Lesson notes Earthquakes

What is an earthquake? An earthquake is a sudden movement of the earths crust, usually along a fault (the dividing line between two parts of the crust). The study of earthquakes is called seismology. Aftershocks are more minor earthquakes that represent the settling down of the plates after an earthquake. What causes earthquakes? Stresses build up along lines of structural weakness until the friction is overcome in a sudden movement. The point at which the stress is released is named the focus (or sometimes the hypocentre), while the point directly above that on the earths surface is the epicentre. The shockwaves released from the earthquake are called seismic waves. These radiate out in all directions, just like throwing a stone in a pond causes ripples on the surface, decreasing in intensity as they spread further from the focus. These stresses tend to built up along plate boundaries, and earthquake patterns are very, very closely relate to them. The different plates result in different earthquakes: Constructive plate boundaries along ocean ridges. Mainly shallow earthquakes. Caused by volcanic activity as magma rises, pushing plates apart. Earthquakes occur below water, so causing little threat to people, although some do occur on land e.g. East African Rift Valley. Destructive plate boundaries involving at least one oceanic plate being subducted the compressing of the subducted oceanic plate causes deep and severe earthquakes in the Benioff Zone which is the area where the plate is being pushed directly underneath the other plate. These plates are the most common cause of tsunami. Collision boundaries (two continental plates colliding) shallow earthquakes over a wide area. Conservative/transform plate boundaries (plates moving past one another, not towards, e.g. San Andreas fault) shallow earthquakes along a narrow zone About 15% of earthquakes occur away from these plate boundaries and are known as intraplate earthquakes. They may be caused by stresses within plates, or by isostatic recoil (the same process that has lead to sea level change in previously glaciated areas) which revives ancient faults that are no longer actually on a plate boundary, e.g. the fault on which Loch Ness sits. What physical factors make the damage from an earthquake increase? Depth of focus - The more shallow the focus deep earthquakes may occur up to 700km below ground level, but those less than 40km deep cause the most damage as the seismic waves as the seismic waves havent dissipated by the time they reach areas of human habitation. Magnitude Earthquakes are measured using the Richter Scale (see below). The stronger the earthquake, the more likely it is to do damage. The Modified Mercalli Scale may also be used. Duration Earthquakes may last a fraction of a second, or may go on for several minutes if you include aftershocks. Distance from epicentre the further away, the less severe the seismic waves (in the same way as depth of focus). Underlying geology softer rocks, muds and clays may cause more damage including liquefaction (see related hazards) Other factors time of day may influence damage to people (night = more deaths as people are asleep and less likely to get out of falling buildings etc.). Quality of buildings, and other human factors, are of course equally important as any physical factors. How are earthquakes measured? A seismometer records the movement of the earth, producing a seismogram or seismograph, which is what we commonly see on TV etc. There are two main scales:

Richter Scale A logarithmic scale ranging from less than 1 (<1) to over 8 (8>) which measures the magnitude of an earthquake as recorded on a seismograph. The worst damage is done between 5 and 8+; under 4 is unlikely even to be felt by humans. Modified Mercalli Scale A 12 point scale describing the physical effects of an earthquake. 1 = earthquake recorded by instruments but felt by very few, up to 12 = total destruction. There are very few earthquakes that reach 12 on this scale.