ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

6.1 Introduction
An electrical power system is subjected to many types of disturbances, all of which result in a transient. Accurate dynamic simulation is, therefore, essential in power system design to minimize the disruption and possible damage of equipment due to the overvoltages and overcurrents caused by the disturbance. Unlike electronic systems, the size and cost of power system components makes it unrealistic to bread-board alternative proposals. Each proposal must be checked thoroughly to ensure satisfactory operation and optimize component parameters and controller settings, before alterations are made. This may be done at the planning stage, where many scenarios for improving the transient performance must be investigated, or during operation to diagnose the cause of the disturbance. The term electromagnetic transient refers to transients that involve the interaction between the energy stored in the magnetic fields of the inductances and electric field of the capacitances in the system. It does not include the slower electromechanical transient response, which involve the interaction between the mechanical energy stored in the rotating machines and the electrical energy stored in the electrical network; these are covered in Chapters 7 and 8. However, no component model is appropriate for all types of transient analysis and must be tailored to the scope of the study. The main criterion for the selection of model components is the time range of the study. For instance, when analysing fast transients, such as lightning phenomena, stray capacitance and inductances must be represented and the solution step size needs to be at least h t h of the smallest time constant introduced by the stray parameters. For system disturbances, such as shortcircuits, the dynamics of power electronic controllers, rather than stray components, will play the major role and the solution step size can be considerably larger. Regardless of the type of system equivalent and size of the integration steps, the EMTP concept proposed by Dommel [ 1-4) is now universally accepted for the simulation of complex power systems containing non-linearities, power electronic components and their controllers.

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

6.2 Background and Definitions

Most of the programs developed for power system transient simulation are based on Bergerons method [ 5 ] . This method uses linear relationships (characteristics) between current and voltage, which are invariant from the point of view of an observer travelling with the wave. However, the time intervals or discrete steps required by the digital solution generate truncation errors which often leads to numerical instability. The use of the trapezoidal rule for the integration of the ordinary differential equations has improved the situation considerably. Dommels EMTP method combines the method of characteristics and the trapezoidal rule into a generalized algorithm, which permits the accurate simulation of transients in networks involving distributed as well as lumped parameters. The method, generally referred to as Numerical Integration Substitution, makes use of difference equations for the digital simulation of the power system continuous dynamic behaviour. It is often referred to by alternative names. One of them, proposed by G.T. Heydt [ 6 ] , is the Method Of Companion Circuits, as the difference equation can be viewed as a Norton equivalent (or companion circuit) for each element in the circuit. Another is the Nodal Conductance Approach (NDA), to emphasize the use of the nodal formulation, each of the network components being represented by its companion circuit.

6.3 Numerical Integrator Substitution

As the name implies, Numerical Integrator Substitution involves substituting a numerical integration formula into the differential equation and rearranging it to the appropriate form. Dommels method involves substituting the trapezoidal integrator into the differential equation. While other integrators could have been used, the trapezoidal solution was preferred due to its simplicity as well as being A-stable and reasonably accurate in most circumstances. However, since it is based on a truncated Taylor series, numerical oscillations can still occur under certain conditions due to the neglected terms. Substituting an integrator is equivalent to substituting the appropriate finite difference approximation into the differential equations. Another important contribution of Dommels work is the replacement of inductors and capacitors by a resistor and current source in parallel (the latter representing previous history terms) and their integration into a nodal conductance matrix and injected currents vector, respectively, to find a solution for the complete system. These two components are derived using the trapezoidal rule as shown in Figure 6.1.

1-At

Figure 6.1 Trapezoidal rule

6.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATOR SUBSTITUTION

163

'-i" +
Figure 6 . 2 Resistance

+ 6.3.1 Resistance

"r

This case, shown in Figure 6.2, is straightforward, i.e.

vk(t)

- vm(t> = R i k S r n ( t )

6.3.2 Inductance
The differential equation for the inductor shown in Figure 6.3 is: dikm (6.3) dt which must be integrated from a known state at t - At to the unknown one at t , i.e.
VL

= vk - Vjn = L-,

and, applying the trapezoidal rule, Equation (6.4) can be replaced by: At i k n d t ) = ikm(r-Ar) -k -((vk - V m ) ( r ) (uk - vrn)(r-Af)) 2L At At = ikm(1-A') + -(vk(f-Af) %(f-Af)) -(vk(t) - V m ( r ) ) * 2L 2L This equation can be rewritten in the following form:

(6.5)

ik,n(l)

= Ihistory(r-At)

1 +R -(vktf) eff

- urn([)),

which is recognized as a Norton equivalent, as shown in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.3 Inductor

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

Figure 6.4 Norton equivalent of inductor

The term l/R,ff = G,ff is the instantaneous term that relates the present time voltage to a present time current contribution, and involves a pure resistance. The term Ihistory(t-At) is the history term as this current source value is a function of quantities at previous time steps where
Ihistory(f-Af)

= ikm(t-Af)

At + -(vk(t-Af) 2L

- vm(f-At))

and

2L Reff = -. At

Transforming to the z-domain gives:

6.3.3 Capacitance
The differential equation for the capacitor, shown in Figure 6.5, is: ikm = cRearranging it as an integral:
dt

=c

d(vk -urn> dt

(6.10)

and applying trapezoidal integration:

6.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATOR SUBSTITUTION

165

i
Figure 6.5 Capacitor

Hence the current in the capacitor is given by:

(6.13) which, again, is interpreted as the Norton equivalent shown in Figure 6.6. Transforming to the z-domain gives:

(6.16) Combinations of components can be replaced by a single Norton equivalent, thereby reducing the number of nodes and, hence, the computation at each time step. For example, each tuned RLC branch forming part of a harmonic filter bank can be

Figure 6.6 Norton equivalent of capacitor

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

7
Figure 6.7 Reduction of RLC branch to a Norton equivalent

represented by a Norton equivalent, as shown in Figure 6.7. Equally, the complete filter bank can be represented by a single Norton equivalent that combines the equivalents of the individual filter branches. The reduction process involves a series of Thevenin to Norton transformations, the internal nodes being reduced by Gaussian elimination; the result is a greatly simplified nodal admittance matrix.

6.4 Transmission Lines and Cables

The models used for overhead transmission lines and cables are identical except for the derivation of their electrical parameters (described in Chapter 2). The work of Carson [7] forms the basis of overhead transmission line parameter calculations, where either numerical integration of Carson's integral equation, the use of Carson's series or a complex depth approximation are used. Underground cable parameters are calculated using Pollaczek's equations [8]. The three transmission line models commonly used in electromagnetic transient programs are PI section, Bergeron and frequency-dependent line; the latter two being classed as travelling wave models. The PI section model is used for short lines, where the travel time is less than the time step. This corresponds to approximately 15 km for a 50 ps time step. Typically

6.4 TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES

167

this occurs in distribution rather than transmission systems. This model is unsuitable for longer lines as the number of nominal PI sections required for an adequate representation makes the solution very inefficient. With the losses ignored, Bergerons method provides a simple and elegant travelling wave model, which is then completed by the addition of series resistance to represent the losses. In its original implementation, EMTP used the concept of natural modes to represent multi-conductor lines and the main effort went into the development of frequency-dependent modal transformations and fitting techniques to try and improve accuracy and thus eliminate prospective instabilities. However, Gustavsen and Semlyen [9] have indicated that, although the phase domain problem is inherently stable, the associated modal domain may be inherently unstable; hence, regardless of the fitting accuracy, the modal line model will be unstable. This has spurned research effort into modelling lines directly in the phase-domain despite the complication of representing couplings between phases [lo- 151.

6.4.1

Bergeron line model

Consider a lossless distributed parameter line as depicted in Figure 6.8, with L(inductance) and C (capacitance) per unit length. The wave propagation equations for this line are: (6.17a) (6.17b) The general solutions of Equations (6.17a) and (6.17b) are:

i(x, t ) = f l ( x - s t )

+ f 2 ( x + st),
+ st), +

(6.18a) (6.18b)

v(x, t ) = Zfl (x - s t ) - Zf2(x

where f l (x - s t ) and f 2 ( x s t ) are arbitrary functions of ( x - s t ) and ( x sr) to be determined from problem boundary and initial conditions, f 1 ( x - s t ) represents a wave travelling at velocity s in a forward direction and f 2 ( x s t ) a wave travelling in a backward direction.

X=

x=d

Figure 6.8

Propagation of

a wave on a

transmission line

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

Z, the surge (or characteristic) impedance and s, the propagation velocity for a lossless line are given by:

s=-

m'
(6.19a) (6.19b)

Multiplying Equation (6.18a) by ZC and adding it to, and subtracting it from, Equation (6.18b) gives the required branch equations, i.e.

+ Z c i ( x , t ) = 2Zcfl ( x - st), v(x,t ) - Z&, r ) = - 2 Z ~ f 2 ( x + st).

v(x, t )

Note that v(x, t ) Z c i ( x , t ) is constant when ( x - s r ) is constant. This can be interpreted by becoming a fictitious observer travelling along the line as shown in Figure 6.8 with the wave. Then (x - s t ) and v(x, t ) Z c i ( x , t ) will appear constant all along the line. If the travel time to get from terminal k to terminal m of a line of length d is

then the expression v(x, t ) Z c i ( x , t ) seen by the observer when leaving terminal k at time t - t, must be the same when the observer arrives at terminal m at time t , i.e.
vk(t - t)

+ Z C i k m ( t - 7) = v m ( t ) + Zc(-imk(t)).
(6.20)

Rearranging the latter leads to the simple two-port equation for i m k , i.e.

where the current source from past history terms is:

Zm(t

- t) = --vk(t
ZC

- t) - ikm(t - t).

(6.21)

Similarly for the other end

ikm

1 = -vk(t) ZC
I

+ I k ( t - t),
- T) - i m k ( r - 5).

(6.22)

where
Ik(t

- t) = --vm(t
ZC

(6.23)

The expressions ( x - s t ) = constant and ( x + s t ) = constant are called the characteristic equations of the differential equations. Figure 6.9 depicts the resulting two-port model. In this model, there is no direct connection between the two terminals and the conditions at one end are seen indirectly, and with time delay t (travelling time), at the other through the current sources. The past history terms are stored in a ring buffer and hence the maximum travelling time

6.4 TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES

169

Figure 6.9 Equivalent two-port network for lossless line

that can be represented is the time step times the number of locations in the buffer. Since the time delay is not usually a multiple of the time step the past history terms either side of actual travelling time are extracted and interpolated to give the correct travelling time. The distributed series resistance of the line is approximated by treating the line as lossless and adding lumped resistances at both ends. Although lumped resistances can be inserted in many places along the line by dividing the total length into many line sections, this makes little difference and, hence, two sections are normally used, as depicted in Figure 6.10. This lumped resistance model gives reasonable answers only if R/4 < < ZC. By assigning half of the mid-point resistance to each line section the representation for a section modelling half the line is depicted in Figure 6.11, where:

and
Ik(t

- s / 2 ) = Zc + Rf4 v,(t - r/2) -

-1

(EF :\:)

im(t

- 5/21.

(6.25)

By cascading two half line sections and eliminating the mid-point variables, as only the terminals are of interest, the model depicted in Figure 6.12 is obtained. This is in the same form as the earlier models except that the current source representing history terms is more complicated as it contains conditions from both ends on the line at
ikrn(t)

Figure 6.10 Line with lumped losses

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

512)

Figure 6.11 Half line section

Figure 6.12
(t

Bergeron transmission line model

- t/2). For example, the expression for the current source at end k is:

The EMTDC line model separates the propagation into low and high frequency paths so that the line can have a higher attenuation to higher frequencies.

6.4.2 Multi-conductor transmission lines

Equations (6.17a) and (6.17b) are also valid for multi-conductor lines if the scalar voltages and currents are replaced by vectors and using inductance and capacitance matrices. Thus, in the frequency domain these equations are: (6.27a)

6.4 TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES

171

By differentiating a second time one vector either voltage or current may be eliminated giving:

Traditionally the complication of having off-diagonal elements in the matrices of Equation (6.28) and (6.29) is overcome by using natural modes. Eigenvalue analysis is applied to produce diagonal matrices thereby transforming from coupled equations in the phase domain to decoupled equations in the modal domain. Each equation in the modal domain is then solved as for a single phase line by using modal travelling time and modal surge impedance. The transformation matrices between phase and modal quantities are different for voltage and current, i.e. (6.30a) (6.30b) Substituting Equation (6.30a) in (6.28) gives: (6.31) Hence

[%]

= [TYI-'[Zbhasel[Ybhasel[TVIIVmodel

= [A][vmodel.

(6.32)

To derive the matrix IT,] that diagonalizes [ZLhase][ Ybhase], its eigenvalues and eigenvectors must be found. However, eigenvectors are not unique, as when multiplied by a nonzero complex constant they still are valid eigenvectors; therefore, some normalization is desirable to allow [T,] from different programs to be compared. PSCADRMTDC uses the root squaring technique developed by Wedepohl for eigenvalue analysis [ 161. To generate frequency-dependent line models the eigenvectors must be consistent from one frequency to the next, such that the eigenvectors form a continuous function of frequency, so that curve fitting can be applied. A Newton Raphson algorithm has been developed for this purpose [ 171. On completion of the eigenvalue analysis, the following relationships are used:

[Zmodel = [Tvl-'[Zphasel[Til, [yrncdel = [Til-'[Yphasel[Twl~

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

As [z;ha,.[Ybha,] is different from [YbhaSe][Zbhase],the eigenvectors are also and, different, even though their eigenvalues are identical. However, [Ti] = ( therefore, only one of these matrices needs to be calculated. Looking at mode i, i.e. the ith equation of (6.32), gives:

(6.33) and its general solution at point x in the line is: (6.34) where
yi

6,

VF = forward travelling wave,

VB = backward travelling wave.

Equation (6.34) contains two arbitrary integration constants. An n-conductor line has n natural modes and thus requires 2n arbitrary constants. This is consistent with the existence of 2n boundary conditions, one for each end of every conductor. In matrix form, Equation (6.34) becomes: Ymde(x) = [e-YX~ * Y:,de(k)

Y:de(m)

(6.35)

Reintroducing phase quantities by using Equation (6.32) gives:

~ ( x= ) [ e - r x l ~ F [erx]

- yB,

(6.36)

is the propagation matrix, and

Similarly the solution of (6.29) for current gives:

F - rx B ~ ( x= ) re- rx 1~ [e IL = Y ~ ( [ ~ - ~ [erxIvB), ~ I v ~

(6.37)

where
IF= forward travelling wave,
IB = backward travelling wave.

Thus, the voltage and current at the k end of the line are:

V(k)= (v + vB,, L(k) = (LF + lB) = Yc(VF - VB 1,

(6.38)
(6.39)

6.4 TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES

173

and, similarly, at the m end of the line:

~ ( m= ) [e-rr~~F [erX]~
L(m) = Y ~ ( [ ~ - ~ I[er1yB). v~

(6.40) (6.41) (6.42) (6.43)

Hence, the forward and backward travelling voltage waves at terminal k are:

VF = (V)(k) + ZcL(k)/2, VB = (Y)(k)- Z c I ( k ) / 2 .

And since [ Y ~ I V& ~ =2 1 = ~ 2[e-]~~

the forward and backward travelling current waves at terminal k are:

(6.44) (6.45)

6.4.3 Frequency-dependent model

As the line parameters are functions of frequency, the relevant equations are first expressed in the frequency domain and extensive use made of curve fitting to incorporate the frequency-dependent parameters [ 18-20]. Analysis proceeds by first considering a frequency-domain solution for a single conductor line of length I.
Vk(0) = c ~ s h [ y ( ~ ) l ] V m = (~ Z;(W) ) sinh[y(w)l]i,(w),

(6.46) (6.47)

where is the propagation constant, and

is the characteristic impedance. Y(w) = G

Z(w) = R

+ jwC + jwL

is the per unit length shunt admittance obtained from conductor geometry, and is the per unit length series impedance, also obtained from conductor geometry. Let
Fk(U)=

vk(w)

+ zC(@)i&(w),

Bk(w)= Vk(w) - zC(w)ik(w), Fm(w) = Vm(w> z c ( ~ ) i m ( ~ ) ~

(6.48)

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

The functions F and B correspond to forward and backward travelling waves, respectively in the frequency domain. From Equations (6.46), (6.47) and (6.48):

Bk ( w ) = A I ( w > F m (w),
Bm(w) = A I ( W ) F k ( W ) ,

(6.49)

where

A l ( w ) = e-v(wy = cosh(y(w)l) - sinh(y(w)l).

Equations (6.49) yield the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.13 with the source terms Bk and B , related to electrical quantities at the other end of the line. To convert the frequency domain circuit of Figure 6.13 to the time domain, it is only necessary to express the source terms Bk and Bm in the time domain. This requires a convolution integral in place of the multiplication in Equations (6.49):
Bk(t) = L'A(u)F,,(t - u)du
B,,(t) = l A ( u ) F k ( r - u)du.

(6.50)

The lower integral limit of t is set equal to the shortest possible !ransmission delay of the line. Evaluating the convolution integrals (Equation (6.50)) at every time step is very slow, and a recursive method is used instead [21]. The recursive convolution method represents A ( u ) in Equation (6.50) by a sum of exponentials in u, and Fk by a low order polynomial. For example, if
n
/=I

and
fm(t

- u ) = f ( t ) au2

+ Bu,
(6.5 1 )

then
Bk(t) =

l
1

xe-"iu(f(t)

+ au2 + ,L?u)du

= C [ a r B t ( t- At)

+ A l f m ( t ) + /I.rfrn(t

- At)

V/fm(t

- 2At)], (6.52)

where 01 and ,L? are obtained by equating the interpolating quadratic to f ( t ) , f ( t - A t ) , f ( t - 2 A t ) and A, p, 21 are constant coefficients obtained by integrating Equation (6.51)

A
vk(w)

Figure 6.13 Single conductor line equivalent

6.4 TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES

175

from t - At to t . The convolution integral is, therefore, replaced by a past-history term B k ( t - A t ) , and a linear combination of past-history terms for electrical conditions at the other end of the line.

Curve fitting for Zc and A @ ) Both Zc and A are readily defined in the frequency domain. Representation in the time domain proceeds by first finding a rational polynomial in s that matches Z or A along the j w axis. In EMTDC, the fitting takes place at 100 frequency points evenly distributed on a log scale between specified lower and upper frequencies. The choice of lower frequency affects the shunt conductance at d.c., giving it a maximum value. Specifying a very low start frequency affects the accuracy and efficiency of the fit at other frequencies. Rational polynomial fitting is an area of active research, with many applications in power system analysis. The method employed in the EMTDC transmission line and cables program directly places poles and zeros in the s plane to obtain a match with the interpolated function. The orders of the numerator and denominator polynomials are incremented until a good match is obtained (up to a specified limit). Finding the rational polynomial directly in terms of poles and zeros,
(6.53)

simplifies the implementation of the function in a form suitable for simulation. A partial fraction expansion yields:
R ( s ) = k,
kl k2 k3 +-+... ++S+Pl S+P2 S+P3

(6.54)

which can be readily represented by an RC network in the case of z , or transforming to the time domain for A @ ) , R ( r ) = kle- + k2e-P? + . . . (6.55) k, = 0 since in this case the denominator is of higher order than the numerator. Implementation of the transmission line model is illustrated in Figure 6.14. The transmission line and CABLES program calculates the RC networks, exponential sum

,
Coupled multi-conductor line
I I I

I
I
I

L
c

Decoupled multi-mode line

<
Modal transform

RC network

Modal transform

c -

----.

Figure 6.14 Implementation of the frequency-dependent transmission-line model in EMTDC

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

approximation to the propagation constant, and additionally an exponential sum for every term in the modal transform matrices. This is because the modal transform matrices are frequency dependent but can be treated in the same way as the propagation constant using recursive convolution. In order to obtain continuity in calculated eigenvalues and eigenvectors at the 100 sample points, the solution at frequency N is used as the starting point for a Newton Raphson iterative refinement at frequency N 1.

Numerical illustration The line propagation constant, a(@) + j g ( w ) , is a function

of frequency, while the propagation function (e-(cr(w)+'p(w))') is a function of frequency and line length (1) The variation of the amplitude term e-n(w)' of a single phase line is shown in Figure 6.15(a) for a line length 1 = 100 km. These results illustrate the line low pass characteristics. As the line length is in the exponent, the attenuation of travelling waves increases with it. The variation with frequency of the phase angle of the propagation function, e-jp(w)', is shown in Figure 6.15(b). A negative phase represents a phase lag in the travelling waveform and its counterpart in the time domain is a time delay. The phase angle is a continuous function, becoming more negative with frequency but, for display purposes, it is constrained to be within the range -180" to 180". It is a difficult function to fit and requires a high order rational function to achieve sufficient accuracy. However, multiplication by e-Jsr, where r represents the time for a wave to travel from one end of the line to the other (in this case 0.33597 ms), results in the smooth function shown in Figure 6.15(b). With this procedure, referred to as backwinding, the attenuation (complex function) is easily fitted with a low order rational function. To obtain the correct response, the model must counter the phase advance applied in the frequency domain fitting. This is performed in the time domain implementation by incorporating Magnitude IAttenuationl = e-cr(w)'

Phase - (Degrees)
0
-1 00

Angle (Attenuation)=e-i@(w)'

-200
With backwinding

-3OOL

(b)

4 Log ( 2 4

Figure 6.15 Propagation function

6.4 TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES

Magnitude Propagation constant

177

(a)

0.4

'

I
1.5
2

2.5

3.5

4.5

Phase (Degrees)

1.5

2.5

3
Log(2nt)

3.5

4.5

(b)

Figure 6.16 Propagation constant

a time delay T. With this purpose, a buffer of past voltages and currents at each end of the line is maintained and the values delayed by T are used. Because t in general is not an integer multiple of the time step, interpolation between the values in the buffer is required to get the correct time delay. Figure 6.16 shows the match obtained when applying least squares fitting of a rational function (numerator order 2, denominator order 3). The number of poles is normally one more than the zeros for the attenuation function magnitude which must go to zero as frequency approaches infinity. Although the fitting is good, close inspection shows a slight error at fundamental frequency. Any slight discrepancy at fundamental frequency shows up as a steady-state error, which is undesirable. This occurs because the least squares fitting tends to smear the error across the frequency range. To control this problem, a weighting factor can be applied to specified frequency ranges (such as around fundamental frequency) when applying the fitting procedure. When the fitting has been completed any slight error still remaining is removed by multiplying the rational function by a constant k to give the correct value at low frequency. This sets the d.c. gain (i.e. its value when s is set to zero) of the fitted rational function. The value of k controls the d.c. gain of this rational function and is calculated from the d.c. resistance and the d.c. gain of the surge impedance, thereby ensuring that the correct d.c. resistance is exhibited by the model. At frequencies when the value of A ( w ) drops below a specified threshold, the travelling waves will have been attenuated by the time they reach the end of the line; therefore the associated terms in the fitted A ( w ) are neglected. Also frequencies well above the Nyquist rate (e.g. 10 x Nyquist frequency for selected time-step) will not influence the simulation results and the corresponding terms are removed.

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6 ELECTROMAGNETICTRANSIENTS

Some fitting techniques force the poles and zeros to be real and stable (in the left hand half of the s-plane) while others allow complex poles and use other methods to ensure stable fits (such as vector-fitting). A common approach is to assume a minimum-phase function and use real half-plane poles. Fitting can be performed either in s-domain or z-domain, each alternative having advantages and disadvantages. The same fitting algorithm can be used for fitting the characteristic impedance (or admittance if using the Norton form). The number of poles and zeros is the same in both cases. Hence the partial expansion of the fitted rational function is:

This can be implemented by using a series of RC parallel blocks (the Foster I realization), which gives Ro = ko, R; = k i / p i . and C; = I / k ; . Either the trapezoidal rule can be applied to the RC network or better still recursive convolution. The shunt conductance G ( w ) is not normally calculated. At low frequencies the surge impedance becomes larger as the frequency approaches zero, i.e.

This trend can be seen in Figure 6.17 which shows the characteristic (or surge) impedance calculated by the transmission line parameter program down to 5 Hz.
Magnitude IZsurgel

650

600
550
500

t -Start frequency

7
4 5
6

Phase (Degrees)

Angle (Zsurge)

-15 1
(b)

Log(2 n f )

Figure 6.17 Characteristic impedance

6.5 FORMULATION AND SOLUTION OF THE SYSTEM NODAL EQUATIONS

179

In practice, the characteristic impedance does not tend to infinity as the frequency goes to zero; instead
R ( w ) jwL(w) G(w) jwC(w)

+ +

This shortcoming is mitigated by entering a starting frequency, which flattens the impedance curve at low frequencies and thus makes it more realistic. Entering a starting frequency is equivalent to introducing a shunt conductance G. The higher the starting frequency the greater the shunt conductance and, hence, the shunt loss. On the other hand, choosing a very low start frequency will result in poles and zeros at these low frequencies and the associated large time constants cause long settling times to reach the steady state.

6.5

Formulation and Solution of the System Nodal Equations

Once all the network components are represented by an equivalent current source and a resistance in parallel, a nodal formulation is used to solve for the complete system. The nodal equation is: (6.56) IGlv(t) = i(t) -t IHistory, where

[GI = conductance matrix,

v(r) = vector of nodal voltages.
i(t) = vector of external current sources,

I H , ~ =~ vector ~ , ~ current ~ sources representing past history terms.

Note that [ G] is real and symmetric when incorporating network components. If control equations are incorporated into the same [GI matrix, the symmetry is lost but these are normally solved separately. As the elements of [GI are dependent on the time step, by keeping the time step constant [GI is constant and triangular factorization can be performed before entering the time step loop. Moreover, each node of the power system is connected to only a few other nodes and, therefore, the conductance matrices are sparse. This can be exploited by only storing non-zero elements and using optimal ordering elimination schemes. Some of the node voltages will be known due to the presence of voltage sources in the system but the majority are unknown. When there is an impedance in series with the voltage source, the combination can be converted to a Norton equivalent and the algorithm remains unchanged. However, a more general approach is to partition the nodal equation as follows:

where the subscripts K and U indicate connections to nodes with known and unknown voltages, respectively.

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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

Using triangular factorization (arrow l), Equation (6.57) reduces to:

(1)

I
(3) (2)

(6.58) Forward reduction (arrow 2), followed by back substitution (arrows 3) is then used to get V,(t), i.e.

(6.59) where

Once V u ( t ) has been found, the history terms for the next time step; are calculated.

6.5.1 Modification for switching and varying parameters

To represent switching operations, or time varying parameters, matrices [Guu] and [ G u K ]need to be altered and retriangularized. The solution is simplified by placing
the nodes with switches last, such that the initial triangular factorization is reduced to the nodes without switches, i.e.

Switching components

(6.60)

6.5 FORMULATION AND SOLUTION OF THE SYSTEM NODAL EQUATIONS

181

followed by complete triangulation (arrow 2)

(6.61)

and then forward reduction (arrow 3) and back substitution (arrow 4). i.e.
(4) (3)

(6.62) Transmission lines do not introduce off-diagonal elements. This produces a block diagonal structure for [Guu]. Each block represents a subsystem that can be solved for independently, as any influence from the rest of the system is implemented in the form of history terms. This allows parallel computation and is used extensively in real time digital simulators. PSCADEMTDC performs the triangular factorization on a subsystem basis rather than on the entire matrix.

-----I

6.5.2 Non-linear or time varying parameters

Typical non-linearities requiring representation are the saturated inductances of transformers and reactors and the resistances of surge arresters. Non-linear effects in synchronous machines are incorporated directly in the machine equations. As the number of non-linear elements are limited, it is more efficient to modify the linear solution than using a non-linear solution method for the entire network. The three alternative approaches [22] used for this purpose are:
0 0
0

Current-source representation (with one time step delay). Compensation method. Piecewise linear representation.

Current-source representation This method uses a current source to model the current drawn by the non-linear component, its value calculated from information at previous time-steps. Therefore it lacks an instantaneous term and appears as an open circuir to the voltages at the present time-step. Thus, to avoid possible related instabilities, a correction source is used in the form of a large fictitious Norton resistance. However there is a one time-step delay in the correction source. Compensation method If there is only one non-linear branch a compensation
method can be applied, whereby the non-linear branch is excluded from the network and replaced by a current source. The total network solution v(t) is then equal to the

182

6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

value vo(t) found with the non-linear branch omitted, plus the contribution produced by the non-linear branch, i.e. (6.63) v(l) = vO(t) - RTheveninikm(t)t where Rmevenin = Thevenin resistance of the network without non-linear branch connected between nodes k and m, vg(t) = open circuit voltage of network, i.e. voltage between nodes k and m without non-linear branch connected. The Thevenin resistance of the linear network is calculated by taking the difference between the rn th and k th columns of matrix [Guul-' . This is achieved by solving [Gu~]v(t) =1 ; with 1 ; set to zero except for the r n and k elements, which are -1 and 1, respectively. It is equivalent to finding the terminal voltage when connecting a current source (of magnitude 1) between nodes k and m.The Thevenin resistance is precomputed only once, before entering the time step loop, and only needs re-computing whenever switches open or close. Two scalar equations are then solved simultaneously, as shown in the diagram of Figure 6.18, i.e. (6.64) Vkrn(t) = VkmO(t) - RTheveninikmT (6.65) = f ( i k m r dikmldt, t , * * *), If Equation (6.65) is given as an analytic expression, a Newton Raphson solution is used. When Equation (6.65) is defined point-by-point as a piecewise linear curve, a search procedure is used instead. Even though there may be more that one non-linear branch, using the subsystem concept described in Section 6.6, the compensation approach can still be used, as long as there is only one non-linear branch per subsystem. If the non-linear branch is defined by Vkm = f ( i k m ) or Vkm = R(t)iknl the solution is straightforward. For a non-linear inductor the flux (A = f ( i k m ) ) is the integral of the voltage with time, i.e.
Vkrn(l)

A(t) = A(l - A t )

(6.66)

Figure 6.18 Pictorial view of simultaneous solution of two equations

6.6 USE OF SUBSYSTEMS

183

Figure 6.19 Artificial negative damping

Equation (6.66) is solved using the trapezoidal rule, giving:

Af A(f> = -v(f>

AHistory(f

- Af).
(6.67)

where

h ~ i= ~A(ft ~A l ~ ) ~ -v(f

+ At 2

However, numerical problems can occur with non-linear elements when Af is too large because the regions of the non-linear characteristic between samples will be missed. This, as shown in Figure 6.19, may produce fictitious negative damping or hysteresis.

Piecewise linear representation The piecewise linear inductor characteristic, as depicted in Figure 6.20, can be represented as a linear inductor in parallel with a current source representing saturation. This model is very accurate when the compensation is small.

6.6 Use of Subsystems

The presence of transmission lines and cables in the system being simulated introduces decoupling into the conductance matrix. This is because the transmission line model injects current at one terminal as a function of the voltage at the other at previous time steps. In the present time step, there is no dependence on electrical conditions at distant terminals of the line, frequently leading to a block diagonal conductance matrix, i.e.

Y =

(6.68)

184

6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

'Compensation

i'

-j

icompensation

Linear inductor

Figure 6.20 Piecewise linear inductor

(b)

Figure 6.21 Separation of two coupled subsystems by means of linearized equivalent sources

Each decoupled block in this matrix is a subsystem, and can be solved at each time step independently of all other subsystems. Figure 6.21(a) illustrates coupled systems that are to be separated into subsystems. Each subsystem in Figure 6.21(b) is represented in the other by a linear equivalent. The Norton equivalent is constructed using information from the previous time step, looking into subsystem (2) from bus (A). The shunt connected at ( A ) is considered

6.6 USE OF SUBSYSTEMS

185

part of (1). The Norton admittance is

The Norton current is

The Thevenin impedance is

and the voltage source is

If Y A is a capacitor bank, Z is a series inductor, and Y B is small, then

Y N% YA

and and

Y N =IBA(t

- A?) (the inductor current),

ZTH % 2

VTH = v A ( t - At) (the capacitor voltage).

When simulating HVDC systems, it can frequently be arranged that the subsystems containing each end of the link are small, so that only a small conductance matrix need be refactored after every switching. Even if the link is not terminated at transmission lines or cables, a subsystem boundary can still be created by introducing a one-time step delay at the commutating bus. A d.c. link subdivided into subsystems is illustrated in Figure 6.22. The method of interfacing subsystems by controlled sources is also used to interface subsystems with component models solved by another algorithm, e.g. components using Numerical Integration Substitution on a state variable formulation. Synchronous machine and SVC models are framed in state variables in PSCADEMTDC and appear

y
I I

I
I

I I I

I
I I I I
I

I I I

Figure 6.22 A typical subsystem equivalent for a d.c. link

186

6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

to their parent subsystems as controlled sources. As for interfacing subsystems, best results are obtained if the voltage and current at the point of connection are stabilized, and if each componendmodel is represented in the other as a linearized equivalent around the solution at the previous time step. In the case of synchronous machines, a suitable linearizing equivalent is the subtransient reactance, which should be connected in shunt with the machine current injection.

6.7 Switching Discontinuities

The basic EMTP-type algorithm requires modification in order to model accurately and efficiently the switching actions associated with HVDC, thyristors, FACTS devices, or any other piecewise linear circuit. The simplest approach is to simulate normally until a switching is detected and then update the system topology andor conductance matrix. A switch can be represented, as shown in Figure 6.23, by either an ordoff resistance or an off resistance only. The former method cannot represent an ideal switch, since Ron must be large enough not to de-condition the system conductance matrix. In practice, this represents well real switching devices, which are themselves not ideal. The second method avoids the use of small resistances, but requires a more severe change in system topology since there is one fewer node in the conduction state than in the off-state. For either representation, the system conductance matrix must be reformed and factorized after each change in conduction state. This considerably increases the computational requirements of the simulation in proportion to the number of switching actions (recall that the efficiency of the EMTP technique lies in the fact that the conductance matrix is held constant to avoid refactorization). Nevertheless, for HVDC and most FACTS applications, the switching rate is only several kHz, so that the overall simulation is still fast. The efficiency and elegance of the EMTP method relies on the step length being constant. This, however, causes firing errors when modelling switching elements as the switching instants will not normally coincide with the time steps, as shown in

I
Figure 6 . 2 3 Switch representation

6.7 SWITCHING DISCONTINUITIES

187

Figure 6.24 Apparent reverse current in a diode due to placement of simulation time steps

Figure 6.24 for the case of a diode-ending conduction. At (A) the diode should be switched off, but the negative current is only detected at (B) and the conductance matrix is reformed at (C). An effective solution of this problem is to apply a linear interpolation at (B) to find all the nodal voltages at a point very close to (A). An exact solution for the zero crossing is a non-linear problem; however, given the close proximity of points t and t At, a linear interpolation between them introduces no significant error [22,23]. In the above example, the diode model must include logic to detect the switching event and then estimate the instant t T I of its occurrence between t and t + At. For a diode, a linear interpolation on the forward current yields:

r=
The nodal voltages at t
~

Atif(t)

if(?)

- if(f

+ At)

(6.73)

+ T are then approximately: t (+t At) 2 ~ ( t+ ) -[[v(t + At) - ~ ( t ) ] , At

(6.74)

and similarly for branch currents in the system. If simulation proceeds normally from t + T with the new conductance matrix, subsequent solution points will be shifted by t. For convenience, an additional interpolation can be made after the first time step with the new conductance matrix to bring the simulation back onto the original time sequence, yielding the sequence of steps illustrated in Figure 6.25. Another option is

JI

>

New conductance matrix

Figure 6.25 A double interpolation scheme to find the switching instant and re-synchronise time steps

188

6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

to accept unequally spaced points in the solution (which complicates Fourier analysis of the resulting waveforms), or to fit a cubic spline to the solution and re-index to any desired time base. In the PSCADEMTDC package, the interpolation scheme of Figure 6.25 is used but with two additional interpolations introduced to eliminate voltage and current chatter, to be discussed in the next section.

6.7.1 Voltage and current chatter due to discontinuities

The trapezoidal integration has the effect of increasing the apparent impedance of inductors at high frequencies approaching the Nyquist rate. A corollary is that large voltages will be developed across inductors if high frequency currents are injected into them. This effect is manifested most notably with respect to switching actions or point discontinuities, which necessarily contain high frequency components [25-271. Figure 6.26 shows an inductor in series with a diode ending conduction. Assuming that the inductor current falls steadily to zero at T, the voltage will be constant at V L . At T the diode switches off and the inductor voltage will fall instantaneously to zero, since dil/dr = 0. The inductor voltage is shown in Figure 6.27(a).

P
f
T-2Af T-Af T T+Af T+2At

Figure 6.26

circuit M ..ich will display voltage chatter after the diode switches off

9 0
U
-

T-2Af
,

T-At

T+At

T+2Af

' -I
" 1

Figure 6.27 (a) Correct solution for voltage across the inductor. (b) Chatter voltage at the
diode anode

6.7 SWITCHING DISCONTINUITIES

189

The trapezoidal integration equation for the inductor is:

2L VL(t)= - ( ( i ~ ( t ) At

- iL(r - A t ) ) - V L ( t- Ar).

(6.75)

From (t
so

+ A t ) onwards
iL(t)

= i L ( t - A t ) = 0,
(6.76)

V L ( t )= -VL(t - A t ) .

The inductor voltage consequently oscillates between ~ V instead L of falling to zero (Figure 6.27(b)). Note, however, that the average inductor voltage is correct at zero, and that the chatter does not grow larger. PSCADEMTDC uses a double half-time step interpolation method to remove chatter which relies only on trapezoidal integration [28]. With reference to Figure 6.28, the following steps are involved: trapezoidal integration, interpolation back to discontinuity, between (1) and (2), trapezoidal integration with new conductance matrix, interpolation between (3) and (4) of half time step to remove chatter, trapezoidal integration to get past t At, interpolation between (6) and ( 5 ) to re-synchronise time steps, normal integration resumes.

Figure 6.28 Chatter removal

190

6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

The chatter problem discussed above is associated with the numerical error of the trapezoidal (or any other integration) rule, i.e. it is inherent in the numerical integrator substitution method. With the use of root matching techniques instead of numerical integrator substitution [29], a chatter removal process is not required. Root matching is always numerically stable and more efficient numerically than trapezoidal integration. Root matching is only formulated for the branches containing at least two or more elements (i.e. RL, RC.. RLC, LC..) and these can be intermixed in the same solution with branches solved with other integration techniques.

6.8 Root-matching Technique

Since digital simulation requires the transformation from the s- to the z- plane, the poles and zeros of the continuous process must be correctly represented in the digital solution. However, when using the numerical integrator substitution method to derive a difference equation, the poles and zeros are not inspected. They will, therefore, match poorly those of the continuous system that is being simulated. Ensuring the correct match for the poles and zeros is the basic purpose of the rootmatching technique [29,30].The difference equations generated by this method involve exponential functions, as the transform equation 2- = e-SAis used rather than some approximation to it. This concept is explained next.

6.8.1 Exponential form of difference equation

The application of Dommels method to a series RL branch produces the following difference equation for the branch:
AtR At (6.77)

Careful inspection of this equation shows that the first term is a first order approximation of e- where x = AtR/L. The second term is a first order approximation of (1 - e-X)/2. This suggests that using the exponential expressions in the difference equation will eliminate the truncation error and give accurate and stable simulations regardless of the time step. Equation (6.77) is thus expressed as:
(6.78)

Although the exponential form can be deduced from the difference equation developed by numerical integrator substitution, such an approach is unsuitable for most transfer functions or electrical circuits, due to the difficulty in identifying the form of the exponential that has been truncated. The root-matching technique provides a rigorous method.

6.8 ROOT-MATCHING TECHNIQUE

191

6.8.2

Root-matching implementation

The steps followed in the application of the root-matching technique are:

1. Determine the transfer function in the s-plane,

H (s) and the position of its poles

and zeros.

2. Write the transfer function H ( s ) in the z-plane using the mapping z = eSA,thus
ensuring the poles and zeros are in the correct place. Also, add a constant to allow adjustment of the final value.

3. Use the final value theorem to compute final value of H ( s ) for a unit step input. 4. Determine the final value of H ( z ) for unit step input and adjust the constant to be
the correct value.
5 . Add additional zeros depending on the assumed input variation between solution

points.

6. Write the resulting z-domain equation in the form of a difference equation.

Until recently, it has not been appreciated that the exponential form of the difference equation can be applied to the main electrical components as well as to control equations, in time domain simulation. Both can be formed into Norton equivalents, entered in the conductance matrix and solved simultaneously with no time step delay in the implementation. Structurally, the new algorithm is the same as Dommels, the only difference being in the formula used for the derivation of the conductance and past history terms. Moreover, although root-matching can also be applied to single L or C elements, there is no need for that, as in such cases the response is no longer of an exponential form. Hence, Dommels algorithm is still used for converting individual L and C elements to a Norton equivalent. This allows difference equations, hence Norton equivalents, based on root-matching methods to be easily used in existing electromagnetic transient programs, yet giving unparalleled improvement in stability and accuracy, particularly for large time steps. In the new algorithm, Z H includes ~ ~the history ~ ~ terms ~ of both Dommels and rootmatching method. Similarly, the conductance matrix, which contains the conductance terms of the Norton equivalents, includes some terms from Dommels technique and others of the exponential form developed from the root-matching technique. The main characteristics of the exponential form that permit an efficient implementation are: 0 The exponential term is calculated and stored prior to entering the time step loop.
0

During the time step loop, only two multiplications and one addition are required H term. ~ ~ ~ ~ to calculate the Z Only the previous time step current is required, while Dommels method requires both current and voltage at the previous time step.

6.8.3 Numerical illustration

The effectiveness of the root-matching technique can be illustrated by the step response to switching a series RL branch. Figure 6.29 shows the current response derived from

192

6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
Exponentialform

--

Dommels method

- - Theoretical Curve

100.0

80.0
h

v)

- 60.0
w C

40.0

20.0
0.0 0.0008

0.001 1

0.0014

0.0017

0.002

Time (seconds)

Figure 6.29

Step response of switching test system for At = T

method

-Exponentialform -.---Dommels

- - - - .Theoretical curve

Figure 6.30

Step response of switching test system for A t = 5 r

Dommels method, the exponential method and continuous analysis for a case where the time step A t is equal to the time constant of the circuit r. For this time step, Dommels method shows no numerical oscillations, although it introduces considerable error. However, when the time step is increased to 5r , Figure 6.30 shows that Dommels method experiences truncation errors, whereas the exponential form gives the correct answer. A further increase of the time step, i.e. A = lor, shown in Figure 6.31, results in much greater numerical oscillation for Dommels method, while the exponential form continues to provide the exact answer.

6.9 a.cJd.c. Converters

PSCADEMTDC provides as a single component a six-pulse valve group, shown in Figure 6.32(a) with associated PLU firing control and sequencing drop and parallel

6.9 A.C./D.C. CONVERTERS

193

-Exponential form........' Dommel's method- - - - - Theoretical curve

Figure 6.31 Step response of switching test system for Ar = 10s

I

I I
I
I Ron

a b
C - w -

I
I

f7

, , ,

,7 , , ' I

I
I \
\

\ \ \

Figure 6.32 (a) PSCAD six pulse group model (b) Thyristor and snubber equivalent circuit

model snubber, as shown in Figure 6.32(b). The combination of on resistance and forward voltage drop can be viewed as a two-piece linear approximation to the conduction characteristic. The interpolated switching scheme, described in Figure 6.28, is used for each valve. The factorization scheme used in EMTDC is optimized for the type of conductance matrix found in power systems, and for the presence of frequently switched elements. The block diagonal structure of the conductance matrix caused by travelling wave transmission line and cable models is exploited by processing each associated subsystem separately and sequentially. Within each subsystem, nodes to which frequently switched elements are attached are ordered last, so that the matrix refactorization after switching need only proceed from the switched node to the end. Breakers and faults are not ordered last, however, since they switch only once or twice in the course of a simulation. This means that the matrix refactorization time is affected mainly by the total number of switched elements in a subsystem, and not by the total size of the subsystem. Only non-zero elements in each subsystem are processed by

Next Page
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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS

employing sparse matrix indexing methods. A further speed improvement, and reduction in algorithm complexity, is to store the conductance matrix for each subsystem in full form, including the zero elements. This avoids the need for indirect indexing of conductance matrix elements by pointers. Although the user has the option of building up a valve group from individual thyristor components, the complete valve group model includes sequencing and firing control logic. The firing controller implemented is of the phase-vector type, shown in Figure 6.33, which employs the trigonometric identities to operate on an error signal following the phase of the positive sequence component of the commutating voltage. The output of the PLO is a ramp, phase shifted to account for the transformer phase shift. A firing occurs for valve 1 when the ramp intersects the instantaneous value of the alpha order from the link controller. Ramps for the other five valves are obtained by adding increments of 60" to the valve 1 ramp. This process is illustrated in Figure 6.34. As for the six-pulse valve group, where the user has the option of constructing it from discrete component models, HVDC-link controls can be modelled by synthesis from

VA

. )

VB

vc

Figure 6.33 Phase-vector type phase-locked oscillator

Interpolated firing of valve 1

Interpolated firing of valve 2

Figure 6.34 Firing control for the PSCADEMTDC valve group model