammers's charge that he had validated astrology and reincarnation in the following dialogue: Cayce: "I said all that?...I couldn't have said all that in one reading." "No," Lammers said, "but you confirmed it. You see, I have been studying metaphysics for years, and I was able by a few questions, by the facts you gave, to check what is right and what is wrong with a whole lot of the stuff I've been reading. The important thing is that the basic system which runs through all the mystery religions, whether they come from Tibet or the pyramids of Egypt, is backed up by you. It's actually the right system." [14] Cayce's stenographer recorded the following: "In this we see the plan of development of those individuals set upon this plane, meaning the ability to enter again into the presence of the Creator and become a full part of that creation.

Edgar Cayce Insofar as this entity is concerned, this is the third appearance on this plane, and before this one, as the monk. We see glimpses in the life of the entity now as were shown in the monk, in this mode of living. The body is only the vehicle ever of that spirit and soul that waft through all times and ever remain the same." Cayce was quite unconvinced that he had been referring to and, as such, had validated the doctrine of reincarnation, and the best Lammers could offer was that the reading "opens up the door" and went on to share his beliefs and knowledge of the "truth" with Cayce.[15] It appeared Cayce's instincts were telling him this was no ordinary reading. This client who came for a reading came with quite a bit of information of his own to share with Cayce and seemed intent upon convincing Cayce, now that he felt the reading had confirmed his strongly-held beliefs.[16] It should be noted, however, that 12 years earlier Cayce had briefly alluded to reincarnation. In reading 4841-1, given April 22, 1911, Cayce referred to the soul being "transmigrated". Because nobody systematically recorded Cayces readings up until 1923, it is possible that he may have mentioned reincarnation in other earlier readings. Cayce reported that his conscience bothered him severely over this conflict. Lammers overwhelmed, manipulated, confused, reassured and argued with Cayce. Ultimately his "trance voice", the "we" of the readings, also supposedly dialogued with Cayce and finally persuaded him to continue with these kinds of readings.[17] In 1925 Cayce reported that his "voice" had instructed him to move to Virginia Beach, Virginia.[18]

335

1925 to 1945: Virginia Beach period

Cayce's mature period, in which he created the several institutions which would survive him in some form, can be considered to have started in 1925. By this time he was a professional psychic with a small staff of employees and volunteers.[19] The "readings" increasingly came to involve occult or esoteric themes.[20] In 1929, the Cayce hospital was established in Virginia Beach, sponsored by a wealthy recipient of the trance readings, Morton Blumenthal.

The Cayce Hospital 2006

Cayce gained national prominence in 1943 through a high-profile article in Coronet titled "Miracle Man of Virginia Beach".[19] He said he couldn't refuse people who felt they needed his help, and he increased the frequency of his readings to eight per day to try to make an impression on the ever-growing pile of requests. He said this took a toll on his health as it was emotionally draining and often fatigued him. He even went so far as to say that the readings themselves scolded him for attempting too much and that he should limit his workload to just two readings a day or else they would kill him.[21] Edgar Cayce suffered from a stroke and died on January 3, 1945.[22] He is buried in Riverside Cemetery[23] in Hopkinsville, Kentucky.

Psychic abilities
Cayce has variously been referred to as a "prophet" (cf. Jess Stearn's book, The Sleeping Prophet), a "mystic", a "seer", and a "charlatan". Cayce's methods involved lying down and entering into what appeared to be a hypnotic trance or sleep state, usually at the request of a subject who was seeking help with health or other personal problems (subjects were not usually present). The subject's questions would then be given to Cayce, and Cayce would proceed with a reading. At first these readings dealt primarily with the physical health of the individual (physical readings); later, readings on past lives, business advice, dream interpretation, and mental or spiritual health were also given. Until September 1923, his readings were not systematically preserved. However, an October 10, 1922, Birmingham Post-Herald article quotes Cayce as saying that he had given 8,056 readings as of that date, and it is known that he

Edgar Cayce gave approximately 13,000-14,000 readings after that date. Today, only about 14,000 are available at Cayce headquarters and online. Thus, it appears that about 7,000-8,000 Cayce readings are missing. When out of the trance he entered to perform a reading, Cayce said he generally did not remember what he had said during the reading. The unconscious mind, according to Cayce, has access to information which the conscious mind does not a common assumption about hypnosis in Cayce's time. After Gladys Davis became Cayce's secretary on September 10, 1923, all readings were preserved and his wife Gertrude Evans Cayce generally conducted (guided) the readings. Cayce said that his trance statements should be taken into account only to the extent that they led to a better life for the recipient. Moreover, he invited his audience to test his suggestions rather than accept them on faith. Other abilities that have been attributed to Cayce include astral projection, prophesying, mediumship, viewing the Akashic Records or "Book of Life", and seeing auras. Cayce said he became interested in learning more about these subjects after he was informed about the content of his readings, which he reported that he never actually heard himself.[24]

336

Supporters
Cayce's clients included a number of famous people such as Woodrow Wilson, Thomas Edison, Irving Berlin, and George Gershwin.[25] Gina Cerminara published books such as Many Mansions and The World Within. Brian Weiss published a bestseller regarding clinical recollection of past lives, Many Lives, Many Masters. These books provide broad support for spiritualism and reincarnation. "Many Mansions" elaborates on Cayce's works and supports his stated abilities with real life examples. One such example from Gina Cerminara's works:[26] "Cayce once gave a reading on a blind man, a musician by profession, who regained part of his vision in one eye through following the physical suggestions given by Cayce. This man happened to have a passion for railroads and a tremendous interest in the Civil War. In the life reading which Cayce gave, he said that the man had been a soldier in the South, in the army of Lee, and that he had been a railroad man by profession in that incarnation. Then he proceeded to tell him that his name in that life was Barnett Seay, and that the records of Seay could still be found in the state of Virginia. The man took the trouble to hunt for the records and found them in the state capitol at Richmond: that is to say he found the record of one Barnett Seay, standard-bearer in Lee's army who had entered and been discharged from the service in such and such a year." The Dictionary of American Religious Biography writes about Cayce,[8] As a humble individual full of self-doubts, Cayce never profited from his mystic gift. He read the Bible every day, taught Sunday School, and helped others only when asked. Many did ask, and over the years he produced readings that diagnosed health problems, prescribed dietary regimens, dealt with psychic disorders, and predicted future events such as wars, earthquakes, and changes in governments. He spoke, moreover, of reincarnations, the early history of Israel, and the lost civilization of Atlantis. Enough of his diagnoses and predictions proved true to silence many skeptics and to develop a wide following.

Edgar Cayce

337

Controversy and criticism

Cayce had advocated some controversial and eccentric ideas from his trance readings. In many of Cayce's trance sessions he had reinterpreted the history of life on earth. One of Cayce's controversial claims was that of polygenism. According to Cayce five human races (white, black, red, brown and yellow) had been created separately but simultaneously on different parts of the earth. Cayce also accepted the existence of Atlantis and had claimed that "the red race developed in Atlantis and its development was rapid". Another claim by Cayce was that "soul-entities" on earth had intercourse with animals to produce giants which were as much as twelve feet tall.[27][28] Olav Hammer wrote that many of Cayce's readings discussed race and skin colour and that the explanation for this is that Cayce was not a racist but was influenced by the occult ideas of Madame Blavatsky.[29] Robert Todd Carroll in his book The Skeptic's Dictionary wrote that "Cayce is one of the main people responsible for some of the sillier notions about Atlantis." Carroll mentioned some of Cayce's notions which included his belief in a giant crystal ball used to power energy on Atlantis and his prediction that in 1958 the United States would discover a death ray which had been used on Atlantis.[30]

Criticism
Skeptics of Cayce say that the evidence for his powers comes from contemporaneous newspaper articles, affidavits, anecdotes, testimonials, and books. Martin Gardner for example wrote that the trances of Cayce did happen, but the information from his trances occurred because Cayce had been reading other books from authors such as Carl Jung, Ouspensky and Blavatsky. Gardner's hypothesis was that the trance readings of Cayce contain "little bits of information gleaned from here and there in the occult literature, spiced with occasional novelties from Cayce's unconscious."[31] They are also critical of Cayce's support for various forms of alternative medicine, which they regard as quackery.[32] Michael Shermer writes in Why People Believe Weird Things, "Uneducated beyond the ninth grade, Cayce acquired his broad knowledge through voracious reading and from this he wove elaborate tales."[33] Shermer wrote that, "Cayce was fantasy-prone from his youth, often talking with angels and receiving visions of his dead grandfather." Shermer further cites James Randi as saying "Cayce was fond of expressions like 'I feel that' and 'perhaps' -qualifying words used to avoid positive declarations."

References
[1] http:/ / www. edgarcayce. org [2] York, Michael (1995). The Emerging Network: A Sociology of the New Age and Neo-Pagan Movements. Rowman & Littlefield. p.60. ISBN0847680010. [3] Gardner, Martin (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover Publications. pp.216219. ISBN0486203948. [4] "About A.R.E. and Our Mission" (http:/ / www. edgarcayce. org/ are/ edgarcayce. aspx?id=1036). Association for Research and Enlightenment. . Retrieved 2011-12-18. [5] "Chronology" (http:/ / www. edgarcayce. org/ are/ edgarcayce. aspx?id=1971). Association for Research and Enlightenment. . Retrieved 2011-12-18. [6] "About Edgar Cayce" (http:/ / www. edgarcayce. org/ are/ edgarcayce. aspx). Association for Research and Enlightenment. . Retrieved 2011-12-19. [7] Cerminara, Dr.Gina (1999). "The Medical Clairvoyance of Edgar Cayce". Many Mansions. p.13. [8] Bowden, Henry Warner (1993). Dictionary of American Religious Biography (Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. p.106. ISBN9780313278259. [9] Cerminara, Gina (1999). "The Medical Clairvoyance of Edgar Cayce". Many Mansions. p.14. [10] Cerminara, Dr.Gina (1999). "The Medical Clairvoyance of Edgar Cayce". Many Mansions. p.15. [11] Smith, A. Robert. My Life as a Seer: The Lost Memoirs. p.403. [12] Cayce, Hugh Lynn (2004). The Outer Limits of Edgar Cayce's Power. p.71. [13] Sugrue, "There Is a River" p. 238 [14] Sugrue, "There Is a River" pp. 237-238 [15] Sugrue, "There Is a River" p. 240 [16] Sugrue, "There Is a River" p. 241

Edgar Cayce
[17] Cerminara, Dr.Gina (1999). "An answer to the Riddles of Life". Many Mansions. pp.2528. [18] Auken, John Van (2005). Edgar Cayce on the Revelation. "Eventually Edgar Cayce, following advice from his own readings, moved to Virginia Beach, Virginia, and set up a hospital," [19] Miller, Timothy (1995). America's Alternative Religions. SUNY Press. p.354. [20] Sugrue, T. There Is a River Ch. 20 ' [21] Callahan, Kathy L. (2004). In The Image Of God And The Shadow Of Demons: A Metaphysical Study Of Good And Evil. Trafford Publishing. p.162. [22] Browne, Sylvia; Lindsay Harrison. Prophecy: What the Future Holds for You. p.67. [23] "Grave of Famous Prophet Edgar Cayce" (http:/ / www. roadsideamerica. com/ story/ 12606). RoadsideAmerica.com. . Retrieved 2010-06-30. [24] Bro, Harmon Hartzell. "Edgar Cayce: A Seer out of Season", Aquarian Press, London, 1990. [25] Edgar Cayce: an American prophet, Sidney Kirkpatrick, 2000 [26] Cerminara, Gina. "Many Lives, Many Loves", Chapter 2 - Clear Seeing People, William Sloane Associates, 1963 [27] Charles E. Orser Race and practice in archaeological interpretation 2004, p. 68 [28] The Edgar Cayce Readings, Readings Extract - The Races of Man at the Time (http:/ / www. was-this-atlantis. info/ cayce/ 10. html) [29] Olav Hammer Claiming knowledge: strategies of epistemology from theosophy to the new age 2001, see p.114 and the footnote at the bottom of the page [30] Robert Todd CarrollThe skeptic's dictionary 2003, p. 69 [31] K. Paul Johnson Edgar Cayce in context: the Readings, truth and fiction 1998, p. 23 [32] Skepdic.com article on Edgar Cayce. (http:/ / www. skepdic. com/ cayce. html) [33] Michael Shermer. "Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time", 2002, ISBN 0-8050-7089-3

338

Further reading
Cayce, Edgar Evans. Edgar Cayce on Atlantis, New York: Hawthorn, 1968, ISBN 0-312-96153-7 Cerminara, Gina. Many Mansions: The Edgar Cayce Story on Reincarnation. orig. 1950, Signet Book, reissue edition 1990, ISBN 0-451-16817-8 Kirkpatrick, Sidney D. An American Prophet, Riverhead Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57322-139-2 Kittler, Glenn D. Edgar Cayce on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Warner Books, 1970, ISBN 0-446-90035-4 Puryear, Herbert B. The Edgar Cayce Primer: Discovering The Path to Self-Transformation, Bantam Books, New York, Toronto, Copyright September 1982 by Association for Research and Enlightenment, Inc. ISBN 0-553-25278-X Stearn, Jess. The Sleeping Prophet, Bantam Books, 1967, ISBN 0-553-26085-5 Sugrue, Thomas. There Is a River, A.R.E. Press, 1997, ISBN 0-87604-375-9 Todeschi, Kevin, Edgar Cayce on the Akashic Records, 1998, ISBN 978-0876044018

External links
Edgar Cayce's Association for Research and Enlightenment (A.R.E.) (http://www.edgarcayce.org/) Edgar Cayce Canada (E.C.C.) (http://www.edgarcaycecanada.com/) An American Prophet: Yeah, Right (http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/WhosCounting/story?id=98538& page=1) from ABC News

Article Sources and Contributors

339

Article Sources and Contributors

Human Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481452833 Contributors: $dollarz$, (jarbarf), *drew, -- April, 00hi00, 10metreh, 119, 128.32.172.xxx, 157.178.1.xxx, 16@r, 1pezguy, 200.191.188.xxx, 264356triv, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2nd Piston Honda, 4444hhhh, 545lljkr, 61x62x61, 7, 83-129-67-118, A D Monroe III, A3 nm, A3RO, A455bcd9, A8UDI, AJarvis, ANNAfoxlover, AQUIMISMO, Aaron Schulz, AaronM, Aaroncrick, Abce2, Abdullais4u, Abigail-II, Abukosobasr, Academic Challenger, Acalamari, Acroterion, Adam78, AdamRaizen, Adamrmoss, Adelson Velsky Landis, AdjustShift, Aelius28, Aey, Afgheys13, Aggelophoros, Agoobagoob, Ahmedace1, Ahoerstemeier, Ahruman, Ahuskay, AirLiner, Ajh16, Ajsh, Al-Iskandar Tzaraath, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alec Fischer, AlefZet, Alex Douglas, Alex1324423, Alexinc9, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alexjohnc3, AlienHook, Alkivar, All Is One, Allanx, Almgren, AlotToLearn, Altenmann, Aluchko, Amm86, Amorymeltzer, Amplitude101, AnY FOUR!, Anastrophe, Ancheta Wis, AndiBoi, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrevan, Andrew Levine, Andrewharold, Andrewpmk, Andries, Andy, Andy M. Wang, Andy Marchbanks, Andy Richter, Andy accounts, Andycjp, Aneraofsorts, Anger22, Angr, Angular, Ann Stouter, Anna Lincoln, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous101, Anonywiki, Ansky2000, Antandrus, AnthonyQBachler, Antifamilymang, Antiuser, Anton the Swede, Antonio Lopez, Anyquestions, Aphaia, Apostrophe, Apparition11, Appraiser, Aquillion, Aragohma, Arathjp, Arbor, Arcadie, Arch, Archer884, Archer888, Arctic Night, Arcturus, Arey051012, Argionember, ArglebargleIV, Ariaconditzione, Aridd, ArielGold, Arne Hendriks, Aroundthewayboy, Artacoana, Artichoker, Arx Fortis, Ashenai, Ashill, Ashmoo, Assianir, Astatine-210, Astudent, Atob, Aude, Auno3, Aussie Evil, Austin789, Autodidactyl, Avalik, Avaya1, Avedomni, Avenged Eightfold, Avenue, Avsa, AxelBoldt, AzaToth, Azalea pomp, Azhyd, BD2412, BMF81, BREAKTIME09, BRSM, Baa, Babigurl1988, BadSeed, Badenoch, Badseed, Balfa, Banno, Barek, Bart133, Bci2, Bdelisle, Beastly20, Belginusanl, BellaKazza, BenBurch, Benandorsqueaks, Bender235, Benhocking, Benjamnjoel2, Bensaccount, Bentogoa, Bertie97, Beta m, Bethereds, Bevo, Bfinn, Bhumiya, BigBeni, BigHairRef, Bigbluefoo, Bigturtle, Billyjoekini, Binksternet, Biologicithician, Bip beep, Bisrat2cool, Bkell, Bkkeim2000, Blackblad, Blackworm, Blake-, Blanchardb, Blasian8705, Blue98, Bluemask, Bmgoau, Bo5437, Bob rulz, Bob the Wikipedian, Bob0202, Bob98133, BobBobtheBob, Bobblehead, Bobbo, Bobianite, Bobisbob, Bobisbob2, Bobjob455, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Boffob, Boiled elephant, Boludo29, Bomac, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, BoredTerry, Boris Barowski, BorisFromStockdale, BoundaryRider, Bped1985, Bradgib, BrainMagMo, Branddobbe, Brandmeister (old), Brian Pearson, Brianga, Brianjd, Briansaccount, Brideshead, Brighterorange, Britcom, Brusegadi, Bryan Derksen, BryanG, Bsadowski1, Buchanan-Hermit, Bucketsofg, Bucksburg, BugEyedMonster, Bullshit intolerant, BumpyNuggets31, Burningview, Butterscotch, C.Fred, CHJL, CIS, CJLL Wright, CPMcE, CRRaysHead90, CSkater28, Cacao43, Cadiomals, Cadwaladr, Caiaffa, Cailil, Calamarain, Calliopejen1, Caltas, Calvin 1998, CammoBlammo, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canada-kawaii, CanadianLinuxUser, Canaima, CanisRufus, Capt. James T. Kirk, Captain Disdain, Captain Planet, Carl Henderson, Carllikespie, Carlossuarez46, CaroleHenson, Carolmooredc, Carolynloupermorris, Casliber, Catgut, Cavrdg, Cc452, Ccgman8, Cdc, Cdog1, Cedars, Cedders, Cedrus-Libani, CeeGee, CelloerTB, Cenarium, Centrum99, Centrx, Ceoil, Cephal-odd, Cflm001, Chaiswside, Chamaeleon, Chaojoker, Chapmanjt, Chardish, Charlie Wiederhold, Cheerychik27, Chessphoon, Chevr92, ChicXulub, Chickentenders 336, Chinneeb, Chocoforfriends, ChozoBoy, Chris19910, ChrisCork, ChrisSerrano, Chrislk02, Chrisrus, Chrissezhi, ChristianH, Christopher Parham, Chuck Kincy, Chun-hian, Chuthya, CiaPan, CieloEstrellado, Cisum.ili.dilm, Civil Engineer III, Cjwright79, Ckatz, Classicbassplaya13, Clawed, ClementSeveillac, Cliff smith, ClockToolBar, ClockworkTroll, Closedmouth, CloudNine, Clover 123, ClubOranje, Cnier, Cnorton10, Cobaltbluetony, Codfragger, Coelacan, Cogware, Colutowe, Commanderdragonmanlaaa, Comp25, Conay, Condem, ConfuciusOrnis, Connormybum, Conny, Conradbe, Conroyous, Conti, Conversion script, Cool3, CoolFox, Coolio321, Couloir007, Covington, Cp111, Cprompt, Cradle, Crimea, Crisis, CristianChirita, Crobichaud, Croscoe, Csdavis1, Cshashaty, Cubs Fan, CurtisOrr, CyRaptor, Cyan, CyberShadow, Cybercobra, Cyberevil, Cybergothiche, Cyde, Cygnis insignis, Cymru.lass, D prime, D'Iberville, D-Rock, DBaba, DESiegel, DHN, DJ Bungi, DJ Clayworth, DMSchneider, DMacks, DTMGO, Da nuke, Daa89563, Daanschr, Dabbler, Dac04, Dalahst, DamianFinol, Danceluver785, DancingPenguin, Danger, Danialkhan, Daniel andersson, DanielCD, Danielle001, Danielprovin, Danimoth, Danny, Dantheman531, Dark hyena, DarkLink, Darkfred, Darolew, Darrennie, Dasmarinas71, Daudei, Dave souza, Dave12556, Davemcarlson, Daven200520, David D., David Levy, David.Mestel, David0811, DavidCary, Dawn Eastwood, Daycd, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, Dbrodbeck, DearPrudence, Dearly, Debresser, Dedalus, Deeptrivia, Deglr6328, Dejvid, Delbert Grady, Demmy, Denis tarasov, Denispir, Denny, Deolankar, Deor, DerRichter, Derionyoung, Derobert, Desplesda, Deuxhero, Deville, Dewet, Df747jet, Dgies, Dgw, Dharmabum420, Diderot, Digitalseal, Digitalsurgeon, Dinoguy2, Diogenes the Cynic, Dionyseus, Diptanshu.D, DirkvdM, Discospinster, Disneyadventurernicholas, Diyako, Djadvance, Djdan4961, Djumpin'Djesus, Dmarquard, Dmartin969, Dmerrill, Do for self, DocWatson42, DoctorPika, Dogshomework, Doktordoris, Dolfin, DonSiano, Donald Albury, Donama, Doniago, Doomguy848, Doug Bell, Dougofborg, Doulos Christos, Download, Dr.alf, DrOxacropheles, Dracontes, Dragon of the Rust, Dragonbuster626, DragonflySixtyseven, Drakoin, Dratman, Drbogdan, Dreadstar, Dren, Drew R. Smith, Drmies, Dtgm, Dtobias, DublinDilettante, Dudeinhammock, Dudeisfat312, Duncharris, Dustinasby, Dwasifar, Dwayne, Dwheeler, DynamoDegsy, E Pluribus Anthony, E Pluribus Anthony redux, E rulez, EPM, ESkog, EVula, EamonnPKeane, Earlypsychosis, Eatatmilliways, Ec5618, Ed Poor, Ed g2s, EdH, EdJohnston, Eddieebo, Eden Thinker, Edmundwoods, Edwtie, Eeeasterbunny, Eenu, Efiiamagus, Ehrenkater, Ejosse1, El C, Eleassar, Eleassar777, Elebest, Elfguy, Elfred, Elias Enoc, ElinorD, Elipongo, Eliyak, Elkman, Ellmist, Elspooky, Ember of Light, Emmett5, Emre D., Emustonen, Endlandexpects, Ends Of Invention, Eng101, Enigmocracy, Enochlau, Enviroboy, Epastore, Epbr123, Epf, Ephert, Epischedda, Eranb, Erich, Erielhonan, Erik9, Erutuon, Esemono, Eskimoo, Esperant, Eszett, Eu.stefan, Eug, EvenGreenerFish, EventHorizon, Evercat, Everyking, Evice, Evolver, Ewlyahoocom, Ex nihil, Ex-Nintendo Employee, Excirial, Exert, Exodio, EyebrowOnVacation, Ezhiki, Ezperkins, Fabartus, Facelolburgers, Fahrenme, Fan-1967, Fang 23, Fangfufu, Fannypackgap91, Faradayplank, Fastfission, Fatapatate, Fcady2007, Fdp, Feinoha, Felixfelis, Felizdenovo, FeloniousMonk, Felyza, Fenevad, Fieldday-sunday, Fieryfaith, Filelakeshoe, Finalnight, Finchibabe, Fingerz, FionaE, Firsfron, Fishal, Fladrif, Flarn2006, Flex, FlyingToaster, Flyingidiot, Fmxman, Foant, Foobaz, Foogol, Foosher, For great justice., Fouadrabah, Francs2000, Frazzydee, Freakmighty, Fred Bauder, Fredrik, Fredwerner, Frencheigh, FreplySpang, Frosted14, Frosty0814snowman, Funhistory, FunkMonk, Funnymonkees03, Fusion7, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Futurebird, Fuzheado, Fuzzform, G. Campbell, GB fan, GESICC, GIGI333, GSlicer, Gabbe, Gabs12345, Gail, Gamerguy1, Games97, Gamesarefun, Gareth Wyn, Garion96, Garli, Garrythefish, Gary King, Gatewaycat, Gatfish, Gazimoff, Gdr, Gegabone, Gemini6Ice, Gene Nygaard, Geneb1955, General ginger, Generalgordon, Generalgordon 1, Gentlemenclub, Geo.plrd, GeoGreg, Geologyguy, George224, Georgia guy, Gerbrant, Gerkinstock, Gerrish, Gethegrace, Ggggggghhh, Ghostface26, Giftlite, Gilabrand, Gilderien, Gilliam, Giornorosso, Glabrata, Glane23, Glenn, Gliktch, Gloomofdom, Gmaxwell, Gnixon, Gob Lofa, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, GoldRingChip, Gollymollyzot, GoodDamon, Gpitodws, Grace Note, Gradster1, Grafen, Graham87, Grahamwilliams09, Graminophile, Grant65, Grardb, GreenEco, Gregcaletta, GregorB, Grenavitar, Grendelkhan, Grim23, Grimmcar, Grinner, Grondilu, Grumbel, Gtg204y, Guppy, Guppy22, Gurch, Guy Macon, Gweagle, Gwen Gale, Gwernol, Gwozdzgarret, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, HaeB, Hairy Dude, Halaqah, Hamamelis, Hannes Hirzel, Hans Dunkelberg, HappyTesting, Hardyplants, Harley peters, HarryCane, Haselnuss, Hattar393, Haukurth, Hawstom, Hawthorn, Haylinmanlord, Haymaker, Hdante, Headbomb, Healthwise, Heegoop, Heimstern, Heitor CJ, HellomotoXD, Helpdug, Helpfulweasal, Helpsloose, Hephaestos, Hermitage, Heron, Herostratus, Hibernian, Hidanielyourock, Hitchhiker89, Hmains, Hmrox, Hockeyrockcars, Holy Ganga, Holywhatsamacallit, Homerlikepi2, Homestarmy, Homo Ergaster, Homo sapiens, HonestTom, Hongshi, HorsePunchKid, Hotlorp, Howcheng, Humphreys7, Humus sapiens, Hunstiger, Husker007, Husond, Hvn0413, Hydrogen Iodide, I Love Pi, IZAK, Ian.thomson, Iantnm, Iblardi, Icairns, Iced Kola, Icedevil14, Ididthisforfun, Ig0774, Ihcoyc, Ihope127, Ike9898, Ilikerps, Ilove2eatfish, Iluvmesodou, Imjustheretomakebonusstage, Impostor404, Indeed123, Infinare, Infiniti28, Inquam, Intangir, InverseHypercube, Invertzoo, Ioeth, Iridescent, IrishHermit, Ixfd64, Izbitzer, J.delanoy, JASpencer, JDoorjam, JFG, JForget, JHCC, JIP, JMK, JNW, JOSEPHANTONYJ, JRMancha, JSpoons, JTBX, JTN, JWSchmidt, JaGa, Jac16888, Jachin, Jack1956, Jackertheman, Jackfork, Jackhynes, Jacoxnet, Jaganath, Jaketb193, James Carter, James086, Jamesontai, JamieS93, Janus Shadowsong, Janviermichelle, Jarceus, Jared W, Jason Potter, Jasontruth, Jasper883, Javert, Jay, Jay Koh, Jayjg, Jazzmanmda, Jclemens, Jdc360, Jeandr du Toit, Jedi Davideus, Jeff G., Jeff Muscato, Jeff3000, Jefffire, Jeffrey Mall, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Jehrohm, Jellyfish dave, JerryThomas, JesseG88, Jesster79, Jguk, Jiang, Jiddisch, Jihiro, Jim62sch, Jimmy xu wrk, Jimnieken, Jimothytrotter, Jimp, Jisp, Jiy, Jizzle.berries.onerr, Jleon, Jmh649, Jmhodges, Jmmm, Jni, Jobberone, Jocke666, Joe Kress, Joe routt, JoeW4, Joeblowtheplumber, Johann Wolfgang, John, John D. Croft, John Reiher, JohnChrysostom, JohnOwens, Johnbod, Johnstone, Johnumana, Johnuniq, Jon Ascton, Jonathan Tweet, JonathanCrowther, Jonkerz, Jonnabuz, Joorge1988, Jordan117, Jorge Morejn, Jose77, JosephBarillari, Josephataya, Josh Jorgensen, Josh Parris, Josh3580, Joshskates34, JoshuaZ, Jossi, Jpk, Jrockley, Jrtayloriv, Jtkiefer, Ju66l3r, Juansempere, Julesd, Juliancolton, Jungty, JuniorMuruin, Jupiterthedog, Jusdafax, Jusjih, Jvilla123, Jvol, Jwc4jwc4, Jwking, Jwoodger, JzG, K.Mattanthas, K.Nevelsteen, KFan II, KHM03, KLabe, KVDP, Ka Faraq Gatri, Kaemera, Kafziel, Kajaragi, Kakorot84, Kaldosh, Kanonkas, Kaobear, Kaoru Itou, KarenAER, Karvedpandos, Kaszeta, Kateweb, Kathryn NicDhna, Katieh5584, Kavanagh, Kbdank71, Kecik, Keenan Pepper, Kelly Martin, Kemet, Kenbei, Kenny sh, KerathFreeman, Keshidragon, Kesuari, Kevin Murray, KgKris, Kgeza7, Khalid Mahmood, Khargas, Khoikhoi, KillerChihuahua, Kim Bruning, Kimdino, KimvdLinde, King of the Dancehall, Kingofzacks, Kingpin13, Kinhull, Kintaro, Kitsilani 1, Klassica, Kleopatra, Knowledge Seeker, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kolindigo, Koncur, Konstable, Korath, Kostya, Kovac9478, Kozuch, Kpalion, Kristen Eriksen, Krithin, Krsont, Krun, Ksd5, Kslays, Kukini, Kungfuadam, Kuru, Kusma, Kwaku, Kyle key, Kylem1234333, L33th4x0rguy, LFaraone, La Pianista, La goutte de pluie, Laaaaabob, Lacrimosus, Ladyday, Lando Calrissian, Landon1980, Lankiveil, Laogeodritt, Laplace's Demon, Larsobrien, Lauranrg, Laurascudder, Le Anh-Huy, Learning1, LeaveSleaves, Lechonero, LedgendGamer, Lee Daniel Crocker, LeeNapier, Leevanjackson, Legend II, Legend78, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Lenerd, Lengau, Lengis, Lenticel, Leroyinc, Leuko, Levalley, Levineps, Lexor, Liberal Classic, Lifelesscat, Lifesharker, Liftarn, Lightdarkness, LightningPower, Lights, Ligulem, Lincspoacher, Lindkvis, Lir, Little Mountain 5, Littlecutie94, LjL, Llort, Lloydpick, Lockesdonkey, Lollerskates, Lollollolllo, Lon oclarino, LonelyBeacon, LonelyMarble, Looxix, LorD, Lord Crayak, Lord Patrick, LordRM, Loren.wilton, Lorenzo Braschi, Lotje, Lottamiata, Loudlikeamouse, Louis Waweru, Lova Falk, Lowell33, LtNOWIS, LtPowers, Lucas606, Lucky13pjn, Lucyin, Lukas19, LukeSurl, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Luna Santin, Lupo, Luvh8r, LuxHollandaise, Lvf1dipu, Lycurgus, Lynn Wilbur, M2K 2, MCTales, MECU, MER-C, MPF, MZMcBride, MacGyverMagic, Madcat87, Madchester, Maddypenguin, Maelnuneb, Magister Mathematicae, Magog the Ogre, Magog the Ogre 2, Maharashtraexpress, Maian, Maikol28, Majorly, Makker, Maky, Malconfort, Maldek, Maldek2, Malerin, Malo, Man, is Videogamer owning the admins or what?, Manican, Manujchandra, Maqsarian, Mar4d, Marc Venot, Marc9510000, MarcoTolo, Marcus Qwertyus, Marek69, Mario todte, Mariopedia, Mark Dingemanse, Mark Forest, Mark83, MarkZielke, Maros, Marqueed, Marsbound2024, Marskell, Marsupilamov, Martin Hogbin, Martinp23, Marykeiran, Master Jay, Mateuszica, Matt. P, MattW93, Mattabesta, Maunus, Maurice Carbonaro, Mav, Max rspct, Maximaximax, Maximus Rex, Maxis ftw, Mayooranathan, McSly, Mclay1, Mcstxc7, Meaghan, Meelar, Meheren, Mel Etitis, Melinfish, Melongrower, Melvalevis, Memory hunter, Meno25, Mentisock, Merlion444, Meske, Metasailor, Mgiganteus1, Michael Hardy, Michael Shields, Michael Slone, Michaelrayw2, Midnight Gardener, Midnite Critic, Mido, MightySaiyan, Mightymights, Miguel, Mikael Hggstrm, Mike Rosoft, Mike Schiraldi, Mikeandamina, Mikegrant, Mikemurfy, Mikker, Mild Bill Hiccup, MilesVorkosigan, Millosh, Mimihitam, Mindmatrix, Mindspillage, Minesweeper, Minznerjosh, Miquonranger03, Miraceti, Miranche, Mistermob, Misza13, MithrandirAgain, Mkemper331, Mnemeson, Mo0, MoRsE, Modemac, MohanPodile, Momobe, Monnitewars, Montgomery '39, Montrealais, Mothership93, Motorrad-67, Moverton, Moxy, Moyogo, Mphifer254, Mr Adequate, Mr bowen2000, Mr. Invisible Person, Mr. Lefty, Mr. Wheely Guy, Mr.Z-man, MrKimm, MrSomeone, MrTroy, MrWhipple, Mramz88, Mrdempsey, Mrund, Mshecket, Msikma, Mspraveen, MuZemike, Munita Prasad, Muntuwandi, Musicpvm, Muski27, Mxn, My house iz gud, Myanw, Mynameisbobby2, Mynameissam5, Myself0101, Mzyxptlk, Mthrandir, N-k, N0odle, N3n0@tt@ck3r, NOSaints925, Nabuchadnessar, Nadyes, Nagualdesign, Nagytibi, Nakon, Nappyrootslistener, Narwhals572, Nat Krause, Nate Silva, Natrius, Natural Cut, NatusRoma, NawlinWiki, Nayfam, Nayvik, Nectarflowed, Ned Scott, Negative3, NeilN, NellieBly, Neo-Jay, NerdNerdEverybodyknowsYouraNerd, NerdyNSK, Nestly89, NetRolller 3D, Netoholic, Neumannkun, Neutrality, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Newagelink, Nfutvol, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Nicholas Mohl, Nick, Nick carson, Nick123, Nick125, NickMartin, Nicolharper, NigelR, Night Gyr, Nightscream, Nihiltres, Nikai, Nima1024, Nimur, Ninjagecko, Nintendofan5000, Nintenfreak, Nirmal Dulal, Nishkid64, Nitya Dharma, Nk, Nlu, Nneonneo, Nohat, Nono64,

Article Sources and Contributors

Noraalicia, Noradz, Novjunulo, Nsae Comp, Nukes4Tots, OOODDD, Oaf job, Obhave, Obli, Ocee, Octopus-Hands, Ohnoitsjamie, Okiefromokla, OlEnglish, Olbrzym, Oleg Alexandrov, Olegwiki, Oliver202, Olivier, Olivierchaussavoine, Ollie the Magic Skater, Ologgio, Omar77, Omicronpersei8, Onco p53, Onetwo1, Onlytalent, Oolong, Orlando098, Orz, Osborne, Oskar Sigvardsson, Osubuckeyeguy, Ott, Ottokarten, Owen, P Ingerson, PAnderson88, PGPirate, PGWG, PHDrillSergeant, PSPatel, Pakhtano, Palfrey, Palthian, PamD, Paradisevalleycampground, Paradiso, Paradox2, Pascal.Tesson, Pass a Method, Paste, Patesta, Patrick, Paul August, Paul Ittoop, Paul Murray, Paul foord, Paul-L, Paulbuchholz22, Paulcmnt, Paulinho28, PauloColacino, Paxsimius, Peak, Peanutzzz, Pengo, Peni's2468561, Penn853, PerpetualSX, Persian Poet Gal, Petedavo, Peter Kaminski, PeterC, Pethan, Petranella, Petranoo, Petrb, Petreet989, Petter Bckman, Pfhorrest, Pgan002, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pharos, Phenylalanine, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, Philip of Montferrat, PhillipLundberg, Philwelch, Phoenix B 1of3, Phorwood, PhysOz, Pie623, Pierlot, PierreAbbat, Pietrow, Pifftard, Pinethicket, Pinkchicken221, Pinkstarmaci, Piotrus, Pixeltoo, Plindenbaum, Plrk, PoccilScript, Poeloq, Polenth, Polisci, Poopfacekillah, Portillo, Possum, Postdlf, Potatoswatter, Prainva, Pranathi, Pras, PrestonH, Prettycooleh, Pristino, Pro66, Proger, Pronoun, Proofreader77, Pseudomonas, Psychohistorian, Ptk, Pufferfish89, PureRED, Purplefood1, Pwtpwtgrrl, Pyro945, Pyrodogg, Qooth, Qoqnous, Qrc2006, Quadell, Quaeler, Quantpole, Quantumobserver, QuartierLatin1968, Que?, Queson, Quiddity, Quintote, Quirk, Quizkajer, Qxz, R9tgokunks, RDF, RG2, RPlunk2853, Rabo3, Racter, RadioActive, Radomil, Raeky, Ragesoss, Raj2004, Ramanpotential, Ramdrake, Ran, Ran4, Random Nonsense, RandomP, Ranveig, Rashed, RattusMaximus, Raul654, Rawr, Rayizmi, Razorflame, Rdr0, Rdsmith4, Readams, Realm of Shadows, Rebecca Pickles, Rebroad, RedSpruce, RedWolf, Reddi, Rednblu, Redquark, Redrocket, RenegadeSniper7, Repku, Res2216firestar, Retsudo, Rettetast, Reuvenk, RevRagnarok, Revolucin, RexNL, Reywas92, Rgflame, Rhetth, Riana, Riccardo Riccioni, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, RichardColgate, RichardF, Richhoncho, Rick4561, RickK, Rickyrab, RightCowLeftCoast, Rihanna Knowles, Rillian, Rintrah, Rivaber, Riverini, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, Rkr1991, Rlendog, Robert Brockway, Robert Merkel, RobertG, Robin Patterson, Robo Toaster, Robo37, Robobudgiefuzz, Robth, Rodeosmurf, Rodsan18, Roflmao3434, Rogper, Rolfvandekrol, Romanm, Romper, Ronhjones, Roscoe x, RossPatterson, Roy da Vinci, RoyBoy, Royote, Rror, Rst20xx, Rthyuinre, Rtw12345678911, Rubico, Rudjek, RugTimXII, Rukaribe, Rursus, Rustalot42684, Rusuggestingcocconutsmigrate?, Ruy Lopez, RxS, Rynosaur, Ryulong, Rz350, SCEhardt, SEWilco, SJP, SPAM1988, ST47, Sabine's Sunbird, Sagredo, Saimdusan, Salamurai, Saltywood, Sam Hocevar, Sam Spade, SamB135, Sammetsfan, Sammtamm, Samsara, Samuel Salzman, Sandstein, Sandwichs, Sango123, SapienDeinosRexus, Sapoguapo, Sapphirine, Saric, Sarpasarpeti101, Sasata, Satanicpanik, Satori Son, Savidan, Savonja, Scetoaux, SchfiftyThree, Schopenhauer, Seaphoto, Search4Lancer, Seb az86556, Seb-Gibbs, SecretCal, Seemtomatter, Semidriver214, Sengkang, ServAce85, Seth Ilys, Shaadow, Shanes, Shawnc, Shayward, ShelfSkewed, Shii, Shimgray, Shizhao, Shiznit, Shoemaker's Holiday, Sholt.60, Sibahi, Silence, Silentshadow900, Simmias, Simon J Kissane, Simonsaysabc123, Simpex Gjenganger, SiouxLookout, Sir Vicious, SirJective, SirVulture, Sirnoveltyfashion, Sixhoursago, Skald the Rhymer, Skarioffszky, Skater, Skepticignorant, Skizzik, Sky Attacker, Sky6t, Skyezx, SlimVirgin, Sloopysloppy, Slrubenstein, Sluzzelin, Smalljim, Smoove Z, Smurfpound, Smurrayinchester, Snek01, Snowleopardsrule, Snowmanradio, Snozzer, SoLando, SoWhy, Soap, Soccersoccer69, SocratesJedi, Solitude, Some standardized rigour, Someone12345, Sonjaaa, Sopastar, Sophie-Lou, Soporaeternus, Sotomanas, SpaceFlight89, Spannytiti, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, Sparrows point, SparrowsWing, Spaully, Spiffyspiffy, Spoogyone, Spookfish, SpookyMulder, Spoonstabber23, Spotfixer, Spoxjox, SpuriousQ, Sputnikcccp, SqueakBox, StPernar, Staffwaterboy, Staka, StarcraftBuff, Starman 1976, Starx, StaticGull, Statkit1, Ste4k, Steel, SteinbDJ, Steinbach, Stemonitis, Stephan Leeds, Stephenb, Stephian, Steve Dufour, Steve Masterson, SteveHopson, Steven Walling, Stevenday, Stevenmitchell, Stevenwagner, Stevertigo, StevieNic, Stewacide, StormShredder, Stormie, Stormwriter, Stratinorarexitus, Sturm55, SummaBritt, Sundar, Superbeatles, Supercoop, Superpow, Superskill007, Surfin simo, Svdan4, Swac, Swanny, Swifter965, Switchercat, Sycthos, Syed Azaharul Asriq, Syphon8, T saston, TAKASUGI Shinji, TBadger, TCorp, THELASTHIERARCH, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TJF588, TJive, TNTfan101, Ta bu shi da yu, TableManners, Tabor, Tacobell12, Tad Lincoln, TaintedMustard, TakuyaMurata, Talon0420, Tanaats, Tangotango, Tannin, Tapir Terrific, Tarad09, Taranet, Tarquin, Tasc, Taw, Tbhotch, Tcncv, Teacherbrock, Teamjenn, TechPurism, Techman224, Technogeek777, TedE, Tedder, Tedius Zanarukando, Teemu Ruskeep, Teemu08, Teh videogamer!, Template namespace initialisation script, Templatehater, Ten Surp, TennysonXII, Tenth Plague, Terebigemuwan, TestPilot, TexasAndroid, Tezero, Tgv8925, Thaagenson, The Anome, The Hemp Necktie, The Man in Question, The Mysterious El Willstro, The Red, The Storm Surfer, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Universe Is Cool, The Way, The Wednesday Island, The Winged Yoshi, The Wordsmith, The iron curtain, The prophet wizard of the crayon cake, The videogamer!, The wub, TheMelm, TheSuave, TheTruthiness, TheVariableMan, TheWilliamson, Theblackcatjumpsoverthereddog12, Thebooklord, Thecurran, Thedanturner, Thenewestdoctorwho, Theroadislong, Theshibboleth, Thewanger, Thewayforward, Thingg, ThinkBlue, Thinking-ape, Thisdrama1, Thue, Thug3, Thunderbird2, Thunderflame, Thunderthighs92, Thylacinus cynocephalus, Tide rolls, Tigerhawkvok, Tiggerjay, Tillwe, Tim Starling, TimVickers, TimWhiskas, Timeu, TimiNick, Timir2, Timneu22, Timotheus Canens, Timothy12345678324, Timvasquez, Timwi, Tired time, TitanOne, Tito-, Titoxd, Tlogmer, Tobby72, Tokikake, Tom harrison, TomSwiss, Tomgreeny, Tomtheeditor, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, Tpbradbury, Trasman, Travelbird, Tree Biting Conspiracy, TreeSmiler, Treisijs, Tresiden, TrevorLSciAct, Tristanb, Troodon58, Troy 07, TruHawkeye11, True Pagan Warrior, Trulystand700, Trdel, Tseno Maximov, Ttiotsw, Turian, Turnstep, Tuxlie, Twang, TyrS, Tznkai, UPS Truck Driver, Ubcule, Ubernerd68, Ucucha, Ukabia, Ukexpat, UmbertoM, Ungtss, Unit, UnitedStatesian, Unknownlight, Unterdenlinden, Untrue Believer, Uparepwe, Useight, User27091, Usergreatpower, UtherSRG, Utility Monster, VI, Vaikunda Raja, Valentinian, Vanished User 0001, Vanished User 1004, Vanished User 4517, Vanished1234, Vanka5, Vanwhistler, Vary, Vasekx, Veesicle, Velho, Versus22, Verwoerd, VeryVerily, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vipinhari, Viriditas, Virtualsim, Vis-a-visconti, Vlad788, Vladlen666, VolatileChemical, Voldemort, Voortle, Voyevoda, Vrinan, Vsion, Vsmith, Vssun, Vuo, W3k4t101, WAS 4.250, WJBscribe, WLU, WadeSimMiser, Wallaby, Wampoo, Wangleetodd, Wapondaponda, Warlorddagaz, Warpflyght, WarriorsPride6565, Wassamatta, Watcharakorn, Watplay, Wavelength, WaynaQhapaq, Wayne Hardman, Wayward, Weareallone, Wereon, Wesley, Westvoja, Whatismyname22, WhiteTimberwolf, Who then was a gentleman?, Wi-king, WiiUser23, WikHead, Wiki alf, Wiki fanatic, Wiki332, WikiDan61, WikiDao, WikiLeon, Wikiborg4711, Wikieditor06, Wikimichael22, Wikipelli, Wikkidd, WillNess, William Avery, Willking1979, Wilmesis, Wimt, Wingman358, Winnie-MD, Witchlady, Wiwaxia, Wjfox2005, Wknight94, Wobble, Wolfgang1018, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Wouterstomp, Wrodger1, Wrp103, Wtmitchell, Wyatt915, X!, XQ fan, XU-engineer, Xav71176, Xdenizen, Xed, Xinjao, Xook1kai Choa6aur, Xor4200, YDK500, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamara, Yano, Yashgaroth, Yasis, Yath, Yaynoahson1107, YellowMonkey, Yohiggins1277, Yonskii, Yosef1987, Youssefsan, Yoyoyoshia, Yst, Ytwgood, Yum.cinnamon.buns, Zachorious, Zafiroblue05, Zakhalesh, Zalgo, Zappaz, Zbredemear, Zealander, Zelphics, Zemmiphobic11, Zhieaanm, Zhou Yu, Zigger, Zilkane, Zinoviev, Zoe, Zoicon5, Zombielegoman, ZooFari, Zsinj, Zundark, Zzyzx11, ^demon, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, , , 2632 anonymous edits Recent African origin of modern humans Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480246755 Contributors: 168..., 2over0, ACSE, APayan, Acjelen, Afiya27, Al-Zaidi, Alexlange, Aloysius Sebastian, Altenmann, Amalthea, Andrea Jagher, Andreparis, Andrew Lancaster, Andycjp, Anlace, Ano-User, AnonMoos, Anonywiki, Archaeogenetics, Arthurian Legend, Athaler, Aunt Entropy, Autodidactyl, Avsa, BRSM, Badagnani, Balthazarduju, Becritical, Bender235, Bhumiya, Boghog, Boud, Boynamedsue, Brout8, Bumba claat, Cadiomals, Cohesion, Cokoli, ConfuciusOrnis, Cosmos416, Cryptico, Cuchullain, Cybercobra, Danski14, Dave souza, David Eppstein, Davidwr, Dbachmann, Dcirovic, De.Gerbil, Debresser, Decltype, Denispir, Deselliers, DimaY2K, Dmr2, Doc Tropics, Donarreiskoffer, Doric Loon, Dougweller, Dreadstar, DropShadow, Dudley Miles, Duncan.france, Durova, Eleassar, Emiao, Eoganan, Epastore, Epf, Epsilon60198, Ericoides, Expensivehat, Extremophile, Eyu100, Fama Clamosa, Fences and windows, Floris V, Fred Hsu, Funhistory, Futurebird, Gdr, General Epitaph, Gerkinstock, Gerry Wachovsky, Gianreali, Glennconti, Groogle, HDThomas, Hans Adler, Headbomb, Hhmb, Hibernian, Hires an editor, Hmains, Huangdi, Humboldt, Hunnjazal, Hurmata, Igodard, In the government, Infiniti28, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, Irish Pearl, JWB, JaGa, JamesBWatson, JayEsJay, Jebus989, JimVC3, John, John D. Croft, John Vandenberg, Johntobey, Johnuniq, Jonathan Tweet, JorisvS, Jrajesh, Jsc83, Juansempere, Jyril, KTC, Keith-264, Keraunos, Keycard, Khazar, Khumbula, Kntrabssi, Koavf, Kpjas, Lexor, Litawor, Livingrm, Lockesdonkey, MangoWong, Manka, Maproom, Martarius, Master z0b, Mattjs, Maulucioni, Maunus, Mav, Mcorazao, Mdma2, Meshin0, Metasailor, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mikaey, Mind flux, Mordicai, Moreschi, MoritzB, Moxy, Mpondopondo, Mrwojo, Muntuwandi, Nagelfar, Nbarth, Neo-Jay, Nitpyck, Nrkpan, Ntsimp, NuclearWarfare, Octopus-Hands, Od Mishehu, OhanaUnited, Olegwiki, OlofE, Ossipewsk, Pan-ethnic, Paracel63, Parkwells, Patchouli Princess, Paul Barlow, Pdeitiker, PelleSmith, Penarc, Permacultura, Pharillon, Preslethe, Raeky, Ramdrake, Ranveig, Reaverdrop, Regnir, Reinyday, ResidentAnthropologist, RhiannonAmelie, Rhysn, Rich Farmbrough, RichBlinne, Rjwilmsi, Robert Brockway, Rotational, Ryoung122, SDas, Saccade, Saerain, Saforrest, Sam Spade, Senor Freebie, Shambalala, Shawnc, Shoebill2, Silly rabbit, Simplifier, Sir48, Skepticsteve, Skylark42, Slrubenstein, Smilo Don, Smith609, Sonett72, Spettro9, Storkk, T L Miles, Tannin, Tbhotch, Tdimhcs, Teledildonix314, The Moose, ThePedanticPrick, Theroadislong, Titanium Dragon, TitaniumCarbide, Titus III, Tobus2, Tom Schmal, Torst, Tripleinfidel, Truthwillprevail12, Tuxedo junction, Tweisbach, UtherSRG, Varanwal, Velella, VeryVerily, VikSol, Vina, WLRoss, Wapondaponda, Warren Dew, Wereon, Wobble, Woohookitty, Xook1kai Choa6aur, Yom, Ytcracker, Zanaq, Zundark, kebrke, 318 anonymous edits Homo erectus soloensis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479144331 Contributors: Aremisasling, Boccobrock, CJLL Wright, CaroleHenson, Casito, Dogwood123, Dysmorodrepanis, Florian Blaschke, Foodman, Gunkarta, Hartebeest, Hesperian, Jaraalbe, Lizard King, Manoridius, Mecanismo, Mutt, NawlinWiki, Nikai, Petedavo, Querl, SatuSuro, Supernova0, UtherSRG, Walabio, XQ fan, YBeayf, Zoals, 25 anonymous edits Homo floresiensis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480889399 Contributors: *drew, 0XQ, 0pera, 1001CaspianNights, 12Carlm, 134679adg, 1Okuda1, 2004-12-29T22:45Z, 4u1e, ACSE, Acegikmo1, Adam Bishop, Aetheling, Againme, AguireTS, Ajaxkroon, Akjar13, Alec - U.K., Alexei Kouprianov, Allenmyers, Als.dewey, Amcbride, Amt1018, Ancjr, Andrevan, Andrewjlockley, Andries, Anonymous101, Antandrus, Apokryltaros, Aranae, Arcayne, Aremisasling, Aridd, Arsonal, Art LaPella, Arx Fortis, Asatruer, Athf1234, Auraweb, Auric, Autodidactyl, Avandergeer, Avaragado, Aventineavenue, Awayforawhile, Axl, Azcolvin429, Babbage, Bcatt, Bender235, Billare, Blaa101, Blair P. Houghton, Blubberboy27, Bobblewik, BorgQueen, Brad101, Brian0918, Brighterorange, BrokenSegue, Brooklyntj, Brunswicknic, CLW, Cam, Captmondo, CardinalDan, Carfreek, CaroleHenson, Cassowary Rider, CatFiggy, Ce garcon, Cedders, Charles Matthews, Chessy999, Chmod007, Chris Buckey, Chrisdiamanti, ChuchOC, CloudNine, ClovisPt, Cobaltcigs, Cockers08, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Couloir007, Crunchy Numbers, Cuchullain, Cygnis insignis, Cyrius, DA BOMBB, DCEdwards1966, DMG413, Dabomb87, Danthe4th, Darolew, David Levy, Dbachmann, Dhartung, Diana LeCrois, DietrichMayer, Dinoguy2, Dionyseus, DirkvdM, Discospinster, DocBrown76, Dom Kaos, Domovoy sp, Dougg, Dr.K., DrKeirnan, DrKiernan, Dratman, Drur93, Dudley Miles, Dysmorodrepanis, E23, ESkog, Ed Poor, Edhubbard, Edward, Eequor, Efreb Fedab, Elspooky, Eluchil404, Eran of Arcadia, Eric B. and Rakim, Ericoides, Escape Orbit, Eteruel, Evercat, F00188846, FOTEMEH, Fabiform, Fang 23, Fawcett5, FeanorStar7, Felixpetrar, Ferdinand Pienaar, Fisel, Florentino floro, Florian Blaschke, Friday, FunkMonk, Fvw, GIR, GRAHAMUK, Gabbe, Gabspeck, Gaia1CB3, Gaius Cornelius, Galmicmi, GameKeeper, Gene Nygaard, GiantSnowman, Giftlite, Glenn, Glennd83, Grant65, GreatWhiteNortherner, Greekmythfan, GregorB, Gumbo T, Gunkarta, Gzornenplatz, H2g2bob, HB Bagster, HREaton, Hadal, Hahamama, Hairy Dude, Hartebeest, Hayabusa future, Heartoflightness, Hemanshu, Hesperian, Hezy, Hhmb, Hibernian, Hippalus, Hlamerz, Hurmata, Hurricane Devon, Ibn Battuta, Igiffin, Ihoppp, Indon, Infovoria, Interested in science, Ioannes Pragensis, Irate, Iridescent, IstvanWolf, J Milburn, J'raxis, J.delanoy, JWB, JWSchmidt, Jag123, Jamesmorrison, Jamesontai, Jan.Kamenicek, JarlaxleArtemis, Jason One, Jaxl, Jay, Jeffq, Jengod, JerryFriedman, Jivecat, Joelr31, Johncatsoulis, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoshuaZ, Jossi, Jtwhitford, Judson, Julesd, Jumbuck, Jyril, Jrgen Holm, KGyST, Kahuroa, Kaldari, Kalogeropoulos, Kazvorpal, Keilana, Keith Edkins, Kelapstick, Kemet, Kennethjackson, Keolah, KevinOKeeffe, Kevmin, Kgrad, Kgun5, King of the Dancehall, Kormie, Kozuch, Krm500, Kwamikagami, Kyrin, Landoftheliving, Langley808, Larsie, Lastcrab, LazyEditor, LeoO3, Libstudent, Ligulem, Livajo, Lvlarx, MPF, MRTtrm, Macropode, Maias, Majestic Lizard, Malkinann, Mandarax, Maristoddard, Mark t young, MarkSweep, Marskell, Mattisse, Mattjs, Maxima m, MayerG, Mayumashu, Mech Aaron, Merbabu, Merlion444, Mgiganteus1, MichaK, Mikaey, Mikesbrain, Mikko Paananen, Mild Bill Hiccup, MisfitToys, Montrealais, Monty845, Moonwatcher13, Mrsanthropy, Muriel Gottrop, N2e, NSK, NTox, Nandt1, Nativeborncal, Ngio, Nk, Noe, Nono64, Notmicro, Nowimnthing, Npc, NuclearWarfare, Nurg, Nv8200p, N, OAC, Oblivious, Obsidian

340

Article Sources and Contributors

Soul, Oghmoir, OldakQuill, Oly, Onsly, Oska, P'tit Pierre, PDH, Panzi, Pasquale, Patsw, Paul Barlow, Paulcmnt, Pauli133, Pavel Vozenilek, Pengo, Petedavo, Petter Bckman, Pflodo, Pgan002, Pharos, PiersOffshore, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pingveno, Piotrus, Pjacobi, Ploum's, Pm67nz, Pontifex, Popeyedoyle, Postdlf, PseudoOne, Psiphiorg, Puddytang, Pdraic MacUidhir, Quadell, QuartierLatin1968, Quietbritishjim, R000t, RG2, RandomCritic, Raul654, Raven in Orbit, Rcragun, Rdsmith4, Reciencito, Red Angel, Red1001802, RetiredUser2, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richardlord50, RickK, RidinHood25, Rjwilmsi, Rlquall, Rmky87, Roadrunner, Robert Brockway, RobertG, Rockpocket, Roisterer, Ron g, Ryoung122, S. M. Sullivan, Sabine's Sunbird, Samsara, SandyGeorgia, Sasata, SatuSuro, Sbarthelme, Schneelocke, Sebastiano venturi, Serpent's Choice, Sherurcij, Signalhead, Silly rabbit, Sing2pray, Skoojal, Slashme, Slightsmile, Smeggysmeg, Smokeybjb, Sonjaaa, Spotty11222, Stacie0395, Stanskis, Stevenmitchell, Storm Rider, Susurrus, Sverdrup, Swid, TarquinWJ, Telemachus.forward, Tennesseellum, Tetrismaniac, The Anome, The Man in Question, The Singing Badger, The Thing That Should Not Be, The bellman, TheCoffee, TheGerm, Thegoodlocust, Theinfamousfinatic, Thumperward, Tim Long, Timwi, Titanium Dragon, Tobby72, Toby Bartels, Tomixdf, Tomwithanh, Tox, Toyblocks, Tpbradbury, Treisijs, Trekphiler, Trilobite, Trippz, Trishm, Troels Nybo, UBeR, Ucucha, Ukexpat, Uthanc, UtherSRG, Vallegrande, Vanished user 03, Varlaam, Vasconicus, Verrai, Viriditas, Vpiet, Vrenator, Vsmith, WBardwin, WLU, Wakuran, Walabio, Wavelength, WayeMason, Wayward, Whosyourjudas, Wiglaf, Wiki13, WikiLaurent, Wikiborg, Wikied, Willking1979, Witan, Wk muriithi, Wknight94, WolfmanSF, Writtenright, Wtmitchell, XQ fan, Xed, Yath, Ydef, Yomangani, Zappa12, Zargulon, Zizonus, Zundark, 512 anonymous edits Mitochondrial DNA Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479463559 Contributors: (, .jhc., 1cats 1dogs freinds, 2D, AStudent, Abduallah mohammed, Abstraktn, AgarwalSumeet, Alansohn, Alison, Alksub, Andre Engels, Andres, Anil1956, Anlace, Antony-22, Arcadian, ArchonMagnus, Arman.rezayati, Arthena, AstroHurricane001, Aude, Auton1, Banus, Beland, Belovedfreak, Benjicharlton, Bigbee, Bioguy137, Bomac, BrainyBabe, Brazucs, Bsea, CalumH93, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Celefin, Chicagoblue4476, Cobalt137cc, Coelacan, Cohesion, CopperKettle, Corrigen, CzarB, DSRH, DSanai, Davewild, Dbabbitt, Dbsanfte, DerHexer, Deviator13, Devin18, Dirac66, Donald941, DrMicro, Drakyoko, Drsquirt, Duncan.france, Duncharris, Dysmorodrepanis, Ehamberg, Elroch, Epigen, Euclid22, Everyking, Excerpted31, Excirial, Favonian, FortunaFavetFortibus, FoxDiamond, Fragglet, Gabbe, GabrielF, Geni, Gfoley4, Gshadel, Guillaume2303, Gurch, Habj, Hairy Dude, Heron, HiDrNick, Hichris, Hodja Nasreddin, HorsePunchKid, IcedNut, Ifritnile, Innotata, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, Jamiesongj, Jebus989, Jed 20012, Jeffq, JeffreyMinter, Jerryseinfeld, Jfdwolff, John Mackenzie Burke, Johnuniq, Jon Harald Sby, Joseaperez, Joseph Solis in Australia, Karthickbala, KelilanK, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kreachure, Ktwsolo, Kugamazog, Kyleca, LeaveSleaves, Leolaursen, Lexor, Ligulem, Logan, Looxix, LostLucidity, Luuva, Magister Mathematicae, Magnus Manske, Malcolm Farmer, Mattroxlol, Maury Markowitz, Mclendpm, Michael C Price, MichaelJanich, Midgley, Miguel3451243, Mikael Hggstrm, Mike2vil, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mintleaf, Mmxx, Moxy, Msinkm, Myeshak, Nagelfar, Narayanese, Nehrams2020, NellieBly, Nunh-huh, OlofE, Oosoom, Paleogene, Panicum, PervyPirate, Phrex99, Pigglesworth, Pschemp, Pdraic MacUidhir, Qmwne235, R'n'B, R. S. Shaw, R000t, RMFan1, Rattle, Razorbliss, RebekahThorn, Reinyday, Res2216firestar, Rich Farmbrough, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, Rupestre, RxS, Ryz, Saforrest, Sageofwisdom, Sandwich Eater, Scott McNay, Shanel, Shanes, SiameseTurtle, Simesa, Sintaku, Snowolf, Solipsist, Stebbins, SteveChervitzTrutane, Sunborn, Surtsicna, Swaggmonster313, Tbhotch, Terry Longbaugh, That Guy, From That Show!, Theadder, Thumperward, Tirkfl, Tkandell, Tkbwik, Totodu74, Traxs7, Twerkman, UberScienceNerd, UkPaolo, Ulric1313, Unyoyega, Varlaam, Vicpeters, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Wiki alf, Wimt, XCalPab, Xanzzibar, Xris0, YanWong, Zocky, Zwikki, 284 , anonymous edits Lowest common ancestor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=421955688 Contributors: Andreas Kaufmann, Andrew Delong, David Eppstein, DavidCBryant, GiM, Giftlite, JonHarder, Joshxyz, MarcelW, MladenWiki, Nondeterministic, Reinyday, Rjwilmsi, Sbjesse, Twri, Wal-Mart, WhyDoIKeepForgetting, X7q, 26 anonymous edits Most recent common ancestor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481592626 Contributors: Abscissa, Agathman, Alan Liefting, Alxndr, Andycjp, AnonMoos, AnonUser, Aunt Entropy, Auton1, Avedomni, Beland, Ben Standeven, BenBildstein, Benhocking, Bobo192, Brianski, Bueller 007, CharlotteWebb, Clement Cherlin, Cmprince, Constructive, Dan East, Dbachmann, Demfranchize, Digitat, Diza, Donarreiskoffer, Dreish, EamonnPKeane, EdC, Egil, Ehrenkater, Emerson7, Enigomontoya64, Esb82, Florian Blaschke, Fred Hsu, Fresh1234, Gap9551, Giraffedata, GoEThe, Greensburger, Htamas, JFreeman, JJRobledo-Arnuncio, JamesTeterenko, Jerryseinfeld, Jobber, Jodine Sparks, Johnuniq, Joseph Solis in Australia, Julesd, Keith-264, Ketiltrout, Keycard, Khazar, Kjkolb, Lacrimosus, Lambiam, LilHelpa, Lklundin, Loodog, Lumos3, Majorly, Mann jess, Martin451, Maunus, Menswear, Mentifisto, Michael A. White, Michael Hardy, Mindmatrix, Moxy, Mp3car, Muntuwandi, Nealklein, Nealmcb, Noisy, Nunh-huh, Pablo Mayrgundter, Peak, Penbat, Pgan002, Phorgan1, Plerdsus, Poccil, Portnadler, PotentialDanger, RDBrown, RHaworth, RWR8189, RebekahThorn, Rednblu, Redsoxfan2, Reinyday, Rellis1067, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richard001, Rjwilmsi, Robin S, Roundhouse0, Rracecarr, Ryantcook, Ryoung122, SchreiberBike, ScottDavis, Scrommo, Sebthedev, Shanel, Silentlight, Skates61, Slack---line, Sonjaaa, Spot, Stars4change, Stevertigo, Stfg, Superborsuk, Surv1v4l1st, Tango, Tedtoal, The Anome, The Man in Question, Theroadislong, Tirxu, Tom Schmal, Tomtefarbror, Truthanado, TutterMouse, Uniquenick, Victuallers, WJBscribe, Wavelength, Whatever2009, WikiWesty, Woodsrock, Woohookitty, Zappernapper, 98 ,. anonymous edits Population bottleneck Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478783966 Contributors: -m-i-k-e-y-, 168..., 1ForTheMoney, ACSE, Acather96, Aiken drum, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Altenmann, Alton, Arcot, Artemis Gray, Boredzo, Bounce1337, Bueller 007, CALR, Causa sui, Darth Ag.Ent, Dbachmann, Derek Ross, Dodo bird, Doric Loon, Drphilharmonic, Duncharris, Ehrenkater, Emperorbma, Erud, Ettrig, Eusebeus, Eyeoft, ForestDim, Frayr, Fred Bradstadt, Fred Hsu, F, Gerkinstock, Ghepeu, Golbez, Goltz20707, Harmil, Henry Flower, Hooperbloob, Improv, JBazuzi, Jackhynes, Janus01, Jasonz2z, Jheald, JimmyButler, Jobber, Johnleemk, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jraffe0404, Kralizec!, Krubo, Ksyrie, La goutte de pluie, Laurinavicius, Leonard G., Lexor, Linan, Llywrch, Logical Analyst, Lycurgus, MPF, Mack2, Maunus, Mf93, MiShogun, Michael C Price, Mindmatrix, Mkweise, Mordien, Mrwright, Mysid, NYMFan69-86, Nickshanks, Orangeroof, Plasin, Plesiosaur, Ptcamn, Rebekah best, Rich Farmbrough, Richbank, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robin klein, Samsara, Satyrium, SchuminWeb, Stevertigo, Stragermont, Suisui, Suprasanna, Tainter, TakuyaMurata, Tbc2, TedE, Tellyaddict, Template namespace initialisation script, Theroadislong, Thorseth, Tide rolls, Tomtefarbror, VermillionBird, VeryVerily, WLU, Wetman, Wmahan, Wragge, Xaven, Zeimusu, , 98 anonymous edits Toba catastrophe theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481124080 Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, Abdull, Aetheling, Alankc, AlexHOUSE, Altar, Anilocra, Anville, Anyeverybody, Apokryltaros, Arch dude, Ardric47, Arjayay, Arun, Ascnder, AstroHurricane001, Audaciter, Avenue, Basilicofresco, Bcasterline, Beland, Bender235, Benedyck, BillFlis, Bisuketto, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, CALR, Caesura, Captiankrill, Carolmooredc, Ceyockey, Chris the speller, Chris.urs-o, Courcelles, Crashwinder, Cstaffa, Dana boomer, DavidCary, Dawnseeker2000, De.Gerbil, DocWatson42, Donarreiskoffer, DopefishJustin, Dori, Dougweller, DrOxacropheles, Dulkharnayn123, Eagc7, Earle Martin, Emerson7, Enauspeaker, Eusebeus, Eyreland, Florian Blaschke, Fred Hsu, Fredrik, Free Citizen, Fui in terra aliena, Gabriel Kielland, Galloglass, GeoGreg, Gerkinstock, Gimmetrow, Gob Lofa, Gpvos, Grant65, Greensburger, Gunkarta, Hephaestos, Hibernian, HieronymousCrowley, Hike395, Huelga, Hunnjazal, Husond, Huw Powell, Ideogram, Iggymwangi, Igiffin, Igoldste, Inventif, Iridescent, IrishHermit, J. Johnson, J.delanoy, JWB, JakeVortex, JasonAQuest, Jimp, John Troodon, Johnbod, Johnmccrae, Jonathan Tweet, Juansempere, Julesd, Kbh3rd, Kierano, Kompar, Lincmad, MCTales, MacAwesome, Marduking, Mareino, Markus451, Marqueed, Master Rattley, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mikker, Misiu mp, Mkweise, Moxy, Mrsirjojo, N419BH, Nedlum, Neutrality, Nicholas Tan, Nike, Novangelis, Nurg, Nyarlathotepjr, One Salient Oversight, Orangemarlin, PainMan, Pauli133, Pawyilee, Peak, Pedro, Pinar, Pmj, Qfl247, Qrsdogg, Quartic, Quuxplusone, RHaworth, RK, RattleMan, Res2216firestar, Resident Mario, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Roger wilco, Rotational, Sam8, SatuSuro, SchfiftyThree, Scwlong, Seegoon, Sfitzge308, SkyLined, Skysmith, Sophistifunk, Sp0, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, Spiderwing, Spinningspark, Stephen B Streater, Stevenmitchell, Stevertigo, Surv1v4l1st, Susan Mason, Tabletop, Tainter, Tamfang, Tarotcards, The PIPE, Tifoo, TimBilly1224, TimVickers, Timwi, Trafford09, Trex21, Trulystand700, Twang, Ufwuct, Unyoyega, UteFan16, Vallegrande, VeryVerily, Victor falk, Viriditas, Vsmith, WBardwin, Wayward, Wetman, Whytecypress, Will2k, Windscar77, Wk muriithi, Wsiegmund, Wwoods, Yannismarou, Zondor, 219 anonymous edits Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479469597 Contributors: Anthony Appleyard, Avenue, Bender235, CambridgeBayWeather, Chris.urs-o, Colonies Chris, Deanmullen09, Dodshe, GeoWriter, Giftlite, Guanlongwucaii, JLaTondre, Klaudyay21, LilHelpa, Look2See1, Mild Bill Hiccup, Milo03, Pokeysan, Rjwilmsi, Sacxpert, Titus III, Vdsluys, Volcanoguy, WolfmanSF, Xeolyte, Xezbeth, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, 17 anonymous edits Proto-Human language Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478165696 Contributors: 130.60.153.xxx, 212.25.85.xxx, Acebulf, AdamW, Alexbacker, Allens, Altenmann, Amalas, Andrew Dalby, AndrewWTaylor, Ankit jn, Ante Aikio, Anthony Appleyard, Aranea Mortem, ArnoLagrange, Arturo 7, Baad, Belchman, Berdiau, Bfinn, Bondegezou, Born Gay, Bryan Derksen, Burschik, CRGreathouse, Chris Buckey, Conversion script, Cuaxdon, Darkaardvark, Das Baz, Davidcannon, Dbachmann, Digfarenough, Dougweller, Drmaik, Dude1818, Dysmorodrepanis, EDG161, Eric Kvaalen, Eyu100, Freelance Intellectual, Ghirlandajo, Ghmyrtle, Glengordon01, Goethean, Graham87, Hannes Hirzel, Ifoolyou, Indon, Iopq, Ish ishwar, Izehar, JWB, Jaque Hammer, JasonAQuest, Jayen466, Jaysbro, John Quincy Adding Machine, John Reiher, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoshuaZ, Judaeosemitist, Kdau, Keenan Pepper, Keraunos, Kocio, Komap, Ksyrie, Kvaistur, Kwamikagami, Kyle112, Linguistic Science, Livajo, Lowellian, M, Markov, Mcorazao, Miskwito, Mmm, Mo-Al, Mustafaa, Nixer, Pauli133, Pictureuploader, Pwjb, RafaAzevedo, Rannit, Savidan, Scwlong, Shii, Shreevatsa, Smoggyrob, Sophie means wisdom, Spettro9, Stevey7788, Strike Freedom Gundam, Sukiari, Szyslak, Teucer, Timwi, Tothebarricades.tk, Trigaranus, VeryVerily, VikSol, Virginia-American, WTFA54, Whimemsz, Who, Wikipelli, Will Beback, Zafiroblue05, Zundark, , 77 anonymous edits Mythical origins of language Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478586716 Contributors: Aaronbrick, Auntof6, BD2412, Bcoolsdad, Blindsay, Bucephalus, CJLL Wright, CommonsDelinker, D-Rock, Danny, Dbachmann, Dekimasu, Dv82matt, El006, Eliyak, Eliz81, Feeeshboy, Flamedude, Francis Tyers, FrancisTyers, H1nkles, Hilighter555, Khoikhoi, Knowledge Seeker, Luna Santin, Maebmij, Neko85, Netkinetic, PhnomPencil, Puellanivis, QueenCake, Recury, Redtigerxyz, Ritchy, Satanael, Seb az86556, Shoemaker's Holiday, Shsilver, Starbuk77, Stevage, Thiseye, Uyvsdi, Vassyana, Wetman, WikiLeon, 31 anonymous edits Language of the birds Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=475312850 Contributors: Altenmann, Altzinn, Andycjp, Annielogue, B9 hummingbird hovering, Before My Ken, Being blunt, Berig, Bertrand Bellet, Bryan Derksen, Chick Bowen, Chris the speller, Commander Keane, Csernica, David3565, Dbachmann, Deville, Dream of Nyx, Dreamafter, Dtrebbien, Editor at Large, Emerysf, Emurphy42, Flapdragon, HamburgerRadio, Haukurth, Holt, Hyacinth, JMK, JaGa, Jeffrey Henning, Johnsfnm, Kwertii, Lars Washington, Light current, Lotje, Maias, Miami33139, Ms2ger, Nuages, Ogress, Open2universe, Philip Trueman, Pompous stranger, Rappaccini, Redheylin, Remurmur, RepublicanJacobite, Rursus, Saizai, Scriberius, Stevertigo, Thadswanek, Tom Lougheed, Towandafarmer, Tropylium, Valtyr, Viriditas, WDM27, William M. Connolley, Yelling Bird, 51 anonymous edits Linguistic relativity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479074393 Contributors: 168.191.250.xxx, 213.253.39.xxx, 62.202.117.xxx, A876, AVRS, Adam Keller, Adelphious, Ae-a, Ahmedgnz, Alex Golub, AlexR, AlexanderWinston, Alpha Omicron, Andrewa, Andries, Andycjp, Animum, AnonMoos, Anonymous56789, Anthony, Apostrophe, Ashmoo, Attilios, Auntof6, B9 hummingbird hovering, BAxelrod, BMF81, Babbage, Barvinok, Bastien-boutonnet, Bdesham, Beland, Ben Standeven, Betacommand, Bfinn, Bhumiya, BjKa, Blue Danube, Bradshaws1, Branddobbe, Bryan Derksen, Burschik, Byrial, C-sonic, CJGB, CJLL Wright, Cadr, Cal Evans, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalSasha, CarlManaster, Cbdorsett,

341

Article Sources and Contributors

Cberlet, Chemica, Chmod007, Cleared as filed, Cmchang, Cnilep, Collard, Colonies Chris, Colorterms09, Comet Tuttle, Connelly, Control.valve, Conversion script, Cranialsodomy, Crywalt, D, Danakil, Daniel Quinlan, Darth Panda, Dbenbenn, Dcsohl, Debresser, Dezier, Diego Azeta, Dissident, Djnjwd, Dodger, Dogtrain, Dominus, Domster, Draicone, Dreamback1116, Dunkelza, Dupz, E23, Eclecticology, Ed Poor, Eirik, ElectricRay, Ellmist, Elmer Clark, Elvenscout742, Emiellaiendiay, Empaler, Emuzesto, Entropy, Espoo, EugeneZelenko, Feinoha, FilipeS, Filll, Fleminra, Foobaz, Fool, Fredrik, Freelance Intellectual, FreplySpang, Fubar Obfusco, Furrykef, Future Perfect at Sunrise, GeeJo, Geoffrey.landis, Gimboid13, Gimmetrow, Glimz, Goethean, Gordoni, Graham87, Grape1, Graue, Gregbard, Hegemonic discourse, Hibernian, Hinakana, Hpvpp, Hu, Huw Powell, ILike2BeAnonymous, Igiffin, Ihcoyc, Ike9898, Ingolfson, Intgr, It Is Me Here, JRice, JYolkowski, Jakohn, Jalali.farah, Jason Olshefsky, Jay Litman, Jcooper95, Jeff3000, JerryFriedman, Jevansen, Jhopkins, JimmyShelter, Jimwilce, Jkominek, Jlin, Jlittlet, JmCor, John of Reading, Johndburger, Johnkarp, Jon Awbrey, JorisvS, Josiah Rowe, Joo Neves, Jpgordon, Jpom, Jrtayloriv, Jtnelson, Junuxx, Just plain Bill, KYPark, Kaisershatner, Kaobear, Khoikhoi, Kikos, Kingturtle, Knowledgebycoop, Koavf, KriZe, Kricxjo, Kripkenstein, Kupojsin, Kyoakoa, LCC 13, Lee Daniel Crocker, Leibniz, LenaChic91, Lethe, Librarian, LittleDan, Loodog, Lordgilman, Lostjack815, LoveEncounterFlow, Lserni, Lucrenta, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Mack2, Mark Dingemanse, Markild, MartinHarper, Martinhenz, Matt Yeager, Mattisse, Maunus, Mboverload, McGoo, Melody, Memestream, Memetics, Michael Hardy, MikeGasser, Mild Bill Hiccup, Milkbreath, Mindmatrix, Mindserfer, MistyMorn, Mithridates, Mo-Al, Msasscts, Mukerjee, Munci, Mundart, Musicalantonio, Mxn, N-k, Nadeshiyo, Nanobear, Nave.notnilc, Neilc, No such user, Noclevername, Nydas, OlEnglish, Olivier, Omegatron, Omphaloscope, Ontoraul, Ophis, Orangemike, Ospalh, Palfrey, Paul Stansifer, Payrard, Peter Grey, Philomathoholic, Pi zero, PiCo, Piotrus, Plumbago, Pmj, Pseudomonas, Puellanivis, Qaz, Qfwfq, Quadell, Quibik, RJCraig, Rabidwolfe, Ragesoss, Rains of Castamere, Ramir, Rangergordon, Rdsmith4, Realberserker, Recury, RedHouse18, Redheylin, Reinyday, Rich Farmbrough, RichardF, Ringbang, RiseRover, Rjanag, RobDe68, RobDowling, Robert Merkel, Robertwharvey, Robin klein, Roidroid, RonBeeCNC, SE7, Sanpitch, Saraid, Saucepan, Saxifrage, Sceptre, Schi, Scix, Scott.262144, Scwlong, Seantmchugh, SeattleHiker, Sebesta, Seeleschneider, Sergey1972, Sethmahoney, ShelfSkewed, Shimgray, Sigmundur, SimonRaven, Sisyphustkd, Solarbird, Solberg, Specs112, Squashy, Stephen Shaw, Stevage, SteveMcCluskey, Superabo, Susurrus, Sword, T@Di, Taak, Taivo, TakuyaMurata, Talon Artaine, Talph, Taochanger, Tarquin, Taw, Te24409nsp, Tengai, Terrancommander, Terrydarc, Tesi1700, The Person Who Is Strange, The bellman, The wub, TheBestestOfThemAll, TheLateDentarthurdent, TheSeven, Themadchopper, Thnidu, Tigah Dude, Tijfo098, Timwi, Toby Woodwark, Torgo, TriNotch, Tristanb, True Vox, Twas Now, Uncle G, Urhixidur, Vastango, Vegetator, Visor, WAvegetarian, WHeimbigner, Welsh, Werty8472, Westoncb, Wetman, Wfructose, Whaa?, WhiteDragon, WhiteHotaru, WikHead, Wildfire634, Will Beback Auto, William Avery, Wingman4l7, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Wwagner, Yaamboo, Yekrats, Youandme, Zen611, Zigger, Zoicon5, Zoz, , 412 anonymous edits Pirah language Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=476842084 Contributors: A. Parrot, ACW, Aeusoes1, Agnus, Alfredie, Allformweek, Altenmann, Andre Engels, Angr, AnonMoos, Anotherwikifan, Apokrif, Auslli, Avicennasis, Axeman89, Balabiot, Barticus88, Bewebste, Billposer, Blade Hirato, Blamblamblam, Brianlucas, Bumm13, CSWarren, Chamdarae, Chastacosta, Chokingyou, Clangiphor3, Cognatus, Costela, Croquant, Damian Yerrick, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Denicho, Djinn112, DopefishJustin, Dustinasby, EdC, Erickroh, Erxnmedia, Esn, Fantastic fred, Fayenatic london, FilipeS, FlashSheridan, Frankieroberto, Freshgavin, Furrykef, Galathrax, Garzo, Ginkgo100, Hairy Dude, Hans Joseph Solbrig, Hottentot, Hyacinth, Ilai, Ish ishwar, JackofOz, Jared Preston, Jchthys, Jj137, John Smythe, Jorge Stolfi, Just plain Bill, Jyril, KBYU, Karmosin, Kawina, Keenan Pepper, Keinstein, Khoikhoi, Koavf, Koenrad, Kosolapy, Kwamikagami, Kyle1278, Lacrimosus, Laurelind, Lectonar, Leszek Jaczuk, Likebox, Linguston, Lurker, Mallerd, Marc Kupper, MarkSutton, Marnen, Migfk, Miskwito, Monado, Munci, Muspilli, Mxn, N-true, Naznarreb, Nishidani, Nohat, Olivier, Ontoraul, OwenBlacker, Pasqual, Peepeedia, Peter Isotalo, PhilHibbs, Piraha1, Pne, Pseudomonas, Ptcamn, Qatter, Raydred, Ristituzione, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Rogerb67, Rossami, Rothorpe, Ruakh, Sarichkaa, Scwlong, Secretlondon, Semper15, Serte, ShesGotSauce, Shii, SimpsonDG, Sjheiss, Sklarvender, Sl, Soap, Sstrader, Stefan Kruithof, Steinbach, Stephen Shaw, Storm Rider, Superking, Te24409nsp, The Anome, Thefamouseccles, Thumperward, TimidGuy, Timwi, Twas Now, Vernanimalcula, Vuo, Wavelength, Whimemsz, WhisperToMe, Who, Wiwaxia, WmGB, Woohookitty, Worldgoneblind, Writtenright, Xed, Yahya Abdal-Aziz, Yill577, Zafiroblue05, Zerida, Zonder, , 107 anonymous edits Neurolinguistics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481556700 Contributors: 2over0, A. B., A314268, Action potential, Agentn25, Ahxnccj, Alejandralop, Allens, AnaJur, Andre Engels, Andrea moro, Ausir, BD2412, Brewhaha@edmc.net, Camridge, Ceyockey, Charles Matthews, Clicketyclack, Daniel,levine, Dantiston, David Shay, Deor, Dmacw6, Docleaf, Dolfrog, Dvulture, EdJohnston, FT2, Famousdog, Gregbard, Icairns, J. Spencer, Jedmeltzer, Jeffmatt, KJ Sam, Koavf, Kora09, Kwamikagami, Kyoakoa, LilHelpa, Looie496, MacGyverMagic, Mark Dingemanse, MartinPoulter, Mattisse, Michael Devore, Mindstore, Misterx2000, Muijz, Nono64, Notyourbroom, Pigman, Podzemnik, Reinhard Hartmann, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Sardanaphalus, Scienceguy64f, Semmelweiss, SimonP, Spaceorca, Technopat, Tiak, Trickstar, Tsemii, Ttennebkram, USPatent, Viking59, Wik, Wilycoyote, Woohookitty, Zoicon5, , 32 anonymous edits Sociolinguistics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481549817 Contributors: 16@r, ABF, Aaron north, Access Denied, Aleksd, Alexkon, AnOrdinaryGuy, Andre Engels, AndrewHowse, Andycjp, Angr, Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, Antonielly, Ardonik, Argylemoose, Aubadaurada, Benne, Brendan.wolfe, Bubuka, Byalinguist, CALR, CTanguy, Canto2009, CapitalR, Charbee, Charles Matthews, Chasingsol, Christian List, Chzz, Ckatz, Closedmouth, Cnilep, Cometstyles, Connor4355, CreoleFungus, Crnica, Danjj, Daveyboysimmo, DennisDaniels, Diana LeCrois, Diego, Djnjwd, Dlohcierekim, Dogah, EJPyatt, Eaefremov, Eburaconos, Ejrrjs, Entheta, Fastilysock, Fayenatic london, Filemon, FrancisTyers, Frankenpuppy, Fratrep, Fredbauder, Fwappler, Gabnh, Gaius Cornelius, Gerteger, Grape1, Halaqah, Inogad, J Di, J.delanoy, JaGa, Jburr1985, Jef-Infojef, Jeroen Claes, Jfpierce, JohnCD, JorisvS, Joy, Jugger90, Kaffeeringe.de, Karl-Henner, Kevlar67, Kh7, Ko'oy, Kzzl, LaggedOnUser, Lanov, Libcub, Lilfireball05, Limegreen, Lucidish, MC10, Mack2, Matlee, Maxcap, Mdoff, Meeples, Metonym, Michael Hardy, Michielodb, Michkalas, Mirrorblade, Misarxist, Miskwito, Mnewmanqc, Modulatum, Montrealais, Moose91894, Mr. Stradivarius, MuffledThud, Musicalantonio, NERIUM, Neilc, Neongrey, Nicke L, NikoSilver, Notinasnaid, Noula69, Nysin, Paperflowergirl, Pete unseth, Peter Isotalo, Peter Ladage, Petitphoque, PhilKnight, PiMaster3, Picabear, Pintu1ful, Popwriter, Prmdunge, RandomP, Redursela, Rich Farmbrough, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Rolyatleahcim, Sarichkaa, Sgsilver, Shizhao, Simetrical, Sinatra, Sluzzelin, SorenLinden, Spbm, SpeedyGonsales, Szyslak, Taral, Tarquin, Technopat, The Phoenix, The Sage of Stamford, Theserialcomma, Tomsega, TreasuryTag, Triddle, Ufotrain, Unmerklich, Verbum Veritas, Vrenator, Wavelength, Wiki Wikardo, Windharp, Youshouldask, Zantedeschia, Zohab, Zzuuzz, , , 186 anonymous edits List of language families Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481417727 Contributors: 100110100, 23prootie, Alastair Haines, Alexdicuru, AndrewWTaylor, Ante Aikio, CJLippert, Causteau, CommonsDelinker, Coutcin, Cuaxdon, Davius, Dbachmann, Desiphral, Drmies, Ebizur, Eklir, Fadesga, FilipeS, Florian Blaschke, G Purevdorj, GVP Webmaster, Gholton, Glossologist, GoonerDP, Haeleth, Hayden120, Hibernian, Huhsunqu, Infovoria, Iridescent, JWB, Jagello, Jagged 85, John K, JorisvS, Kdmitry, Kembangraps, King of Hearts, Kingj123, Kwamikagami, Laurelind, LeaveSleaves, Ling.Nut, LokiClock, MER-C, Mabuhelwa, MacedonianBoy, MarcoAurelio, Maunus, Miskwito, Ms2ger, N-true, OldakQuill, Onur sabri, Open2universe, Orkh, Patpat122, Peter Isotalo, Phantomsteve, PhnomPencil, Ptcamn, R9tgokunks, Rbarreira, S. Neuman, SMcCandlish, Sadisticsuburbanite, Saxane, SebastianHelm, Sigehelm, Sl, Sophie means wisdom, Steinbach, Stevey7788, Sting-fr, Taivo, The Ogre, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tonymec, Trikemike, Tropylium, UP3, Vgao82, VikSol, Waitak, Wavelength, Wester, Wikipelli, Working for Him, Zoomzoom316, , 118 anonymous edits Linguistic anthropology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=472755841 Contributors: 0XQ, Access Denied, Adam Bishop, Angr, Anthro monkey, Aubin, BWCNY, Babbage, Banazir, Barticus88, Belovedfreak, Bjankuloski06en, Bluemoose, Bryan Derksen, CanisRufus, Canto2009, Cnilep, Curdeius, DarwinPeacock, Dbachmann, Deconstructhis, Deniss007, Duncan, Ebyabe, FrenchIsAwesome, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gr1st, Graham87, Grenavitar, Ihcoyc, Iridescent, Ish ishwar, Jalali.farah, JimStyle61093475, Jimwilce, John Vandenberg, Koffieyahoo, Kowey, Mareoftenebrae, Maunus, Mbxp, Metonym, Mirrorblade, Mr. Stradivarius, Ngio, Nono64, Pearle, Piano non troppo, Pifactorial, Pohick2, Pooya72, Reedy, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Rjanag, Scwlong, Sebesta, Shanghainese, Slrubenstein, Soshial, Szquirrel, Updatehelper, Upholder, Uttanu, Woohookitty, Zeno Gantner, 52 anonymous edits Big History Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478137093 Contributors: Artichoke-Boy, Ashaktur, Athaenara, Athkalani, Beetstra, Berean Hunter, Elena Emanova, Erichvanrijn, Estherquaedackers, Evolauxia, Fkfe, Hmains, J04n, Jack Merridew, JustinStolle, Kaiolu2417, KellyCoinGuy, Kevlar67, Logologist, MBDowd, Martinwguy, Michael Devore, Mitchumch, Mrwojo, PDTwee, Peter Napkin Dance Party, Phanerozoic, Piotrus, Ragesoss, Reddi, Rick Norwood, RodrigueB, Seouenaca, Sevenoakss, SimonP, Stbalbach, Tamanrasset444, Thelastemperor, Themightyquill, Tjfulopp, Triwbe, Usp, Viriditas, Wadham1939, Wareh, Will2k, Xcentaur, 72 anonymous edits Prehistory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480882682 Contributors: 100man, 209.240.222.xxx, 212.186.255.xxx, 96.149, A RAcOoN, ABCD, AFIrocks08, Abeg92, ActivExpression, Adamsan, Alansohn, Albert galiza, Almafeta, Anasl001, Andre Engels, Andres, AnmaFinotera, AnnaFrance, Anythingyouwant, Aridd, ArielGold, Arkuat, Arthena, Arto B, Astropithicus, Atif.t2, Autonova, Avicennasis, Awickert, BSTemple, Badgernet, Balsa10, Bathrobe, Bcasterline, Bcxfu75k, Beetstra, Bekus, Ben MacDui, Benjaminbreen, Bluefist, Bob1larry, Boivie, BokicaK, Bongwarrior, Brion VIBBER, BrownHairedGirl, Brunnock, Bumpusjane, Cadiomals, Candyroks987, Carlos5689, Casliber, Ccacsmss, Cenarium, Cgingold, Christina Silverman, Chtvrdy6, ClamDip, Clayton777, Conversion script, Cool moe dee 345, Counterfact, Cybercobra, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DHBoggs, Daniel J. Leivick, Das Baz, Dave1185, Davewild, Dbachmann, Deconstructhis, Dendodge, DerHexer, Dewet, Dimadick, Discospinster, Diyako, Dmitri Lytov, DocWatson42, Donnie Love, Dougweller, Drunken Pirate, E10073476, Edward Z. Yang, El C, El Slameron, Elimoz94, Entreri, Epbr123, Erenwip, Ev, Excirial, Extransit, Fabartus, Fama Clamosa, Fang 23, Fbd, Ferhengvan, Finalnight, Furrykef, G3wildcatz101, GSMR, Gamewizard71, Gdarin, Gdr, Gethred Hesthell, Getsardon, Gilgamesh he, Glenn, Gob Lofa, Gogo Dodo, GraemeL, Grant65, Greeves, GregorB, Grendel19320, Grim Littlez, Grutter, HJ Mitchell, Hagedis, Haham hanuka, Hairy Dude, Hans Dunkelberg, Harej, Hawantou98, Hayabusa future, Heisenbergthechemist, Heron, Hertz1888, Hmains, Honbicot, Huhsunqu, Husond, Hyacinth, I20, Ike9898, Iridescent, IstvanWolf, Ittan, JYolkowski, Jarhed, Jauhienij, JinJian, Joey Roe, John Smith's, Johnbod, Joudnf, Joymmart, Jshadias, Jung dalglish, Jzcool, Kandar, Khalid Mahmood, Kinaro, Kku, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kotniski, Kozuch, Krtek76, Kwamikagami, Levalley, Lightmouse, LittleHow, Llull, Luspari, MJGR, MONGO, Macrakis, Mael Iosa, Makemeplop, Man vyi, MarsRover, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, Maurreen, Mav, Mawhii, Menchi, Metalmantality, Mgoodyear, Michael Hardy, Micke-sv, Midnightblueowl, Mikaey, Mike Doughney, Mike4ty4, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miradre, Mishradevansh, Mkweise, Monobi, Moreschi, Morshem, Moverton, Mr. Stradivarius, N5iln, NawlinWiki, Neelmack, Nehwyn, Neptunerover, Nicknack009, Nilad, Niluop, Nirvana2013, Nixdorf, Nuno Tavares, Olegwiki, Olivier, Omar35880, Orangemike, PMDrive1061, Paris 16, Parkwells, Patrick MMA Bringmans, Paulinho28, Peak, Perdman, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), PhilHibbs, Philip Trueman, Phlegm Rooster, Pietru, Pigman, Pinethicket, Ppntori, Prari, Qwyrxian, R'n'B, RJP, Ranveig, RaseaC, Rdsmith4, Reddi, Res2216firestar, Rex Germanus, Ribbentrop, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, Rjwilmsi, Rock soup, Rosenknospe, Safan, SaintHammett, Salliesatt, Savard-library-wiki, Schmacks, ScottSteiner, Seaphoto, Serendipodous, Settl746, Shadowhillway, Silver seren, SimonP, SirJingleBalls, Skizzik, Sluzzelin, Smeira, Snakemeetsarecool, Spettro9, Squeeze me, Staton2014, Stbalbach, Steeev, Sungmanitu, SwordSmurf, Symane, Tabletop, The Epopt, The Evil Spartan, The Letter J, TheEgyptian, TheSockofAges, Themummy20032003, Tide rolls, Tigershrike, TimVickers, Timir2, Tobycat, Tomcool, Tresiden, TriNotch, Trilobitealive, Trivelt, Truenaruto, Tseno Maximov, Twas Now, Uhai, Uncle Dick, Updatehelper, Velshanmu, WTucker, Wavelength, Wayiran, Weevel, Wenom, Wereon, Wiglaf, Wiki alf, Wikijens, WikipediaEditor, WillMcC, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Wyatt90111, Xaxafrad, Xeno, Xmp, Yak, Yerpo, ZMatskevich, , 396 anonymous edits

342

Article Sources and Contributors

Early human migrations Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480563910 Contributors: 0x54097DAA, ACSE, Absolwent, Adrory, Afiya27, All Is One, AlmostReadytoFly, Altenmann, Amodio11, Andrew Lancaster, Androstachys, Audaciter, Aunt Entropy, Bilby, Cbdorsett, Dbachmann, Djwoodie98, Dr. Ajay B., Eastcote, Eastjame, Empirista, Equendil, Falcorian, Fama Clamosa, Fences and windows, Finn Bjrklid, Ftjrwrites, GVP Webmaster, Geog1, Gianreali, Giornorosso, Goustien, Grammerking97, Greensburger, Hunnjazal, JWB, JesseChisholm, John D. Croft, Juansempere, Keith-264, Kintetsubuffalo, Kwamikagami, La Fuente, Lampman, LittleHow, Lo Scaligero, Malcontent, Mallexikon, Mandarax, Marek69, Maulucioni, Moxy, Muntuwandi, Nishishei, Oleg-ch, Olegwiki, Ozzie13, Petter Bckman, Phil13, Pjoef, RDBrown, Redactor33, Reddi, Reinyday, Rferau, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rursus, Schom, Seaphoto, Sephiroth2m, Skamecrazy123, Skepticsteve, Skylark42, Slightsmile, Stephan Schulz, Theresa knott, Timneu22, Topilsky, Totorotroll, Whatever2009, Xavidxohnson, Xook1kai Choa6aur, , , 103 anonymous edits Black Sea deluge theory Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=476578997 Contributors: .marc., ACookr, Alastair Haines, Alsandro, Andrerav, Andreygeo, Andycjp, Angr, Anthon.Eff, Arjayay, Ashmoo, AstroHurricane001, Aunt Entropy, BBuchbinder, BenFrantzDale, Bkell, Bloodofox, Bluezy, Bmdavll, Bogdangiusca, BrainyBabe, Bryan Derksen, Bubblegumbobby, Burkedavis, C1k3, Californicus, Carcharoth, Christoph Scholz, ClockworkSoul, Cwolfsheep, DOHC Holiday, Dbachmann, Denisarona, Deville, Dougweller, DreamGuy, Duncharris, Eaefremov, Emperorbma, Eric Kvaalen, Eristikophiles, Falkonry, Flamarande, Gabriel Kielland, Gaianauta, Gillamesh, Glatisant, Gomm, Greensburger, Grice, Hectorian, Hispalois, Hraefen, Hu, Hu12, Hurmata, Hydrargyrum, Interiot, J.M.Domingo, Jim62sch, John D. Croft, Karada, Keraunos, Ketsuekigata, KillerChihuahua, Koavf, Kuralyov, Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, Ligulem, Lorn10, MJBurrage, Macukali, Mahanga, Matturn, Mcswell, Mervyn, Metricmike, Mhking, Michael Hardy, Mitrius, Mullygarry, Ntsimp, Nyttend, Orangemarlin, Paul S, Petri Krohn, PiCo, Plasticup, PloniAlmoni, Pollinator, QuartierLatin1968, R9tgokunks, RJFJR, RattleMan, Rberlow, Reaverdrop, Rich Farmbrough, Rickard Vogelberg, Rjwilmsi, Rysz, SamEV, Saukkomies, Septegram, Shniken, Skomorokh, Slightsmile, Strausszek, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, The Ungovernable Force, Tickle me, Tothebarricades.tk, Varlaam, Vegaswikian, Vsmith, Wetman, Wspencer11, Wwoods, Xollob, , , 115 anonymous edits Andamanese people Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=474096773 Contributors: 23prootie, ACSE, Alex earlier account, Americanbeauty415, Bakasuprman, Balancer, Belligero, Bluette, CJLL Wright, Chriswaterguy, Common Man, Curps, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Ebizur, Erianna, Fama Clamosa, Fences and windows, Florian Blaschke, FuriousFreddy, Goooldenboy, Goustien, Graham87, Hintha, Hmains, Hottentot, Hunnjazal, Jmabel, Jmm6f488, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kbdank71, Ken Gallager, Keraunos, Khoikhoi, Kusma, Kwamikagami, Kre Fog, Lambertmt, MatthewVanitas, Mimihitam, Momoricks, Munci, Muntuwandi, Pamri, Reyk, Rmhermen, Road2Peace, Robin klein, Shyamsunder, Terry Longbaugh, Topbanana, Ufwuct, Utcursch, WLRoss, Wikipelli, 35 anonymous edits Tasmanian Aborigines Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=461867136 Contributors: 42 South, Adam Keller, Addihockey10, Akerbeltz, Amandajm, Amberrock, Andrewjlockley, Andrwsc, Antandrus, Asparagus, Asteiner, Avenue, Bacteria, Barrylb, Barticus88, Belligero, Biruitorul, Bkonrad, BrainyBabe, Bristoleast, Burtonmackenzie, CJLL Wright, CallMeHenry, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canberrakid, CapitalR, Chzz, Closedmouth, Coffeecat91, DRyan, David Gerard, Dcoetzee, Deflective, Delapeople, DerHexer, Diagonalfish, Didj man, Discospinster, Dl2000, Dmitri Lytov, Donbert, EamonnPKeane, Editore99, EoGuy, Eregli bob, Esemono, Esperant, Euchiasmus, FWBOarticle, Fabulous Creature, Falcotron, Fama Clamosa, Filovirus, Gaius Cornelius, Gavin sidhu, Ghepeu, Giraffedata, Glass Matrim, Gmivi, Gnangarra, GoingBatty, Goldragon845, Graeme Bartlett, Graham87, Grant65, HappyWaldo, Herostratus, Hexyhex, HiLo48, Hjorten, Holden dude 20, Holothurion, Hottentot, Ianblair23, Ioniki, Iridescent, JOptionPane, Jachin, JackofOz, James086, Jeffrey Mall, Jemimahorizon, Jericho4.0, Jevansen, Jfdwolff, Jgritz, Jjron, Johhny-turbo, KNHaw, Kevin Murray, Khoikhoi, King bibb00, Kittybrewster, Kkailas, Koavf, Kwamikagami, Lahiru k, Likebox, Loren.wilton, Louiseallana, MBarry, MFdeS, MSGJ, Marek69, Mathinna, Mathmo, Matilda, Maxhotty, Meeples, Mgiganteus1, Mild Bill Hiccup, Moxy, Mrperson27, MuZemike, Munci, Muntuwandi, Murderbike, Naaman Brown, Naddy, Niceguyedc, Nishidani, Njh, NuclearWarfare, Nurg, OhanaUnited, Ottre, Oudes, Ourboldhero, PDH, Pakana, Papercrab, Parrot of Doom, Paul August, Paul foord, Pedro, Philippe, Promethean, Pseudomonas, Qemist, RB972, RadicalBender, RapidR, RealismIncorporated, Recurring dreams, RedSpruce, Richard Keatinge, Rjwilmsi, Roke, RonRule, SD6-Agent, SGGH, SO9769, SatuSuro, Secular mind, Shamto, Shimgray, Sideshow Todd, Smjwalsh, Stemonitis, Stephenb, StradivariusTV, Susan+49, Tabletop, Tbhotch, Tcave1, The Thing That Should Not Be, The number c, Thegreenj, Theturtleguy, Tigersoul, Tirin, Ulric1313, Vapour, Versus22, Vmenkov, Vout25, WLRoss, Wai Hong, Webley442, Weedwhacker128, Womtelo, Wprlh, Wrelwser43, Wtmitchell, YellowMonkey, Zigger, Zimirk, , 267 anonymous edits Pumapunku Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=477563684 Contributors: 5wh1t5, Abductive, Ankit Maity, Brattarb, ClovisPt, Cricobr, D6, Deor, Dougweller, Dr.K., Dysepsion, ESboxing, Falkram, Flopster2, Gingermint, Herrayray118, Hmains, Huhsunqu, Iridescent, Jdperkins, John.constantine, KAMiKAZOW, Knochen, Kooikerhondje2, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lkstrand, Malcolmxl5, Mattcorbitt, Mindme, Minna Sora no Shita, Nehomesley, OlEnglish, Paul H., Pauli133, Peter Clarke, Peter Karlsen, Pumapunku, SirNaysayer, SpencerCollins, Str1977, Th1rt3en, Thanos5150, The Anome, Tommy2010, Tvashtar2919, Vickyx 09, WikHead, Wknight94, Y23, Yorkshiresky, Zacherystaylor, Zntrip, 99 anonymous edits Bosnian pyramids Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479694274 Contributors: 12 Centuries, A3r0e, Achernar.sk, Acroterion, Adamant za, Aktron, Alex Bakharev, Alunsalt, Artw, AwamerT, Aymatth2, Batmanand, Biruitorul, Blivana, Bobblewik, Bogdangiusca, Borchica, BorgQueen, Bosniak Atheist, BosnianPyramidsaretrue, Bryan Derksen, Butterfliesandbunnyrabbits, CJLL Wright, Calaschysm, ClovisPt, Cmglee, CommonsDelinker, Crohnie, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, David Underdown, Dbachmann, De Administrando Imperio, Domino theory, Dougweller, Drmies, Dsine, Dumbo1, Dysmorodrepanis, EAi, EVula, Editor Bob, Eleland, Emir Habul, Ergative rlt, Finktank3000, Fram, Fyyer, Ged UK, Gene Poole, Geni, Ghirlandajo, Glenn, Good Olfactory, GoodCop, GregorB, Grozsa11, Gunter.krebs, Haploidavey, Happyending1, HarisM, Heironymous Rowe, Hiberniantears, Huaiwei, Hung Mieu, Icemamba, Ilinka Z, Indon, Ismarbadzic, Isotope23, J.delanoy, J.smith, Jeff3000, Jeremygbyrne, John Vandenberg, Jugbo, Jwhoopes, Jyeh1018, Kafka Liz, Kazvorpal, King Vegita, Koavf, Kseferovic, Ktp72, Kubigula, Kwamikagami, Labongo, Lawrencekhoo, LeaveSleaves, LeftCoastMan, Lobita, MacedonianBoy, Marek69, Martn Oregn, Mdupont, Megistias, Mifter, MikalE, Mikiapole3, Natecull, Nellis, NeutralBosnian, NewEnglandYankee, Neximuss, Ninhursag - Ki, No such user, Nv8200p, OCIDLE, Omicronpersei8, P Loc, PANONIAN, PIRAMIDEX1, PRODUCER, Panarjedde, Paul Barlow, Paul H., PerfectStorm, Pigman, Piramidosta, Prof. Sperling, Project2501a, PsuedoName, Quarkstorm, Radon210, Random user 39849958, Ravnatelj, Rjwilmsi, Ronz, Roo72, Ryanmcdaniel, Sageo, Sapphic, Seannottingham, Skysmith, Slightsmile, Smooth O, Strike Freedom Gundam, Sukiari, TTheE, Tequendamia, Terrencehatch, Tgeairn, The Nerd from Earth, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tom Allen, Trutell, Tuggasub, Ulric1313, UnionBild, Velella, Vsmith, WhiteWriter, Woohookitty, Xtraeme, Zarashen, Znorz, Zohar2005, Zyklonic, 366 anonymous edits Hill of Tara Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480729736 Contributors: 28421u2232nfenfcenc, A. Parrot, Adraeus, Adz brez, Ahoerstemeier, Andrwsc, Andycjp, Angr, Angusmclellan, Ardfern, Asarla, AshlingL97, Bardagh, Betacommand, Bh1331, Bigwyrm, Bkwillwm, Blue-Haired Lawyer, Breckenheimer, Brholden, Brilliant Pebble, BrownHairedGirl, Buster7, Canaen, Cathar11, Ciarz, Cmount, Codingmasters, Collinsb, Copana2002, Damnbutter, Dan100, Deadstar, Demerzel, Demiurge, Dhawk1964, Diallin, Discospinster, Djegan, Dorvaldude, Dpmuk, Dr Brancaleone, Droll, Dumbo1, EamonnPKeane, Elagatis, Elmo ie, Eltoten, Emmacha, Fergananim, Finnrind, Fr Pavel, Frangibility, Frecklefoot, Frokor, Fuzzform, Fyyer, Gaius Cornelius, GoldenMeadows, Grafen, Hapsiainen, Henrygb, Hibernian, Ian Pitchford, Jan1nad, Jedibob5, Jogers, Jpolchar, Kathryn NicDhna, Kessler, Koavf, Komowkwa, Kordas, Korovioff, Lapsed Pacifist, M-le-mot-dit, Maplsyrupancake, Maxim Razin, Michig, MikeCrumlin, Mmulanax, Nforrester, Nick Number, Nicknack009, Night of the Big Wind, Nora lives, O'Dea, Ogambear, Olompali, Orbicle, Paddedrock, PamD, Patleahy, Pauline scribe, Pedro, Peter Clarke, Pigman, Pinethicket, Plastikspork, Poopsiehorndog, RHaworth, RJASE1, Rannphirt anaithnid (old), RedWolf, RepublicanJacobite, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Ryanaxp, SGGH, Sarah777, Sbowers3, SchuminWeb, Seaneendubh, Seskasha, Setanta747 (locked), Snek01, Sobreira, Stemonitis, Stone, Supermorff, Tara..x..Tiara, TaraMontgomery, Tassedethe, Tehomet, The Man in Question, The Nut, The Warlock, Thecheesykid, UberMan5000, Verdasuno, Vladromanenko, Wiglaf, Wingman4l7, Wobbelyheadbob, WpZurp, Yiferic, ZeroJanvier, Zoney, 170 anonymous edits Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480953762 Contributors: 0XQ, 15lsoucy, 2fort5r, 2offadyke, A Sunshade Lust, A. B., A. Post-Muller, AHert, AKADriver, AThing, Aaneelu, Aarishshaheen, Adamthada, Againme, Alansohn, Alarob, Alexb102072, AllanHainey, Amcaja, Amerana, Andy Christ, Angr, Anlace, AnonMoos, Antandrus, Antariki Vandanamu, Anthon.Eff, Anthony, Anthony Appleyard, Ariagia, ArthurDuhurst, Asarelah, Awickert, Awostrack, BanyanTree, Barticus88, Baxterguy, Bazza1971, Bcameron54, Bearian, Ben Ben, BenBurch, Benyon3, Berig, Bernstein2291, Berox, Billposer, Bletch, Blueboar, Blupper92, Bob rulz, Bobblehead, Bonadea, BrainMarble, Brentt, Brian0918, Brunnock, Brutaldeluxe, Bscotland, CJLL Wright, CSTAR, Cadwallader, CaliforniaAliBaba, Caliga10, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cassowary, Cautious, Cayuela, Charles Matthews, Charred Feathers, Chazmania87, Chiton magnificus, Chiwara, Chris Buckey, Circulationsys, Cliftonian, ClovisPt, Cmderr, Codex Sinaiticus, Confuzion, Cookiecaper, CosmicMonkey, Countakeshi, Cuchullain, Czolgolz, Dabbler, Damifb, DanKeshet, Dantheox, Davidhorman, Dbachmann, Dbrodbeck, Dbutler1986, Deanos, Deeceevoice, Dekimasu, Demorior, Dentren, Deor, Des1974, Descartes1979, Dialectric, Diderot, Differentgravy, Disengage75, Dnlzlvleldk, Docu, Dominic, Dominus Vobisdu, DopefishJustin, Dougweller, DreamGuy, Drieakko, Dsewell, Duster555, Dvyost, Dysmorodrepanis, Dugosz, EEye, Earthisalive, Egil, Elmmapleoakpine, Emperorbma, Epolk, Ergative rlt, Error, Ertly, Esperant, Essjay, Ettrig, Ex0pos, FHSerkland, Favonian, FayssalF, Felix Dance, Fentener van Vlissingen, Ferkelparade, Fernirm, Filippusson, Fledgist, Florian Blaschke, Foobar, Freechild, GTBacchus, Gadfium, Gaia1CB3, Gaia2767spm, Gaius Cornelius, GalanM, Gioto, Glenn, GomiTaroGeorge42, Gossg, Goustien, Grafen, Grant Gussie, Gun Powder Ma, Guthrie, Guusbosman, Hadal, Hajor, Hall Monitor, Hauganm, Hectorian, Henna, Hephaestos, Heron, Herostratus, Hibernian, Hmains, Hu, Hunter1084, Hyacinth, Imaninjapirate, Imran, Infrogmation, Inger E, Ipoellet, Islandspec, Ittan, Itzcoatl, JL 09, JYOuyang, JaGa, JackofOz, Jagged 85, Jamaal35, Jeff3000, Jeremie, Jerryb1961, Jguk 2, JimWae, Jjesuswiki, Jjoensuu, Jlittlet, John, John Hill, Johnwhunt, Jonas Poole, Jonatan, Jonathunder, Jonkerz, Jorge Stolfi, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jperrylsu, Jwilson, JzG, Kavaiyan, Khalid hassani, Kimiko, Kman543210, KnightRider, Knyght27, Komitsuki, KongminRegent, Konstantinos, Kpalion, Krator, Ksyrie, Kuralyov, Kwame Nkrumah, Kwamikagami, Ladril, Laurinavicius, Leonardo Alves, Lewishb, Liftarn, Lindert, Ling.Nut, Lisasmall, Locke Cole, LoserKid123, LouI, MacRusgail, Macaddct1984, Madman2001, Maias, Mais oui!, Makaristos, Malc82, Mandarax, Marc29th, Marcika, Mareino, Mataveriotai, Matt Yeager, Matthead, Mattisse, Maunus, MelbourneStar, Mellery, MeltBanana, Mervyn, Mesmith9, Mhockey, Michaeljdb, Minesweeper, Mixcoatl, Mjs072, Mksmith, Moanzhu, Moricamulus, Moxy, Mpbx3003, Mr Minchin, MrSativa, Mrwojo, Msmahon, Multum in parva, Murderbike, Mwanner, Mzajac, Mzmadmike, Nascigl, Nathan000000, Navarro, Nersy, Newportm, Nikola Smolenski, Nil Einne, NorCalHistory, Nurg, OlEnglish, Olegwiki, OneDalm0, Oscargsol, Other Choices, OwenBlacker, P4k, PBP, Panairjdde, Panarjedde, Paul Barlow, Pavel Vozenilek, Paxse, Pedro Aguiar, Per Honor et Gloria, Petri Krohn, Peyre, Pietdesomere, Pigman, Pigsonthewing, Pmanderson, Pmsyyz, Polylerus, Possum, Preslethe, Psullivan7, Ptcamn, Pydos, Qemist, Qrsdogg, Quadell, Qwerty463, Rabakam, Rallette, Rchamberlain, Rd232, Rdmauriello, Rflejeune, RhoOphuichi, Rich Farmbrough, Rich jj, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Rnt20, Robbiemuffin, Robertotr, Robina Fox, Roke, Room429, Roy da Vinci, RoyBoy, Rtdrury, Ruszewski, Rwoodsmall, SDC, Salmar, Sam Hocevar, Sander123, Sansabar, Sardanaphalus, Sarfa, SchmuckyTheCat, Scoutersig, Seeaxid, Seglea, Shtove, Sietse Snel, Silverchemist, SimonP, Sin-man, Sinazita, Skalskal, Skepticsteve, Skomorokh, Sluzzelin, Sm8900, Smarkflea, SpookyMulder, Squids We B, Stephan Schulz, Steven J. Anderson, Steven Walling, Storm Rider, Stumps, Sunil060902, Swampgastimes, T-rex, T56b, Taharqa, TallulahBelle, Tannin, Taxman, Tazmaniacs, Tbc2, Tedickey, Telsa, Tesi1700, Thanos5150, That Guy, From That

343

Article Sources and Contributors

Show!, The Ogre, Theelf29, Thegreatdr, Theshibboleth, Tillman, Timwi, Tmangray, Toby Bartels, Tracerbullet11, Trekphiler, Trdel, Twalls, Twas Now, UhOhFeeling, Uucp, Vanished User 4517, Vanished user 03, Vardion, Varlaam, Vizjim, WBardwin, WLU, Wavetossed, Wayne Slam, Web2linc, WehrWolf, Wendell, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, WiccaIrish, Wiglaf, Wiki alf, Wikibofh, WillOakland, Wilybadger, Woohookitty, WpZurp, Wwoods, Yaamicul, YixilTesiphon, Zerida, Zigger, 546 anonymous edits Out-of-place artifact Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480449275 Contributors: 1j1z2, 2over0, 83d40m, Abune, Againme, Agricolae, Alfio, Amakuru, Amcaja, AndarielHalo, Ankithreya, AnotherLuke, Armchair info guy, Aunt Entropy, Auric, Avicennasis, BCtl, Ben Standeven, Bentley4, Blueshirts, Bogdangiusca, Boing! said Zebedee, BrettAllen, BullRangifer, C1k3, Caijun, Calicore, Canglesea, Carfax6, Casperbear, Catneven, Cjwalters, ClovisPt, Cmouse, Cricketgirl, Czolgolz, DabMachine, Danny, Dave T Hobbit, DavidWBrooks, Davkal, Dcsozman, Declare, Dlempa, Don Braffitt, Donmike10, Dougweller, Dpino, Dumbo1, Dysprosia, Dugosz, EdC, Emurphy42, EoGuy, Epolk, Faithlessthewonderboy, Fama Clamosa, Fences and windows, Firsfron, Florian Blaschke, Fonzy, GQsm, Geoffrey Pruitt, Gillyweed, GreenUniverse, Gryffindor, GunnarRene, Hibernian, Historicus800, Hmains, Hydrargyrum, Ingolfson, Inwind, Iohannes Animosus, Jamsshadows, Jetfire85, Jofishtrick, John1014, Jollyroger, JoshuaZ, Jtp123, Kadzuwo, Kansan, Kappa, Kavaiyan, Ledzeppelin321295, Ligulem, Liveintheforests, Lkovac, LuckyLouie, Marcus Brute, Marudubshinki, Matilda, Mavarin, Mboverload, Michael Hardy, Michaelholly, Mike Schiraldi, Moanzhu, Mr pand, NCartmell, Naive cynic, Nodekeeper, Noe, OlEnglish, Ollyoxenfree, Panyd, Paul Barlow, Paul H., Pavel Vozenilek, PedroCarvalho, Pentasyllabic, ProfessorPaul, ProveIt, R'n'B, Rejillo, Riddhill, Robert Brockway, Rothorpe, Sabbut, SamuelTheGhost, Simonm223, Skarebo, SoGonzo, Squids and Chips, Sukiari, SunSw0rd, Terra Novus, That Guy, From That Show!, The Duke of Waltham, Theredstarswl, ThorstenS, Tim1357, Timothyleary, Titanium Dragon, Tubezone, TurabianNights, Ununnilium, VanishedUser314159, Verbal, Verne Equinox, We66er, WhyTanFox, William Aiden, Wolfling, Woohookitty, Wytukaze, ZacharyD, ~shuri, 148 anonymous edits Ancient astronauts Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481273056 Contributors: ***Ria777, 2fort5r, A bit iffy, A. Parrot, AI, Againme, Akriasas, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex '05, Alexben1, Alexlange, Alienspaceships, All Is One, Altzinn, Amcalabrese, Ancienzus, AndyTheGrump, Anen87, Angusmclellan, Anirvan, Anthony Appleyard, Apofisu, Arakunem, Arb, Arch dude, Aremisasling, Armon, Asarla, Assarbad, Atlantean555498, Atomsmasher86, Auric, AxelBoldt, Bagheera, BazookaJoe, Bbernardini, BenTels, Bevo, BierHerr, Bighominid, BillCook, Bj howard, Bluefist, Bobbaxter, Bobblehead, Bogdangiusca, Branddobbe, Brandmeister, Bravey22, Breno, Briangotts, Bronzie, C.harrison1988, CJLL Wright, Cadet Doofe, Cambalachero, Capt Jack Doicy, Carifio24, Castanea dentata, Charlesk, Chemsen, Cherkash, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Ckatz, ClovisPt, Cmdrjameson, Coffeetalkh, Cokerwr, Coppertwig, CopyeditMan, Cosmoskramer, Cpom, Cpq29gpl, Craptree, Crisco 1492, Ctrl build, Cuchullain, Cyberia23, D6, Dancouvert, DanielNuyu, Danielos2, Dave T Hobbit, DavidWBrooks, Dbachmann, Debuskjt, Decltype, Delirium, Dhatz, DiverDave, Dogaru Florin, Donmike10, Dougweller, Dreadstar, Dream of Nyx, DreamGuy, Drutt, Edlitz36, Eekerz, Elamongelohim, ElfQrin, Elimisteve, Ellen Lloyd, Elmer Clark, Emurphy42, Epastore, Evola, Fabian R., Fama Clamosa, Fastily, Fayenatic london, FayssalF, Flamarande, Florian Blaschke, Flyingcheese, Fram, FrankWilliams, Frecklefoot, FreddyMack, Fuhghettaboutit, Fyrael, Gaiusknight, Gamaliel, GarbagEcol, Garik, GeorgeStepanek, Gerbrant, Gfoley4, Gingermint, Glane23, Glassjester, Gnowor, GoingBatty, Gr8opinionater, GregorB, Gremagor, Guoguo12, Gurch, HarryBrown, Harryhoijer, Heironymous Rowe, Hewhoamareismyself, HiLo48, Hiberniantears, Hikui87, Hillman, Hippychickali, Horizonod, Hydrargyrum, Indrid Lukewarm, Ingolfson, IntelligentUniverse, Irbisgreif, Ism schism, Ixfd64, J 1982, J04n, JLRedperson, Jachin, Jagged 85, JamesHamel, JamisonK, Javafox86, Jayen466, Jdperkins, Jennythereader, Joaquin008, Jofishtrick, JonHarder, Jonas kork, Jonathanwallace, Jrn0074, Jrtayloriv, JulesH, Kappa, Karnak666, Keutgummofan, Kintetsubuffalo, Kjaer, Kjmatthews, Kmarinas86, Korg, Kronnang Dunn, Kuralyov, LA2, LSmok3, Lawofone, Lean5316, Ligulem, Liveintheforests, LuckyLouie, Lung salad, Maelstrom3of2, Malik Shabazz, Mandarax, Markeilz, Martijn faassen, Matt Deres, Mayur, Mdmday, Mechante Anemone, MegX, Megata Sanshiro, Melodychick, Mercury1, Mgrogger, Middle 8, Mister.bryan.kelley, Mmortal03, MockTurtle, Mordicai, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, MrPeabody, Mrwuggs, NCartmell, Naddy, Namelessonebooks, Nate5713, Nealparr, NeilEvans, NeonMerlin, NickelShoe, Night Gyr, Nima Baghaei, Nishkid64, Niz, Nkkoroth, Noclevername, NuclearWarfare, Odysses, Old Guard, Omegatron, Opticnerver, Orczar, Otolemur crassicaudatus, P4k, Pablo323, Paul Barlow, Pax:Vobiscum, Pekinensis, Phantomsteve, Philwelch, Phocks, Phx8715, Phyte, Pictureuploader, Pinethicket, Plastikspork, Portillo, Proof Reader, Propaganda328, Psychonaut, Qaz, Queer Scout, R9tgokunks, RG2, Reedy, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rsrikanth05, Rurparz, Ryko, ScottRobertH, Seb az86556, SerpentOfDarkness, Shadow Puppet, ShadowKinght, Shenme, Shiroi Hane, Simonm223, SlimVirgin, Sodmy, Some jerk on the Internet, Spaceman42, Spatch, Sspecter, StAnselm, Steve Farrell, Steven Corliss, StickyWikis, Storm05, Susumebashi, SyL64, Synfullyblond, Taharqa, TechBear, Tentontunic, Tequendamia, Terry harris, Thanos5150, That Guy, From That Show!, The Modern Prometheus, The Rationalist, Theroadislong, Threner, Thumperward, Tide rolls, TimBentley, Timc, Timwi, Tired time, Titus III, Todd Gallagher, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, Tomtom9041, Tony Sidaway, Totakeke777, Tr4v3l3r, TreasuryTag, TripleSiberian, Trusilver, Tuckerresearch, Twinsday, Twthmoses, Ucanlookitup, VanishedUser314159, Varano, Velella, Verbal, VideoGamer7175, Vmeza89, Voiceofreason01, WHRupp, WRK, Wangry, Warmcocoa, WatchingPreacher, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, Whirledtraveller, Whpq, Wikipelli, Wilfred Mumfrey, William Ortiz, Wiwaxia, Wobbuvahi, Wonderboyjh, Woohookitty, Worldmyster7, Xanderliptak, Yerpo, Yigalrechtman, Ynhockey, ZICO, Zacherystaylor, Zafiroblue05, Zhafts, Zzzzz, 612 anonymous edits List of largest monoliths in the world Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480836288 Contributors: A Karley, A. Parrot, Apesteilen, Audin, Bob the ducq, Brutaldeluxe, Bullenwchter, Camulogene, Carders, Charleca, Chronofreak, Dmitri Lytov, Dougweller, Drubique, Durova, Editor2020, Ericoides, Galo1969X, Gobonobo, Goethean, GregorB, Gun Powder Ma, Hamiltondaniel, Hellbus, Italo Tasso, Ivan2007, JEN9841, JOb4aMyth, Jeff G., Jjoensuu, John, John of Reading, Juzhong, Kimberleysouix, Lightmouse, Look2See1, M-le-mot-dit, McKay, Mgiganteus1, Mmxx, Moni3, Nep, Nikkimaria, PhnomPencil, Pietru, President Rhapsody, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richerman, SE7, Scotthutcheon, Simon Burchell, Sirlanz, StAnselm, Tabletop, Themightyquill, Tone, UltimaRatio, Vmenkov, Warofdreams, Wavelength, Wikidness69, Xanzzibar, Zacherystaylor, 52 anonymous edits Maury Island incident Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=471438153 Contributors: A930913, Aragorn2, Arbustoo, AussieLegend, Bassbonerocks, Cyrius, David Gerard, Dbiel, DownAirStairsConditioner, Dsine, ERcheck, Emperor, Factorylad, Fredrik, Furuncle, Gabriellemeroe, Geni, GoingBatty, Hajor, InShaneee, JMK, JamesAM, Jhoule, Kingturtle, Kirkesque, Ks03, Ktr101, Lippard, Longhair, Lukobe, M0rphzone, Maximus Rex, MichaelBillington, Michaeldsuarez, Mlaffs, Nima Baghaei, Nitroblu, One Salient Oversight, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Rjfost, Rjwilmsi, SMakabwe, Shadowjams, Tim!, Wrelwser43, Ydam, Zacherystaylor, 41 anonymous edits Atlantis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481580593 Contributors: - ), -Ril-, 0037, 1Ulisses, 20Bond09, 21655, 24ip, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 3rdAlcove, 4twenty42o, 72Dino, 8472, A Quest For Knowledge, A. Parrot, A8UDI, ACodispo, Aaron Brenneman, Abune, Acalamari, Acroterion, Adam Bishop, AdjustShift, Adoniscik, Adrian Glamorgan, Adum, Aeonx, Ahoerstemeier, Ainlina, Aitias, Ajac, Ajcee7, Ajraddatz, Ajwitney, Akhilleus, Alai, AlainV, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex E. Rivera, Alexb102072, AlexiusHoratius, Alkivar, All Is One, Allstarecho, Alvialover, Analytikone, Anber, Ande B., Andillas, Andonic, Andres, Anglo Pyramidologist, Angusmclellan, Animeaddict 30, Animeranger, Anna Lincoln, AnnaErshova, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, AnthonyQBachler, Antiphus, Antonatlantis, Antonon, Anubis2051, Apainttown, Apoyon, Appleducker, Appraiser, ApprenticeFan, Archanamiya, Archibald Archibaldovich, ArekExcelsior, Arion 3x3, Armonus, Armoreno10, Arnon Chaffin, Arsenio, Arteyu, Artofseeing, Arvindn, As110, Asianbobsaggit, Asterp23, Astronautics, Athenaccat, Athenaios, Atla, Atlantima, AtlantisGod95, Attarparn, AugPi, Auntof6, Auric, Aurongurdian, AussieLegend, Austriacus, Autumn.seal, Avenged Eightfold, AxelBoldt, BETAGAMA, BF, BPK2, BRUTE, Badgernet, Bakerq, Banes, BanyanTree, Baranxtu, Barbra123, Bardsandwarriors, Barfoed, BarretB, Bart133, Basawala, Basketball110, Bastin, Batmanand, Bazil old chap, Bcherry, Behun, Beland, Belovedfreak, Ben Standeven, BenFrantzDale, Bender235, Betselu, Beyond My Ken, BigDunc, BigHaz, BigPhatDaddy, Bigbluefish, BioTube, Biot, BjKa, BjrnEF, Blackzeppelin, Blanchardb, Bletch, Blue520, Bluemoose, Bmearns, Bobalia, Bobo The Ninja, Bobo192, Bobrenner, Bobtheguyman, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, BoomerAB, BorgQueen, Borgx, Bowlhover, BozMo, Brackfalker, BritishHeroGuy, Brozen, Brujo, Bryan Derksen, Bucyrus, BuickCenturyDriver, Bwebb, C-squared, C.Fred, C1010, CG janitor, CJLL Wright, Caleb Rentpayer, Camilocomaz, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian-Bacon, Capitalistroadster, Capricorn42, Captain panda, CaptainVindaloo, Carajou, Carl.bunderson, Carlos458, Cate, Catgut, CatherineMunro, CcAaNnDdIiCcEe, Cebass, Cenarium, Chamal N, Charraire, Checkitout22222, Chinchillaz1, ChrisCork, Christian Emperor, Chunga 67, Cicero1991, Cipher, Civil Engineer III, CliffR, ClockworkSoul, Closedmouth, ClovisPt, Cmichael, Cmiller99, Coasterlover1994, Codetiger, CommonsDelinker, Computerfan, Contributor777, Conversion script, Cornflake pirate, Corpx, Correogsk, Count Ringworm, Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Crackpot1234, Crash Underride, Crazycomputers, Creatatron, Crisco 1492, Crohnie, Csigabi, Ctbolt, Cuchullain, Cuervo, Culverin, Cureden, Curps, Cush, Cwsavage78, Cyborg19, Cylon, Czj, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, DJghr1, DVD R W, DVdm, Dabee911, Daniel5127, DanielDemaret, Dante Alighieri, Danthemankhan, Darkbreed, Darkohead, Darth Panda, Das Baz, David Fuchs, David Ronald2, Dawn Bard, Dbachmann, Dbutler1986, DeadEyeArrow, Deanos, Debresser, Decltype, Deep Atlantis, Dejael, Dekisugi, Delldot, DeltaQuad, Denisarona, Dennis Bratland, Deor, Der Golem, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dersonlwd, Descent221, Deskana, Destroyerofminds, Dexter 12, Dgw, Dia^, Diannaa, DickLukens, Diderot, Didit, Dino, Discospinster, Dittaeva, Djkyky, Dlohcierekim's sock, Doc Tropics, Doc9871, DocDaniel, Dogposter, Dogtownclown, Don4of4, Dooflotchie, Dooniver, Dotm, Dougweller, Dr.K., Dragons flight, DrakeFlammel, Drakonicon, Dreadstar, Dream Focus, DreamGuy, Drizzlefizzle, Drmies, Dspradau, Duk, Dybabdulwadud, Dycedarg, E-Kartoffel, E.P.I.C., EMcCutchan, EWS23, Egil, Egmontaz, Eightyseven, Ekem, El C, Elaragirl, ElationAviation, Eldrua, ElephantForgets, Elevenoclops1138, Eliyak, Elk Salmon, Ellywa, Elsbryn14, Ems57fcva, Enkyklios, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eragon1t1, Ericoides, Erika Altek, Error, Eruname, ErynnTaylor, Escape Orbit, Essay1811, Etacar11, Evan Robidoux, Everlong, Everyking, Evgenij b, ExplorianCaptain, FCYTravis, FF2010, Fahez, Falconleaf, Fatih 2307, Faulknerck2, Favonian, Favonich, FayssalF, Fear the hobbit, FelisLeo, Fiftwekid, FinalRapture, Firecircle, FisherQueen, Fledylids, Flewis, Flockmeal, Flow, Forceandjunk, Forgotmytea, FourChan, Franamax, Fred.e, Fredrik, Freestyle-69, FreshBreak, Fribbler, Friginator, Frotz, Frozen4322, Funandtrvl, Fyver528, GDonato, GNAA Staos, Gaelen S., Gaius Cornelius, GalaazV, Gandydancer, GanstaNinja, Ganymead, Garber5b, Gareth Owen, Gatorademan, Gaz, GeneralCheese, Geo8rge, Georgeos Diaz-Montexano, Georgewilliamherbert, Gilliam, Gillyweed, Ginsengbomb, Girolamo Savonarola, Glane23, Glassofwood, Glenn, Gnomon, GoOdCoNtEnT, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Golbez, Goldfritha, GoonerDP, GorillaWarfare, Gourami Watcher, Goustien, Gr8opinionater, Gracenotes, Graham87, Granite07, Greenback191, Greenleaf, Greentryst, Greymackenzie, Gritchka, Grm wnr, Gryboy09, Gtrmp, Gunkarta, Gurch, Gurdjieff, Guslacerda, Gustable, Guthrie, Gwernol, Gkhan, Hairy Dude, Hajor, Haldrik, HalfOfElement29, Halfabeet, Halmstad, Ham236, Harrisonjedi, Harry, Hastalavista, Hawjam, Heah, Hellbus, Heracles31, HexaChord, Hgilbert, Hkd2029, Hmains, Hmngr06, Hon-3s-T, Hoo man, Hoss, Hotspur95, HueSatLum, Hunterd, Hygum, I-10, IW.HG, Iain99, Ian.thomson, Icey, Icez, Igiffin, Ih8evilstuff, Illinoisavonlady, Illuminatiscott, Illythr, Indil, Indosauros, Ineverheardofhim, Infrogmation, Ino5hiro, InsaneSonikkuFan, Intranetusa, Ioeth, Iridescent, Irishguy, Isidrago, Islander, J.delanoy, JC De La Torre, JFFIV, JForget, JNW, JOK3R, JRM, Jackfork, JackofOz, Jaggajaggajagga, Jason Potter, Java7837, Jbelanger, Jbsmth, Jeandr du Toit, Jebba, Jeffrey Mall, Jeffrey Smith, Jess116, Jgergely, Jgk009, Jhamez84, JhanCRUSH, Jillids, Jim1138, JimPettis, Jimd, Jinxed, Jnorton7558, JoanneB, Jockinmystyles, Jogvanvioy, John, John1014, John254, JonHarder, Jondel, Jonseysupmate, Jooler, Jor, JorgeGG, JoshCarter15, Joshbrez, Joshua BishopRoby, Joshua Issac, Josiah Rowe, Joxernolan, Joyschwab, Jschnur, JuJube, Juhko, Julianbce, Juliancolton, JuneGloom07, Junglecat, Junkyardprince, Jusdafax, Just H, JustPhil, JustinHagstrom, Justincop, Justinmaichuk, Jyril, Jna runn, KGasso, Kadzuwo, Kaimiikekamaila, Kaobear, Karnak666, Karohatch, Katie Selph, Kchishol1970, Keaton, Kehrbykid, Keilana, Keith Edkins, Kelseykins, Kelvin Case, Keraunos, Kesh, Kf4bdy, Kh7, Khukri, Kiddyoop, Kiki99736, Killiondude, King Hildebrand, King Lopez, Kiran3000, Kiwichipster, Kkonst, Kmg90, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knutux, Koavf, Konzack, Kotra, Kozuch, Kr1st1deejay97, Kronocide, Ktr101, Kubigula, Kunalmehta, Kungming2, Kuralyov, Kuru, Kushal9, KvakX, KyleMckee, L Kensington, Laboris Dulcedo, Lacrimosus, Laurinavicius, Ld100, LeaveSleaves, Lebiton, Lectonar, Lee M, Leo44, LeonWhite, LesPaulUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Levalley, LeviK3a, Lights, LikeThatWillHappen, LilHelpa, Lila and Joel, Lilmoorman, Limjm,

344

Article Sources and Contributors

Ling.Nut, Linnell, Lion of god, Lir, Litefantastic, Llywrch, Loa, Logan, Lokicarbis, Lolck2, LoneStar77, Lord Eru, Lostinspace3rd, Love u lotsxoxo, Lovelight, Lozeldafan, Lquilter, Luis rib, Luk, Lumos3, Luna Santin, Lunchtime, Lupo, Luther93, Lyricmac, Lysianna, MBisanz, MJCdetroit, MMich, MPerel, MStraw, Macukali, Magic Mana Mike, Magiccarpet888, Mahjongg, Majora4, Malarauko, Malcolm Farmer, Mallaccaos, Manonmaui, Manuel-aa5, Maprovonsha172, Marcok, Maria Fdez-Valmayor, Mark, Mark Grant, Mark Richards, Martha Helene Jones, Martijn du Pre, Martin451, Master Jay, Master shepherd, Mastrchf91, Matblinks, Materialscientist, Matevzk, Mato, Mav, Mawmawbear8, Maximus Rex, Mboverload, Mdebets, Meeples, Megahyperpowerman, Mel Etitis, Melligem, Melodeath, Merewyn 832, Merlinsorca, Meshach, MetaManFromTomorrow, Mets501, Mgraikoski5504, Mhking, Miamiheat99, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Michael IX the White, Michael16G, Microcell, Midnightblueowl, Mike Rosoft, MikeLynch, Mikeo, Mild Bill Hiccup, Millisits, Minimac's Clone, Minna Sora no Shita, Miquonranger03, Mjk2357, Monkey2580, Montrealais, Monty845, Moonriddengirl, Mountainfire, Mr Stephen, Mr d logan, Mr. Lefty, Mr. Wheely Guy, MrSquiggly, Mukadderat, Mustafarox, Mwanner, Mygerardromance, Myrandom1786, NEMT, Nacirema, Naelphin, Nakon, Nancy, Nard the Bard, Nasnema, Natalie Erin, Nate1481, Natty4bumpo, NatusRoma, Navalpath, Navstar, NawlinWiki, Ndkl, Nefertum17, NeilEvans, Neilbeach, NellieBly, NeoThe1, Nerd66, Nescio, Nev1, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Newyorxico, Nick C, Nick Number, Nick Wilson, NickelShoe, Nickfraser, Niclah99, Nicolokyle, Nilmerg, Ninetyone, Nintendo Maximus, Nirmanakayas, Nishkid64, Nivix, Nn123645, Noitall, Nomadhacker, Northamerica1000, Norton763, Nothinbutsox137, Nothingofwater, Nowhither, Nsaa, Nuffinspecialshow, Nufy8, Nuhhcollee, Nycgold87, ObiterDicta, Oda Mari, Odie5533, Odin 85th gen, Odysses, Oggalyboogaly, Okedem, OlEnglish, Olivier, Ollj, Olorin28, Omegatron, Onef9day, Onorem, Opblaaskrokodil, OranL, Oreo Priest, Orphan Wiki, Orthepox13, Oskar71, Owen, Oxymoron83, Ozhistory, P Ingerson, P. S. Burton, PA, PSzalapski, PZFUN, Pacoortunno, PaddyLeahy, Panairjdde, Pascaweb, Paul A, Paul Barlow, Paul H., Paxsimius, Pearle, PedroPVZ, Pendragon98, Perakhantu, Percy Snoodle, PericlesofAthens, Peruvianllama, Peter.C, Petrocks666, Pgk, Phagopsych, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phibes, Phil0leech, Philg88, Philip Trueman, Philosopher, Phiwum, Piano non troppo, Piccor, Picklemanslayercow, Pictureuploader, Piggy piglet, Pigman, Pinethicket, Pishogue, Planet-man828, Pmanderson, Pollinator, Polly, Pookster11, Poor Yorick, Possum, Postdlf, President Rhapsody, PrometheusDesmotes, Proofreader77, Proteus, Pruxo, Przepla, Psyche825, Pt, Puppet13, Pupster21, Purz12, Pyrospirit, Quadell, QuizzicalBee, Qwert416, Qwyrxian, R, R'n'B, RA0808, RHaworth, RMHED, Radon210, Radoneme, Rama, Rammer, Raryel, Rasmus Faber, Ratemonth, Raven in Orbit, RayAYang, Rayfire, Razorflame, Rcingham, Rcsprinter123, Rdsmith4, Recognizance, RedBLACKandBURN, RedLina, RedWolf, Reddi, Redthoreau, Redtigerxyz, Reedf1, Reflex Reaction, Rei, ReignInTiki, Restepc, Rettetast, Revolucin, RexNL, Rgoodermote, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Fannin, Richerman, Rjwilmsi, Rnapier, RobertFritzius, RobertG, RobertMc, Robin klein, Robors, RockBandit, Rocksanddirt, Rokus00, Rokus01, Roleplayer, Ronhjones, Rory096, Roy14dragons, Royalguard11, Rrburke, Rror, Rudric, RunOrDie, Runewiki777, RypER, SFH, ST47, Sabertiger, Saddy Dumpington, Sakanagaijin, Salexkc, Salvo46, Sam Hocevar, Sam Pointon, Sammus69, Samtheboy, Samuel Swank, Sand Squid, Sango123, Sarahi79, Sardonicme, Satanael, Scarian, Schneelocke, SchuminWeb, Scimitar, Scorpionman, Sd144, Sean D Martin, SeanMack, Seaphoto, Seedplanter, Seegoon, Semiramiscan, Senator Palpatine, Sept162009, Sgkay, Shadowjams, Shalom Yechiel, Shanes, Sharkface217, Shaundakulbara, Shawn M. O'Hare, SheikYerBooty, Sherurcij, Shii, Shimgray, Shirtwaist, Shoeofdeath, Sihan, Sijo Ripa, SilhouetteSaloon, Singhalawap, Sisssyhg, Sjakkalle, Sj, Skidude9950, Skizzik, SkyMachine, SkyWalker, Skywalker, Slakr, SlamDiego, Slarrarte, Slatersteven, SlimVirgin, Slinky, Slither1967, Sm8900, Smart Nomad, Smelly5, Smokizzy, SnakeChess5, SnorlaxMyther, Snowolf, SoLando, Sobolewski, Softron, Soliloquial, Solitude, Sophie means wisdom, SpaceFlight89, SparrowsWing, Spartan198, Specter01010, Spl, Spyhard28, St.Trond, St.daniel, Stagbag, Starscream512, StaticGull, Stbalbach, Steamerjoe, Steinsky, Stemonitis, Stephanos Georgios John, Stephen C. Carlson, Stephenb, Stevenmitchell, Stevietheman, Stewie9597, Stolengood, Stone, Storpilot, Str1977, SummerPhD, SunDragon34, Superatlantis, Superm401, Suruena, Susurrus, Sveco, Sverdrup, Swaq, SwiftHat, Swpb, SyL64, Synchronism, TCMAtlantis, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TYelliot, Tabledave, Tarret, Tarzanlhhf, Tbarron, Tbhotch, Techman224, Tecklord, Teknolyze, Telion, Tempodivalse, TharkunColl, Thatcatworm, The Dark, The Forsaken One, The Grog, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Utahraptor, The Woman Who Sold The World, The Wordsmith, TheBiggestFootballFan, TheNewPhobia, TheProject, TheTrainEnthusiast, TheWickerMan, Thebossroshan, Thecheesykid, Theober555, Thingg, This lousy T-shirt, Thisisborin9, Thomas, Thomas Blomberg, ThomasK, Thrustking56, Thu, Thunderforge, Tickle me, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tikiwont, Timrollpickering, Timwi, Tiptoety, Titus III, Tjchase, Tobias382, Toira, Tom harrison, TomPhil, Tomchiukc, Tommy2010, Tommyt, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, TorreFernando, Totalthinker, Tpbradbury, Trausten2, Travelbird, TravisAF, TreasuryTag, Treguard, Trevor MacInnis, Tripodero, Truestufff, Tslocum, Tumble, Turgan, Tvrtko26, Tweisbach, Twilightfan000, Ugajin, Ulric1313, Useight, UserDoe, Valencerian, Vbhj197, Vclaw, Veritas Lux, Verrai, Versus22, Vervin, Vianello, Vic, Victoria0695, VigilancePrime, Vipinhari, Vjingo, Vmrgrsergr, VolatileChemical, Vultur, Vuong Ngan Ha, Wacdragon1701, Wackymacs, Waggers, Wakawaka1, Walter, Walterwiki, Wandering Writer, Wangond, Wareh, Warwolf, Watch Rider, Waynesbesanko, Wereon, Wetman, Wicherink, Wicked444good, WikiLaurent, Wikipelli, Wikiwkiwki, Wikiwriter80132, Wimt, Winchelsea, Wirbelwind, Wjhonson, Wtf24, Wuhwuzdat, Wuzz up home, Wwoods, Wylie440, XJamRastafire, XKatz90, Xaagkx, Xavid, Xcentaur, Xellas, Xikipedia, Yak, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yggdrasilsroot, Youre dreaming eh?, Yuusakure, Zelonephyco, Zerbey, Zero sharp, Zfr, Ziaabbas, Zoe, ZooFari, Zsinj, ZxxZxxZ, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, , , 2919 anonymous edits Location hypotheses of Atlantis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480433723 Contributors: 3rdAlcove, Abune, Acalamari, Akhilleus, Alfa989, Andrewpmk, Anen87, Anglo Pyramidologist, Antandrus, Antonatlantis, Antorobe, Appraiser, Athenaios, Atlantis-korrekt, Attarparn, Audaciter, Aughra123, Auntof6, Auric, Bblakeney, Beland, Bkwillwm, Bobzchemist, Bokpasa, Boleyn, BostonMA, Bovineone, BrendanFrye, Brossow, Bryan Derksen, Call me mad, Cardamon, Carlwev, Cerealboxloser, Cerwyd, Chaiten1, Charles Matthews, Charlotte, City alb, ClovisPt, Cmdrjameson, Codenamecuckoo, Collard, Copeland.James.H, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, Darkohead, David Latapie, Delirium, Deor, Dougweller, Dougwellera, Download, Dspark76, Eep, Elonka, Erik the Red 2, FayssalF, Fieldday-sunday, Flinders Petrie, Freederick, Gaius Cornelius, GeorgeFormby1, GeorgeLouis, Georgeos Diaz-Montexano, Ghmyrtle, Ginohhh, Gogo Dodo, Graeme Bartlett, Greblord, GreenUniverse, GregorB, Greymackenzie, Ground Zero, Guillom, Gunkarta, Gunnar Hendrich, Gustable, Guthrie, HTO, HappyInGeneral, HarryHenryGebel, Heah, HighKing, HollyI, Hu12, Hunterd, IRWolfie-, Igiffin, Infidel taco, Ingolfson, Intelligentsium, Italianboy101, J.delanoy, JForget, Jachymov, Jess116, Jlpinar83, JoeSmack, Joefromrandb, John Carter, John Nevard, John of Reading, Jondel, Josemariadelarosa, JoshuaZ, Kalathalan, Khukri, Korossyl, Kotra, Ktr101, Kurtle, Kwame Nkrumah, Laleena, Lemonade100, Liftarn, Lilweezyfbaby, Liveintheforests, Logical2u, LoneStar77, LongDouble, Lotje, MacRusgail, Marcok, Marjoriedawes, Mboverload, Mervyn, Michael Hardy, Mike4ty4, Mikenorton, Mild Bill Hiccup, Milton Stanley, Mincy398, Mlaffs, MoRsE, Monty845, Motrhead is alive, Mwbseiso, Nakon, Narssarssuaq, Nathan Laing, Nishkid64, Nlu, Notpietru, Nunh-huh, Oatmeal batman, Odin 85th gen, Olympic god, OnePt618, Orangemarlin, Oscarthecat, Pacoortunno, Panarjedde, Paul H., Pearle, Peripitus, Philafrenzy, Profsherman, Razishaban, Reddi, Redthoreau, Reflex Reaction, Remember the dot, Rholton, Rjwilmsi, Robberty, RobertMc, RookZERO, Rudric, Ruggiero, Ryulong, SYC, Scepsis, Scouter1990, Scoutersig, Serpent's Choice, Simonm223, SirShill, Slatersteven, Slither1967, Sm8900, Snarius, SpeDIt, SpyHunter29, Str1977, Strongbadmanofme, Sugaar, Sumafi, Superatlantis, Sutimere, Swordman182, TAKASUGI Shinji, Tabletop, TharkunColl, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The forty robbers of Ali Baba, Thesilence, Thomas Blomberg, Thorwald C. Franke, Titanium Dragon, Tjchase, Truemate, Tuganax, Tut74749, Updatehelper, VanishedUser314159, Vtmn, Walterwiki, Wangi, WereSpielChequers, West.andrew.g, Whipping Star, WikHead, WittyMan1986, Woohookitty, Wykebjs, Xellas, Xikipedia, Zoz, Zscout370, , 357 anonymous edits Kumari Kandam Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480229979 Contributors: Alex '05, Anup Ramakrishnan, Auric, Avedeus, Bakasuprman, Bala freethinker, BostonMA, Bumbulski, CALR, Calibas, Cethegus, Chris 73, Closedmouth, Coelacan, Dbachmann, Doctorbruno, Dougweller, Ediug, Ergative rlt, Fat&Happy, Fconaway, Fuhghettaboutit, GeeJo, Goustien, Gumruch, JacobJosephFrank, JovianSnickers, Jwy, Kavaiyan, LilHelpa, Majorly, Manoij, Mel Etitis, Mjk2357, Nmadhubala, OlEnglish, Pablo-flores, Philip Trueman, Philosopher, PlatinaKoki, Pratyeka, R.srinivaas, RCRC, Rajaram Sarangapani, Rayfield, Rdx-77, RegRCN, Rsata, Rtkat3, Sarvagnya, Senthilkumaras, Squids and Chips, Srkris, Sudharsansn, Szquirrel, Tawik, Tech77, Teloss, TheParanoidOne, Utcursch, Vadakkan, Vagab, Vaikunda Raja, Vayalir, Wereon, Wikiality123, Wilsonm, Woohookitty, Wujastyk, Ww2censor, , 93 anonymous edits Mu Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478811401 Contributors: 20Bond09, 24ip, 99DBSIMLR, A. Parrot, AVPgojirafreak, Adam the Stampede, Adamhauner, Againme, AlainV, Alansohn, Aminullah, Anchjo, AngelOfSadness, AnonMoos, As110, Attilios, Auric, Bamse, Banaticus, Baphin, Bbartlog, Behemoth, Billinghurst, Binksternet, Biruitorul, BjKa, BlackxxJapan, Bluezy, Bmac91, Bobblehead, Bozoid, Bpell, Brain, Brianga, Bryan Derksen, Buster79, Caiaffa, Capnjeremy, Carbuncle, Casull, Ccady, Chevellefan11, ChrisCork, Cleared as filed, ClovisPt, Courtjester555, Crazilla, CyberSkull, Damaband, Danbrown99, Decumanus, Dekisugi, Dev93l, DianaCouture, Djungelurban, DocWatson42, Don Cuan, Dougweller, Dream of Nyx, Duayne Kiuda, Eban, Ellsworth, Epbr123, Fatmacman, Florentino floro, Fubar Obfusco, Gary D, Gate2Valusia, Gaykhatu, Geronimochic, Gfoley4, Ghmyrtle, Giantdevilfish, Gojira17, Goustien, Graeme Bartlett, Granite07, GreenUniverse, Gtrmp, GunnarRene, Haikupoet, Hans Dunkelberg, Hawk777, Hede2000, Hgilbert, IAMTHEEGGMAN, Incnis Mrsi, Ish ishwar, JYOuyang, Java7837, Jchurchward, JimPettis, JohnBlackburne, Jorge Stolfi, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jpai235, Jpatokal, Kadzuwo, Kinori, Kintetsubuffalo, Koavf, Kuralyov, LilHelpa, LokiClock, Lowellian, Ltmidnight, Lusanaherandraton, MGMario, Majeston, Majorly, Martijn faassen, Master Deusoma, Mike Capp, Mikecap, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miles297, Mjk2357, Mlaffs, Moto53, Movedgood, Mtdewmaniac21, Muinn, Mutant-biogen, NeilEvans, Neum, Nikkimaria, Nirion, Northumbrian, NorwegianBlue, Noumenal, Oddbodz, Omeganian, Omegatron, Orfen, Ossian511, Pahari Sahib, Papo1975, Paukrus, Pedant, Perfectblue97, Pjacobi, Plato, Plazak, Pollinosisss, Prod, QTEng, Qdfesr, RCS, Rama, Rangeguide, RdCrestdBreegull, ResidentAnthropologist, Rich Farmbrough, Richard-of-Earth, Ritchy, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Robina Fox, Rokus03, Ryuuseipro, Scwlong, Sean D Martin, Seeker1234567890, Shii, Singularity, SkookumDog, Slash, Slatersteven, Snarius, Snigbrook, Sophie means wisdom, Squids and Chips, Storkk, Str1977, SuperHamster, TJ Spyke, Tarret, Tassedethe, The Fat Man Who Never Came Back, TheDestitutionOfOrganizedReligion, Theresa knott, Thingg, TimBentley, Timneu22, Titanium Dragon, Tjn3wton, Tregoweth, TrueGreatness63, Tryphiodorus, Urutapu, Vaarsuvius, Vanished User 0001, Velella, VigilancePrime, Vsmith, WARendfeld, WLU, Wednesday Next, WereSpielChequers, Wikibntg, Wikkidd, Winchelsea, XL2D, Ylem, Zara1709, Zerokitsune, , , 403 anonymous edits Vimana Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480204640 Contributors: 0XQ, Ahpook, Akeron, Akhenaten622, Akshaykolle, AltiusBimm, Anik Ahluwalia, Anthony Appleyard, Auric, BD2412, BalanceRestored, Betterthanbond, Buddhipriya, Carlj7, ClovisPt, Cminard, CodeMangler, CryptoDerk, Ctjf83, DabMachine, Dangerous-Boy, David G Brault, David Gerard, Dbachmann, Deeptrivia, Dialectric, Dori, Dougweller, DreamGuy, Dwolsten, Ekabhishek, Emperor, Eryops, Factitious, Fayenatic london, FayssalF, Fconaway, Firecircle, Foobar, Fredrik, Ghelae, Ghirlandajo, Glenn, Gouryella, GregorB, Gtrmp, Hair Commodore, Hall Monitor, HandThatFeeds, Hanskarlperez, Heatsketch, I'mDown, Icairns, ImpuMozhi, Iridescent, Jagged 85, JamesEG, Jggouvea, Jrdan, Kajasudhakarababu, Khirad, Kjramesh, KnightRider, Kocio, Krishvanth, Kukkurovaca, Kuralyov, Lapinmies, M7, Macedonian, Mairebleu, Markparker, Mjk2357, Morgan Leigh, Musicpvm, NeOnD, Nima Baghaei, Orenburg1, Paul Barlow, Pauli133, Pegship, Pranab.salian, Prashmail, Profvsprasad, Redtigerxyz, Risingstar12, Rjwilmsi, Robofish, Robsahl, RodC, Ryukaiel, SDC, Sac1891, Sendube, Sethie, Shee-un, Smalljim, Sniperz11, SteinbDJ, Stormwatch, Sujan einstein, Swpb, Tarikur, Tasty monster, Texture, Thalter, Thanos frant, Themfromspace, Thinking of England, Tkynerd, Twthmoses, Viriditas, Wangond, Wapcaplet, Wiki-uk, Wikidudeman, Xanthippe, Zerokitsune, 130 anonymous edits Charles Fort Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=473031763 Contributors: 999, Abmac, Adam keller, Adambondy, Ahruman, Alison, Andre Engels, Andres, Andycjp, Anomalist0017, Auric, B7T, Babbage, Beardo, BigHaz, Billlangdon, BirgitteSB, Blorg, Bluejay Young, Boldklub-PJs, Bornintheguz, Bscotland, CanisRufus, Ceph'Ji'Wu, Ceyockey, Chr.K., Christinebeatty, Cimon Avaro, Clipper78, ClovisPt, Colonies Chris, Commander Keane, Crais459, D-Rock, D6, Damifb, Daniel.o.jenkins, David Edgar, David Gerard, Derek Ross, Dfmclean, Djinn112, DomQ, DrJohnnyDiablo, Draugen, DreamGuy, Duchess of Bathwick, DustFormsWords, Ed Poor, Elian, Eliyak, Emijrp, Emperor, Emurphy42, Extremophile, Falstaffian,

345

Article Sources and Contributors

Five-toed-sloth, Forteanajones, Frecklefoot, Fredbauder, Fuhghettaboutit, Gamaliel, GarnetRChaney, Garrick92, Gary D, GirasoleDE, Glen, Goethean, Grilledegg, Gtrmp, Gwernol, Gzornenplatz, HRDingwall, Hektor, Hephaestos, Heron, Hob Gadling, Hu12, I dream of horses, IMSoP, Ian Pitchford, Ike9898, Iluvcapra, Infracaninophile, JHunterJ, JackofOz, Jagripino, Jamalt24, Jason Recliner, Esq., Jcitalia, JeremyA, Jmm6f488, Just Jim Dandy, K, Kaikhosru, Kappa, Kate, Keraunos, Kh7, Khaosworks, KnightRider, Krelnik, Kukini, Leandrod, LeximaticaPrime, Lippard, Loona, Looris, Lou Sander, Lquilter, Lucyintheskywithdada, MacRusgail, Malcolmxl5, Malik Shabazz, Malleus Fatuorum, Martinphi, Marudubshinki, Maxwell's Demon, Meidosemme, Mekin2000, Michael Hardy, Midnightdreary, Mike Selinker, MrDarcy, Nealparr, Nekura, Novangelis, Ollj, PDH, Pepso2, Phiwum, Pjmpjm, Quadell, Rayc, Rehrhart, Rich Farmbrough, Ringbark, Rjwilmsi, Rodparkes, SDC, SageMab, Sam Hocevar, SamuelTheGhost, Sannse, Sardanaphalus, Severin01, Shii, Skomorokh, Skysmith, Slovakia, Smcg8374, Smelialichu, Snowdog, SoGonzo, Sophie means wisdom, Star-Algebra, Stephen Gilbert, StoatBringer, Suitov, T-1, Tesscass, The Argonaut, Toddst1, Tommy2010, TootsMojo, Topfoto, Toytoy, Tuvia the Nicefish, Twinsday, VanishedUser314159, Varlaam, VasilievVV, Vibracobra23, Visionthing, Wames, Wandering Courier, Wereon, Whosasking, WikiPedant, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Xanzzibar, Yllosubmarine, Yoyogod, Yuefairchild, Zagalejo, ZayZayEM, , 272 anonymous edits Edgar Cayce Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=477488591 Contributors: 2over0, 8th Ohio Volunteers, 999, A1FF9, Adamfinmo, Aetheling, Afterwriting, Akayb, AlanHarmony, Alansohn, Aldrich Hanssen, Ali strachan, All Is One, Allecher, Allstarecho, Amanikin, Ann Stouter, Apnetmedic, Appraiser, Are kate, Arichnad, Aristophanes68, Attys, Aunt Entropy, Auric, Avalyn, Aviator fly, AwarenessEye, BF, Barek, Barneca, Ben Standeven, Benanhalt, Bill Thayer, Billygeneral, Blades95, Blanchardb, Blandtaco, Bluejay Young, Bobette101, Bobo192, Bradtcordeiro, CRKingston, Caleb Murdock, Cameron Nedland, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cayceuser, Ccpearson, Cgingold, Chancery21, Cheaposgrungy, Chuunen Baka, Civilengtiger, Clay70, Clyde777, Cmdrjameson, Colin MacLaurin, Courtneyjade, Coyoty, Crdillon, D C McJonathan, D6, DabMachine, Dale Arnett, Danieljackson, Dannown, Dario D., David Schaich, Dawud, DeYoung2009, Deflective, Delmet, Deor, Dino, Discospinster, Dlauri, Doctor solar, Dougweller, Dr.K., Drakonicon, Dreadstar, Dshafer, Duchess of Bathwick, Dunganb, EdgarCayce1945, Editor2020, Edwy, Eekerz, Eep, Eh scrtwiki, Ejrrjs, Emperor, Enemyunknown, Ern malleyscrub, EscapedGorilla, Eteq, Ethel Aardvark, Evans1982, FGT2, Faithlessthewonderboy, Fastfission, Fieldday-sunday, Fjperpiglia, Flosseveryday, Fortdj33, Frecklefoot, Freddie LaFemina, Fuhghettaboutit, Fumitol, Funandtrvl, GSlicer, GT5162, Gaius Cornelius, Gamaliel, Ganerd, Gary D, GeneralAtrocity, Geni, Gentaur, Gingerkrick, Godofturnips, Good Olfactory, Grantb, GreenUniverse, Gregbard, GregorB, GreyCat, Gtrmp, Guettarda, HGB, Hawkeye58, Hawstom, HenryLarsen, Hephaestos, HexaChord, Heykidcatch, Hifrommike65, Hu12, IPSOS, Ilikeeatingwaffles, Infinitejpower, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JForget, JGKlein, Jack-A-Roe, Jayen466, Jefffire, Jjs110, Jmaxwell0003, Jmrowland, John, John254, Johnparkw, Jonathunder, Jondel, Juhachi, Kadzuwo, Karen Johnson, Kevin Hayes, King brosby, Knightt, Kralahome, Krash, Kreachure, Ksn, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Kyle1278, LanguageMan, Logos5557, Lokesh 2000, Lomerell, Lord Hawk, Lotiel, Lucyintheskywithdada, Lumos3, Luther93, MacMog, Macmelvino, MakeRocketGoNow, Martinphi, Master shepherd, Mastrchf91, Mathninja, Matthew Auger, Mav, MaxMangel, Mboverload, Mclx, Meelar, Melanippa, Mentifisto, Metronome, Milbroa, Millionsandbillions, Mimihitam, Moncrief, NameIsRon, Nanahuatzin, Ndyguy, NeilN, Nev1, Nifty nobu, Nirame, Nm5mini, Nnnslogan, Obli, Ollj, Omikron23, Oobopshark, OrleaNZ, Pablo-flores, Palaceguard247, Palefist, Paranomia, Passitivity, PatriotBible, Paul August, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pigman, Pmfphd, Poccil, ProfessorPaul, Quadell, Rchamberlain, Retired username, Reywas92, Rhobite, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), RichardMills65, Ricky81682, Robertgreer, Rodneysmall, RookZERO, Rror, SFGiants, SGBailey, SamuelTheGhost, Sarpedon Achilles, Sasper, Satrughna02, Saul1333, Saxifrage, Say Yang, Shawnb1824, Shomishai, SilentStranger, Silktea, Silvermane, Skysmith, Slightsmile, Sparkit, Spasemunki, Spencer, Srenega, Station1, Stephan Leeds, Steve42445, Stormanf, StrangeAttractor, Subramanian, Suriel1981, SwiftHat, TSullivan, Tao2911, Terrorist96, The Incident, The Singularity, TheMandarin, TheObservee, TheRedFall, Theotherkg, Tindes, Tjmayerinsf, Toddst1, Tony1, Tpomponio, Tregoweth, Trevor MacInnis, Trishipedia, Trotula, Typethis, Ugen64, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Unitanode, Uucp, Valheed, VanishedUser314159, Vlskelly, WOSlinker, WTM, Wahkeenah, Walkerofarabia, Wavelength, Wednesday Next, WhatamIdoing, Wiki Raja, Wikid77, Windatheels, WindsweptWaif, Wiwaxia, Wtimrock, Wwhyte, Xinit, Zbvhs, Zhen Lin, Zippy, Zoe, Zoicon5, 510 anonymous edits

346

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

347

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

file:Akha cropped hires.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Akha_cropped_hires.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Akha_couple.JPG: Manuel Jobi Weltenbummler84. derivative work: Hartmanga (talk) file:Status iucn3.1 LC.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg License: unknown Contributors: Clindberg, Ismukhammed, Kelson, Pengo, 8 anonymous edits File:Red Pencil Icon.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_Pencil_Icon.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Peter coxhead file:Homo Sapien range.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homo_Sapien_range.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Phoenix_B_1of3, User:SreeBot File:Plesiadapis.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plesiadapis.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: PlesiadapisNewZICA.png: User:Mateuszica derivative work: Gregors (talk) 15:08, 7 March 2011 (UTC) File:Craniums of Homo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Craniums_of_Homo.svg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: .. File:Ape skeletons.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ape_skeletons.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was TimVickers at en.wikipedia File:Venus of Dolni Vestonice.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venus_of_Dolni_Vestonice.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jbtv at en.wikipedia Image:Farmer plowing.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farmer_plowing.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Ralf Roletschek Fahrradtechnik auf fahrradmonteur.de File:Human spreading over history.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Human_spreading_over_history.png License: Public Domain Contributors: KVDP Image:Indian family in Brazil posed in front of hut.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_family_in_Brazil_posed_in_front_of_hut.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unkown File:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anterior_view_of_human_female_and_male,_with_labels_2.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Anterior_view_of_human_female_and_male,_with_labels.jpg: Mikael Hggstrm derivative work: nagualdesign File:Uomo Vitruviano.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uomo_Vitruviano.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jeff G., Jkullinn, Quibik, Trijnstel, 1 anonymous edits Image:Tubal Pregnancy with embryo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tubal_Pregnancy_with_embryo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ed Uthman, MD ( Flickr, Wikipedia) File:Burkina Faso girl.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Burkina_Faso_girl.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Ferdinand Reus from Arnhem, Holland File:Punjabi woman smile.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punjabi_woman_smile.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Bohme, Ksd5, Roland zh, Santosga, Warburg Image:HappyPensioneer.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HappyPensioneer.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ksd5, Miuki, Santosga, Wst, Ysangkok File:Kirgisischer Junge.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kirgisischer_Junge.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: CIvictim File:Pataxo001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pataxo001.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Valter Campanato/ABr File:Old man from Tajikistan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_man_from_Tajikistan.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Steve Evans from India and USA File:RaceMugshots.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RaceMugshots.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Chris 73 Image:United Nations HQ - New York City.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:United_Nations_HQ_-_New_York_City.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: AnRo0002, Empoor, Gaf.arq, Ibn Battuta, Quasipalm File:Tengeru market.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tengeru_market.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Fanny Schertzer Image:Bifaz abbevillense.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bifaz_abbevillense.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Jos-Manuel Benito File:The Creation of Adam.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Creation_of_Adam.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Barosaul, David Levy, G.dallorto, Mattes, Nard the Bard, PFHLai, PxMa, Sailko, 2 anonymous edits Image:Confuciusstatue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Confuciusstatue.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Mamin27 at en.wikipedia Image:Lorenzo Lippi 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lorenzo_Lippi_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Aotake, Frank C. Mller, Mattes, Shakko, Wst Image:Map-of-human-migrations.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map-of-human-migrations.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: ArachanoxReal, Aude, Avsa, Cwbm (commons), DEm, DieBuche, Eleassar, Fabartus, Glenn, Ies, JMCC1, Joey-das-WBF, Kintetsubuffalo, Noisy, Paulmallet, Phirosiberia, Ranveig, VIGNERON, 12 anonymous edits Image:Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Legoktm File:Sapiens neanderthal comparison.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: hairymuseummatt Image:African Mitochondrial descent.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:African_Mitochondrial_descent.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Maulucioni Image:Red Sea2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_Sea2.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: en:user:Muntuwandi File:Spreading homo sapiens.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spreading_homo_sapiens.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Altaileopard SVG by Magasjukur2 file:Homo floresiensis.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homo_floresiensis.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Ryan Somma Image:Homo floresiensis cave.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homo_floresiensis_cave.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Rosino File:ID - Flores.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ID_-_Flores.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: edited by M.Minderhoud File:Homo floresiensis - reconstruction.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homo_floresiensis_-_reconstruction.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Donmatas Image:LB1 skull.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LB1_skull.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Ray from Queens, USA File:H-floresiensis-Cretan-microcephalic.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:H-floresiensis-Cretan-microcephalic.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Avandergeer (talk) Original uploader was Avandergeer at en.wikipedia Image:Specimen LB1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Specimen_LB1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Ray from Queens, USA Image:Mitochondrial DNA en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mitochondrial_DNA_en.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: derivative work: Shanel (talk) Mitochondrial_DNA_de.svg: translation by Knopfkind; layout by jhc File:Electron microscopy reveals mitochondrial DNA in discrete foci.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electron_microscopy_reveals_mitochondrial_DNA_in_discrete_foci.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Francisco J Iborra1 , Hiroshi Kimura2 and Peter R Cook File:Mitochondrial DNA and diseases.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mitochondrial_DNA_and_diseases.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: original image: XXXL1986 vectorization:

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was TimVickers at en.wikipedia Image:Population bottleneck.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Population_bottleneck.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Mysid at en.wikipedia Image:Northern Elephant Seal, San Simeon2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Northern_Elephant_Seal,_San_Simeon2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Mike Baird from Morro Bay, USA Image:Tobaeruption.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tobaeruption.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Anynobody File:Toba zoom.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toba_zoom.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denys, Gilgameshkun, Joolz, LobStoR, Martin H., Olivier2, Rmih, Thuresson, 1 anonymous edits File:TMRCAs-compared.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TMRCAs-compared.PNG License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Pdeitiker File:PdistVsNforTMRCA194kya.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PdistVsNforTMRCA194kya.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Pdeitiker file:USA Nevada location map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_Nevada_location_map.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: NordNordWest File:Red pog.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie file:USA Colorado location map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_Colorado_location_map.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: NordNordWest file:USA New Mexico location map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_New_Mexico_location_map.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Alexrk2 Image:Hotspots.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hotspots.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ingo Wlbern Image:VEIfigure en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VEIfigure_en.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: chris Image:Tephra fall from 1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tephra_fall_from_1991_eruption_of_Mt_Pinatubo.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Benchill, Magalhes, Rmih Image:TOMS AI Jun16 91.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TOMS_AI_Jun16_91.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Benchill, Diwas, LobStoR, Magalhes, Rmih Image:Mauna Loa atmospheric transmission.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mauna_Loa_atmospheric_transmission.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Diwas, Joolz, Kokoo, Rmih, Vonvon, 2 anonymous edits Image:Aerosol dimming.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aerosol_dimming.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Kgrr at en.wikipedia Image:TOMS SO2 time nov03.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TOMS_SO2_time_nov03.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Benjah-bmm27, Brighterorange, Magalhes, Rmih, Stannered Image:TOMS SO2 Jun17 91.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TOMS_SO2_Jun17_91.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Benchill, Benjah-bmm27, LobStoR, Magalhes, Rmih Image:Sarychev Eruption Generates Large Cloud of Sulfur Dioxide.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sarychev_Eruption_Generates_Large_Cloud_of_Sulfur_Dioxide.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Simon Carn Image:Yellowstone Caldera map2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yellowstone_Caldera_map2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ciaurlec, Didiervberghe, GeoWriter, Juiced lemon, Mike Cline, Mmcannis, Napa, Rmih Image:IPCaldera.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IPCaldera.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Metrodyne at en.wikipedia Image:Wpdms shdrlfi020l harney basin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wpdms_shdrlfi020l_harney_basin.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Decumanus at en.wikipedia Image:Steens Mountain relief map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steens_Mountain_relief_map.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Pete Forsyth Image:HotspotsSRP.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HotspotsSRP.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Metrodyne at en.wikipedia Image:SnakeRiver.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SnakeRiver.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tillman Image:Wfm area51 map en.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wfm_area51_map_en.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Finlay McWalter Image:Santa Fe National Forest Jemez District.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Santa_Fe_National_Forest_Jemez_District.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Una Smith, Zereshk, 1 anonymous edits File:Confusion of Tongues.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Confusion_of_Tongues.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Achim Hering, Ranveig, Shakko, Tomisti File:Gustave Dor - The Holy Bible - Plate I, The Deluge.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gustave_Dor_-_The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_I,_The_Deluge.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Gustave Dor (1832-1883) The "Pannemaker" in the lower right refers to Adolphe Franois Pannemaker (1822-1900) one of Dor's assistants in turning his art into a full-fledged engraving, and a reasonably notable engraver in his own right. Image:Odin hrafnar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Odin_hrafnar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Ranveig Image:Sigurd.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sigurd.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original jpeg uploaded to Commons from the Swedish Wikipedia by Gizmo II Converted to png and edited by Liquid 2003 Png version vectorised by Editor at Large File:Gray726-Brodman.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gray726-Brodman.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Arcadian, Lipothymia, Magnus Manske, Was a bee File:DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Thomas Schultz File:BrocasAreaSmall.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BrocasAreaSmall.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Jperl, Lipothymia, Nevit, OldakQuill, Uwe Gille, Was a bee Image:PET-image.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PET-image.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jens Langner (http://www.jens-langner.de/) Image:FMRI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FMRI.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Frank C. Mller, Solipsist, Superborsuk, Was a bee, 2 anonymous edits File:Spike-waves.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spike-waves.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Der Lange, Lipothymia, Magnus Manske, NEUROtiker, Str4nd, 3 anonymous edits File:ComponentsofERP.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ComponentsofERP.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: The original was created by English Wikibooks user RobinH. The vector version was created by English Wikipedia user Mononomic Image:Sociolinguistics dialect variation.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sociolinguistics_dialect_variation.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: FrancisTyers, Pfctdayelise Image:Languages.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Languages.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: 16@r, Huhsunqu, Krotko Dmitry File:African language families en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:African_language_families_en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Mark Dingemanse (original PNG version); User:Pmx (SVG version) File:Languages of Europe map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Languages_of_Europe_map.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: File:Languages of Europe.svg: Original uploader was Andrei nacu at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Ervidervi, Komita at en.wikipedia. derivative work: Hayden120 (talk) Image:Turkic languages.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turkic_languages.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Maverick16 File:Area of Papuan languages.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Area_of_Papuan_languages.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Kwamikagami at en.wikipedia

348

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Australian languages.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Australian_languages.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Olegzima Image:Langs N.Amer.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Langs_N.Amer.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: User:Vlad2i File:SouthAmerican families 02.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SouthAmerican_families_02.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Davius Image:Stonehenge.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stonehenge.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: 99of9, Pjahr, Wigulf File:Canoe on beach.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canoe_on_beach.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mark.murphy at en.wikipedia Image:aar Qim.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:aar_Qim.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: ERWEH Image:World 1000 BCE.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_1000_BCE.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Electionworld, Glenn, Jagged 85, Roke, Slomox, ZH2010, 4 anonymous edits Image:Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, BBhounder, JMCC1, Jeff Dahl, Mdd, Mmcannis, Neithsabes, RobertLechner, Wolfmann, Xenophon Image:Homo erectus.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homo_erectus.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Photographed by User:Lillyundfreya Image:Map of Sunda and Sahul.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Sunda_and_Sahul.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Maximilian Drrbecker (Chumwa) File:Cro-Magnon range 37,500 ybp.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cro-Magnon_range_37,500_ybp.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Saukkomies at en.wikipedia File:Cro-Magnon range 35,000 ybp.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cro-Magnon_range_35,000_ybp.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Saukkomies at en.wikipedia File:Cro-Magnon range 32,500 ybp.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cro-Magnon_range_32,500_ybp.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Saukkomies at en.wikipedia File:Cro-Magnon range 30,000 ybp.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cro-Magnon_range_30,000_ybp.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Saukkomies at en.wikipedia File:Spreading_homo_sapiens.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spreading_homo_sapiens.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Altaileopard SVG by Magasjukur2 File:Black-sea-hist.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Black-sea-hist.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bogdan, JMCC1, Mmcannis, Predavatel, Wikiborg File:deluge-nasa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deluge-nasa.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Original uploader was Falkonry at en.wikipedia Image:Andamanese comparative distribution.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andamanese_comparative_distribution.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:CJLL Wright

349

File:Group of Andaman Men and Women in Costume, Some Wearing Body Paint And with Bows and Arrows, Catching Turtles from Boat on Water.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume,_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows,_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Murray, Colin (?). Bourne and Shepherd Image:Great Andamanese - two men - 1875.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Andamanese_-_two_men_-_1875.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown - not relevant because of the year Image:Govt of India - Assam Valley Incident Report.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Govt_of_India_-_Assam_Valley_Incident_Report.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing File:Flag of Australia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of Tasmania.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Tasmania.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Denelson83 File:Truganini and last 4 tasmanian aborigines.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truganini_and_last_4_tasmanian_aborigines.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Calliopejen, Docu, Ranveig, Roke, Thierry Caro, 3 anonymous edits File:Bassian plain 14000 BP.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bassian_plain_14000_BP.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Tirin also known as Takver - www.takver.com File:Tasmanian tribes-MJC.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tasmanian_tribes-MJC.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Martyman at en.wikipedia File:Dowling Natives of Tasmania.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: HappyWaldo File:Benjamin Duterrau Mr Robinsons Interview Timmy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benjamin_Duterrau_Mr_Robinsons_Interview_Timmy.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: HappyWaldo, 1 anonymous edits File:oyster cove mob.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oyster_cove_mob.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denis Barthel, Fairv8, Wolfmann File:Puma Punku7.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puma_Punku7.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Brattarb File:Puma Punku6.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puma_Punku6.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Brattarb Image:Pumapunkubolivia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pumapunkubolivia.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mattcorbitt. Original uploader was Mattcorbitt at en.wikipedia Image:Interlock 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Interlock_1.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Pacal Original uploader was Pumapunku at en.wikipedia Image:7 Puma Punku.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:7_Puma_Punku.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Brattarb Image:1973 Visoko.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1973_Visoko.jpg License: GNU Lesser General Public License Contributors: Howcheng, J budissin, Man vyi, Mhare, Svkov Image:Bosnian Pyramid.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bosnian_Pyramid.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mhare Image:Comparison of pyramids.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Comparison_of_pyramids.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Cmglee Image:Tara stone.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tara_stone.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Verdasuno at en.wikipedia File:Flag of Ireland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Wakeman Plan of Tara.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wakeman_Plan_of_Tara.png License: Public Domain Contributors: William Frederick Wakeman (d. 1900) Image:Banqueting Hall Area Hill of Tara Ireland.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banqueting_Hall_Area_Hill_of_Tara_Ireland.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Brholden Image:Sunset-hill-of-tara.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sunset-hill-of-tara.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Neil Forrester, Co.Meath, Ireland. http://neil.forrester.ie Image:High-cross-the-hill-of-tara.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:High-cross-the-hill-of-tara.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Neil Forrester, Co.Meath, Ireland. http://neil.forrester.ie Image:Church-hill-of-tara.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Church-hill-of-tara.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Neil Forrester, Co.Meath, Ireland. http://neil.forrester.ie Image:Collinaditara.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Collinaditara.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: Patrick Brown File:Authentic Viking recreation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Authentic_Viking_recreation.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Astirmays, FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, Gene.arboit, Glenn, Hogne, Lena Dyrdal Andersen, Mattes, QuartierLatin1968, Skeezix1000, berraschungsbilder, 1 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Indian corn rosslyn.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_corn_rosslyn.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Kjetil Bjrnsrud Image:San Lorenzo Monument 4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Lorenzo_Monument_4.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: FlickreviewR, JLCA, 1 anonymous edits File:Izapa Stela 5 .svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Izapa_Stela_5_.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Madman2001 File:Ica stones20.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ica_stones20.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Brattarb Image:QtubIronPillar.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:QtubIronPillar.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology, The College of Wooster). image:Ancientastronauts.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ancientastronauts.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jesse Viviano, Mazarin07, Mdd File:Pacal the Great tomb lid.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pacal_the_Great_tomb_lid.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:Madman2001 File:Mesopotamian cylinder seal impression.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mesopotamian_cylinder_seal_impression.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was IronyWrit at en.wikipedia File:Hieroglif z Abydos.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hieroglif_z_Abydos.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Olek95 File:JomonStatue.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JomonStatue.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: 663highland, Amcaja, Binabik155, Chris 73, Gryffindor, Umnik, WeFt, World Imaging, Wst File:Rama welcomed.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rama_welcomed.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aavindraa, Ekabhishek, Ranveig, 1 anonymous edits File:Ezekiel's vision.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ezekiel's_vision.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: copy by unknown artist after illustration by Matthaeus (Matthus) Merian the elder (1593-1650) File:Wandjina rock art.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wandjina_rock_art.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Whinging Pom from Everywhere, Australia File:Ural pictograms - comparison.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ural_pictograms_-_comparison.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Brandmeister Image:Nasca Astronaut 2007 08.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nasca_Astronaut_2007_08.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Raymond Ostertag File:AhuTongariki.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AhuTongariki.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ian Sewell File:Crnedform.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crnedform.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Jean Pezzali

350

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Het verslepen van de steen 'Darodaro' voor de gestorven Saoenigeho van Bawamataloea Nias TMnr 1000095b.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_'Het_verslepen_van_de_steen_'Darodaro'_voor_de_gestorven_Saoenigeho_van_Bawamataloea_Nias_TMnr_1000095b.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Daniel78, Docu, Durova, Elekhh, Herald Alberich, Jeanhousen, Kembangraps, Uioxk, 1 anonymous edits File:Yangshan Quarry - Monument Base - P1060908.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yangshan_Quarry_-_Monument_Base_-_P1060908.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: User:Vmenkov File:Assuan 07.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Assuan_07.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Olaf Tausch File:The Bronze Horseman.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Bronze_Horseman.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: JGHowes, photographer (Canon AE-1 camera) File:Trajans column from SSW.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trajans_column_from_SSW.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:MatthiasKabel File:The Western Stone by David Shankbone.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Western_Stone_by_David_Shankbone.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: David Shankbone (attribution required) File:Menec alignment.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Menec_alignment.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Marek.69 talk File:Concorde Obelix (5).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Concorde_Obelix_(5).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Remi Jouan file:USA Washington location map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_Washington_location_map.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Alexrk2 File:Blue_pog.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_pog.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andux, Antonsusi, Droll, Juiced lemon, STyx, TwoWings, WikipediaMaster, 6 anonymous edits File:Athanasius Kircher's Atlantis.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Athanasius_Kircher's_Atlantis.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Athanasius Kircher File:Plato Timaeus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plato_Timaeus.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aavindraa, Amandajm, Marcok, Singinglemon, Tomisti File:Atlantis map 1882 crop.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atlantis_map_1882_crop.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ignatius Donnelly; cropped by Beyond My Ken (talk) 22:14, 28 September 2010 (UTC) File:Ignatius-Donnelly.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ignatius-Donnelly.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alphaios, Ebcdic, Hekerui, Inductiveload File:Cayce 1910.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cayce_1910.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bdk, Denniss, John Vandenberg, Redecke, Rtc, Wouterhagens, 2 anonymous edits File:Santorini Landsat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Santorini_Landsat.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:Rudbeck Atlantis.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bender235, G.dallorto, Marcok, Odysses, Warburg, 1 anonymous edits Image:Location hypothesis of Atlantis in Med.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Location_hypothesis_of_Atlantis_in_Med.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Reflex Reaction Image:Santorini Landsat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Santorini_Landsat.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:AKROTIRI SHIP-PROCESSION-FULL PANO-3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AKROTIRI_SHIP-PROCESSION-FULL_PANO-3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: pano by smial; modified by Luxo Image:Greatrift.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greatrift.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JSC Image:Schwarzes_Meer_und_Umgebung(Dacia).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Schwarzes_Meer_und_Umgebung(Dacia).png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Image:island-of-atlas.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Island-of-atlas.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Michael Hbner Image:Docks in red white black bedrock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Docks_in_red_white_black_bedrock.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Michael Hbner Image:Location hypothesis of Atlantis - Worldwide.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Location_hypothesis_of_Atlantis_-_Worldwide.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Reflex Reaction Image:NASA NorthSea1 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA_NorthSea1_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alexaand, Merops, Tetris L, TheDJ Image:Atlantica.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atlantica.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Akinom, Fred J, Grillo, Marcok, Mattes, Schimmelreiter, Wst Image:Last glacial vegetation map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Last_glacial_vegetation_map.png License: unknown Contributors: Ciaurlec, DieBuche, Fabartus, Glenn, Innotata, JMCC1, Joey-das-WBF, Jrockley, MaxEnt, Mmcannis, Santosga, SchuminWeb, Slomox, 4 anonymous edits File:Kumari Kandam map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kumari_Kandam_map.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dbachmann, Man vyi, Marcok, Roland zh, File:Book map1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Book_map1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: James Churchward (see image signature).

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Yonaguni Ruins Scuba.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yonaguni_Ruins_Scuba.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: jpatokal http://wikitravel.org/en/User:Jpatokal Image:Easter Island map-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Easter_Island_map-en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Eric Gaba (Sting), translated by Bamse File:The Pushpak Aircraft.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Pushpak_Aircraft.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sridhar1000 File:Ananta vasudeva temple 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ananta_vasudeva_temple_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cornish, William Henry File:Big Temple-Temple.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Big_Temple-Temple.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Fastsix at en.wikipedia File:Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar (4) - Oct 2010.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lingaraj_Temple,_Bhubaneswar_(4)_-_Oct_2010.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Steve Browne & John Verkleir File:Fort charles 1920.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fort_charles_1920.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: public domain File:Cayce Selma AL DCP 0924.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cayce_Selma_AL_DCP_0924.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Cayce Hospital.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cayce_Hospital.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Hawkeye58 at en.wikipedia

351

License

352

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/