Beadle, G. (2003) Productivity-Can Existing Office Buildings Provide For Future Business NeedsOCR

Cambridge University
Interdisciplinary Design of the Built Environment

MSt Programme
Course Director:
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Thesis
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings
Provide for Future Business Needs?
Graham Beadle
October 2003
Paul Kirby
16600
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
Contents
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Introduction
Overview of Productivity and Building Related Issues
2.1 Definition of Productivity
2.2 Measuring Productivity
2.3 The Development of Productivity Issues
2.4 Present Status
2.5 Buildings and Productivity
Change
3.1 Changing Economy
3.2 Changing Society
3.2.1 Home working
3.3 Organisational Change
3.3.1 Organisational Structure
3.3.2 Organisation Management
3.4 What Organisations Need from Buildings
The Effects of Advancing Technology
4.1 Advances in Office ITC
4.2 What Will ITC Equipment Offer in the Next Ten Years
4.3 The Influence of Technology on Buildings
Productivity Research
5.1 Individual'
5.2 Group
5.3 Organisation
5.4 Findings
The Individual's Relationship with the Environment
6.1 Psychological Effects on Individual Productivity
6.1.1 Arousal
6.1.2 Distraction and Overload
6.1.3 Fatigue
6.1.4 Neurological Research Supporting Donald Hebb's Theory
6.2 Elements of the Environment that Affect Individual Productivity
6.2.1 Control and Adaptation
6.2.2 Forgiveness
6.2.3 Satisfaction and Environmental Factors
6.3 Environmental Factors
6.3.1 Lighting
6.3.2 Windows and Daylighting
6.3.3 Temperature and Thennal Comfort
6.3.4 Ventilation and Air Quality
6.3.5 Noise and Music
6.3.5.1 Noise
6.3.5.2 Music
6.3.6 Workstations and Space
6.3.7 Colour
6.4 Summary of Selected Criteria for Individual Productivity
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IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 2 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Contents continued;
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Group Working
7.1 Space Planning
7.1.1 Gathering Space
7.2 Building Space Planning for Knowledge Based Work
7.3 Summary of Selected Criteria for Group Productivity
Organisations
8.1 Summary of Selected Criteria for Organisational Productivity
Case Study
9.1 Background Information
9.2 The Building
9.3 "Individual" Productivity Assessment
9.3.1 Artificial Lighting
9.3.2 Daylighting and Windows
9.3.3 Temperature and Thermal Comfort
9.3.5 Noise
9.3.6 Workstation and Space
9.3.7 ControVAdaptation
9.4 "Group" Productivity Assessment
9.4.1 Building's Plan Form and Structure
9.5 "Organisation" Productivity Assessment
9.6 Comparison with New Build
9.7 Findings from Case Study
Conclusion
Appendix A Office Environment Survey
Appendix B The Physical Environments Effect on Group Performance
Appendix C Description of Work Style Characteristics
Appendix D Staff Preferences List
Appendix E Patent Application
Appendix F Space Planning of a Floor plate
References
Bibliography
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IDEE Thesis, University of Cambridge 3 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
1.0 Introduction
Research has shown that the re-use of existing building structures offers significant environmental and
sustainability benefits due to the reduced need for primary resources 1. However, for office buildings,
this is only a viable option if the existing structures can accommodate the needs of future businesses.
Traditionally, offices have been demolished and replaced as business organisations' needs have
changed and new technologies introduced, but do today's and future businesses need something more
than what existing structures can offer?
The hypothesis proposed for determining if existing office structures can provide for future business
needs is to consider how well they can provide for good productivity. For many years, organisations
have been trying to improve office productivity, but never more so than with the emergence of the
global economy where competition with cheaper labour forces around the world is ever increasing,
and higher productivity is widely seen as necessary for survival. Some leading companies are now
turning their attention to the buildings in which they work in the search for productivity
enhancement 2 3 4 5 6.
However, this hypothesis does introduce two complexities. Firstly, the nature of work is going through
a phase change due to the rise of the global economy, social developments and advances in
technology. This therefore requires the nature of future business organisations to be established, along
with their requirements of office buildings. Secondly, there are no guidelines as to what provides for
good productivity, so these requirements have to be established.
This thesis therefore establishes what organisations need from buildings by considering the economic,
social and technological changes taking place. Then, through reasoning the requirements for good
office productivity are established. Which are then applied to a case study building that serves as the
basis of determining if existing structures can provide for future business needs.
IDBE Tllesis, University of Cambridge 4 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
/
Introduction
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Social, Organisational Productivity Office Technology
& Economic change Present Status
Productivity Research
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Individual Group Organisation
Productivity Productivity Productivity

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Criteria
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Criteria Criteria
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Case Study
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Individual Group Orgall1sation
Productivity Productivity Productivity
Assessment Assessment Assessment
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Conclusion
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Figure l.l Structuring of thesis
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 5 Graham Beadle, IDEE 8
2.0 Overview of Productivity and Building Related Issues
The following section provides background information on productivity and the present status of
knowledge in the subject area, and a view on the scale of influence that buildings have on the overall
productivity of an organisation.
2.1 Definition of Productivity
There are many definitions of the term productivity available, amongst the most clear and concise of
these is that proposed by CIBSE
7

"The term productivity is generally recognised as being the measure of an individual's or an
organisation's efficiency at producing products or providing services, normally expressed as a
ratio of inputs to outputs. The outputs being measured in terms of quality and/or quantity, and
inputs as time or money. Therefore productivity is increased by producing more with the same
amount of resource or producing the same amount with fewer resources."
Organisations generally gauge their productivity in terms of the ratio of input cost to revenue
generated, as it is one of the few definitive measurement methods and of greatest significance in a
commercial environment. Traditionally commercial organisations look to improve their productivity
by reducing inputs, for example staff down-time (i.e. through illness, poor equipment), or improving
outputs through employee training or staff motivation.
However as workers' expectations have risen many organisations are now trying to improve their
productivity by reduced staff turnover through offering incentives such as a good working
environment and better career prospects. This has led some experts
8
to criticise the term "productivity"
for being too financially orientated. They prefer the term "effectiveness" which is considered to
encompass the human elements of organisation's operations, for example:
Satisfaction and commitment among staff
Communication and co-ordination among work units
Adequate production
Mutually supportive relationship with the external environment
Ability to sustain performance
The importance of individual satisfaction
All of these directly or indirectly affect an organisations' performance. Satisfaction is a very important
issue in its own right. In organisations where staff show high levels of satisfaction, low absenteeism
and reduced staff turnover result.
2.2 Measuring Productivity
The measurement of productivity is easily achieved at an organisational level where profit levels
provide a clear indication of overall performance. Equally, where individuals or groups are producing
quantifiable outputs, such as claims processed or calls dealt with, overall productivity levels may be
measured numerically. However, determining productivity for more complex tasks involving decision-
making, communication and creativity, is more difficult. Although managers generally know who
their most productive and talented staff are through casual observations and again overall results. As a
result, organisations are reasonably content with whatever form of productivity monitoring methods
they use.
IDBE Thesis, UniverSity of Cambridge 6 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
The problem of measuring productivity has prevented progress in the designing of buildings to
contribute to performance because:
There is no agreement on the elements that affect productivity.
The elements that are chosen are difficult to quantify and rate.
All office environments are unique in terms of work tasks and management style.
The psychological element of individual personalities and group behaviour.
As a result, most studies in offices are based on staffs perceived productivity (which is perception
based).
"The problem with using people is that they are difficult to calibrate" (Leaman)
Many of the factors that influence productivity have been the subject of laboratory studies and field
experiments, but the results often contrast, as shown below, and the claims made are often
controversial.
Table 6 Effect: of envlronmUl.tal on pcr{onnance.
Productivby juue
Mean total downcime du", to poor fi .. :ilities. " .. WII1king toIwailing at fu:
:and eopicm
Increased illumiDllDcc from 550 10 noo lUll for work
Inccerustd iUuminancc from 100 to 1000 IWI for te:JI:ul., plant
IntrOduction of up-lighting fOr YOU work
Lighting n:f\arblsbment in Aircroft production
Ligbt.iDll nfurbisb.m.ent in tleaignC11l' oma:
Lighting rdurblsbment in drawing office
JOCf'e&\ling DOise by 10 dB in POlit room
Reducing (USiDg I::IU' plugs) 1m industrial weaveJS
Rcdw.:iog noise in Il88CJIlbly room
Inlrodudng I<OWld_absorbiQ. mau:rilll into wall or ryping pool
Ez:treroe 10 nnlniUOJl$ factories
Warm u:nIP"'dtuIQ in lIUIn%Jler months of tin-plate manuf'a.ctu1'C'l'
High tc:UIpe:mtu...e la coal mine
In(l'Odllcing AC mto utility company
Io(l'Oduc:il'l. AC lnto lelillier manufacnu=
Inrroducing AC into dectrical maaufac:tu.ring
Uncomfortable cood.itio .. :s m typing pool
mtn:lJ3ing fretlh air iOlDke to dilute pollutants
Bringing office3 up to cutrcnt IAQ srandnrdo
Movmg from NY to AC office
Compariaooo of NV venus AC oRi"""
Control ovet' envimnmentDl conditions
Control over environmental CDndiLlon$
Office refurbishment
RdW:biwment of bank
Office ...eturbidunent of poIIt sorting office
Office rdll1:bjshment and n:IIU'Uc:lllring
New furniwre
Properly de!ligned work:imrioD
Incruaing privacy mrough offices
Voice :response syst"X11.9 in calI.up c.:nucs
General inlprOYernent in ""lviumment
General inlprovemellt in environment
lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 7
Soura:
N A OsdQJld.& P BanJeu,
Improving office produetivlly,
HnI'Wl!lI: Addison, W""ley.
LongJUllD (1999)
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Hedge et "'(")
Romm & Bmwniog<l")
Kouri.io & MikbeyeDn>a)
W""lon &

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Vernon et 1lI1O')
ScbWe1sbeimer
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Kemp & Dinglef"J)
Dorgan & AmIociausa>-)
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RoJllIll & BtownmgU")
Sullivan<U}
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Productivity
,%, Confidence
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Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
A productivity study conducted by the author on the hottest recorded day (10
th
August 2003) shows
the effect temperature has on mental productivity. The air temperature and words written each hour
were recorded and the Figure 2.1 produced. Figure 2.1 shows how the words written per hour (mental
productivity) reduced with increasing temperature.
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Hour of Day
Figure 2.1 Effect of temperature on mental productivity
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One may question the validity of these results, but the methodology is similar to most productivity
studies on mental tasks. This serves to show how such studies are subject to interpretational
differences and are of questionable validity.
2.3 The Development of Productivity Issues
Since the benefits and methods of enhanced productivity were first recognised in the late nineteenth
century by F. W. Taylor,' it has been the subject of much research. The first research by Taylor
involved time and motion studies based on physical activities with the aim of minimising movement.
Then in the 1930s the effects of environmental conditions such as lighting levels, temperature and rest
breaks on factory workers were studied by E.G. Mayoll. Today, the subject is recognised to
encompass not only the physical processes and physiological conditions, but also psychological and
sociological issues associated with the mental task and social interaction inherent with office work.
The psychology of human behaviour is in itself an immensely complex subject that has arguably
progressed little beyond Freudian theories of circa 1902
'2
13. We are still no nearer knowing our minds
as well as we know our bodies, as psychologists grapple with the question of to what extent the human
mind is "hard wired". In addition to this are the complexities created by group working and
managerial methods, which are time, culture and context dependent.
This sociological and psychological cocktail is perhaps the greatest reason for there having been little
progress on any of the subjects associated with productivity, and the reason for many researchers
referring to the subject as being too complex, requiring too many interrelated variables to be taken into
account'4. There is even confusion amongst researchers as to what issues affect productivity. Some
researchers fail to identify buildings as having any influence on productivity, as shown in the Table
2.2
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Source Paper Factors affecting motivation, job satisfaction and performance
Aronoff and Physical setting, motivation, respect, satisfaction with goals,
Kaplan trade-offs, expectations and equity.
Arvery et al Locus of neuroticism, affectivity related to job satisfaction, education,
age, cognitive ability, socio-economic status, career goals, tasks identity,
autonomy, skill variety, feed back, congruence between personality and work
environment.
Bakke Job satisfaction and requirements, communication system, status, reward, pay,
organisational character, identity, knowing job, initiatives, job security,
control, pride, and self-respect.
BIackler and Identity, meaning of work, social interaction, responsibility to peer group,
Williams goal setting, equity, expectancy, group cohesiveness, peer pressure,
Brown Relation ships with management, relationship with co-workers, responsibility,
pride of craft, self respect, status, sense of usefulness and control over work
Sundstrom Responsibility autonomy, pay, job security, relationship with co-workers,
promotion, the work, itself, and physical environment.
Table 2.2 The relationship between productivity, motivation and environmental factors
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 9 Graham I3eadle, IDBE 8
Productivity: Can Existing Office BUildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
A more holistic and structured view of the issues which affect productivity and performance as
proposed by Bartlett is shown below
l6
;
Environment
Air quality
Lighting
Ventilation
Temperature
Ergonomics
Status symbols
Aesthetics/Colour
Figure 2.2 Facets of productivity
However, the researchers of these individual elements tend to stay within their specialised circles, and
as a result a multidisciplinary approach has never been taken, and no guidance is available to building
designers on the requirements for productivity.
2.4 Present Status
The influence that buildings have on organisational performance is seldom recognised by occupiers
and rarely acknowledged by designers. This, combined with the complexity of the subject has meant
that there has been very little interest in the subject, and investment in research has generally focused
on very specific issues. This has resulted in some very good individual pieces of work, but none that
provides designers and organisations with an holistic view of productivity requirements. There is also
a wall of confusion that must be seen through in order to identify the real issues associated with
productivity. This wall been created by businesses that profit form selling products and services to
organisations on the basis of productivity benefits. For companies such as these there is no benefit for
the subject area to be developed.
Figure 2.3 The productivity wall of confusion
To this day, there is no obvious theory or model of the office environmen t that can be used by
designers or organisations to consider the issues that affect workplace performance. This is partially
because of the complexity of the subject, but also due to the piece-meal approach taken by many
researchers, which contributes little to advancing the overall subject.
Organisations rarely relate productivity to buildings beyond basic proximity planning. This is hardly
surprising as they are constantly subjected to business pressures and seek improved productivity
through better management, training and better equipment where large benefits can be more easily
gained and immediately recognised. Little consideration is given to the kinds of conditions that affect
human performance. This is most noticeable in the space planning of many offices.
Designers tend to have a rough idea of some of the basic requirements, but these are almost always
overtaken by issues such as aesthetics and their perceptions of space and light. Consequently, designs
produced tend to follow fashion rather than function. The design of buildings is a very complex task in
itself, requiring countless judgements to be made, and priorities set within the confines of a time, cost
and quality brief. Under such conditions, it is understandable that most building designers follow their
perceptions, particularly as there is a lack of clear advice available on productivity issues.
However, through the wall of confusion which clouds the issues there are a few individuals who are
trying to break through the layers of complexity by identifying the key issues which effect
organisational performance in buildings. They are:
Adrian Leaman - a social scientist who specialises in the behaviour, attitudes and environmental
conditions of building users, and in design and management problems related to usability
Francis Duffy - a theorist of the rate of change in building and office space use
Eric Sundstrom - a psychologist of the physical environment
Bill Bordass - a researcher of the application and operation of building services systems
Paul Bartlett - expert on the subject of office facilities use
Understandably, these people are trying to progress the subject in their individual professional
disciplines, but there is currently no collaborati ve effort despite several organisations promoting the
requirement
l718
19 20, One of the problems with achieving a collaborative effort is the number of
specialists required and the cost of such an exercise.
A research program has just begun in America that is investigating the psychological effects on
building elements of neurological activity. This may provide a greater insight into the effects of
various productivity issues and allow priorities to be set for further research. It is also possible that
new issues may be discovered
2l

2.5 Buildings and Productivity
Although it is not known how great a role buildings play in the productivity of an organisation, it is
likely to be relatively small compared to other elements. The diagram below shows the likely order of
influence. The organisation itself must have the greatest influence, because without it the efforts of the
individuals would not be harnessed. This is followed by the individuals who must be fit and well to
work, followed by the facilities, which must be available for operation and up-to-date. The building is
shown as having least influence. This may be justified as excellent work can be produced by highly
motivated people under very poor conditions.
ORGANISATION
INDIVIDUAL
FACILITIES
BUILDING
INCREASING INFLUENCE
Figure 2.4 Influence of various elements on productivity
IDIlE Thesis, University of Cambridge 12 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
However, the importance of the building's influence on productivity is more apparent when the rate of
change of each element is considered. If the building is considered in terms of Francis Duffy's Five
S's diagram
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with the rates of change shown below, the importance of the building's contribution to
productivity may be said to be raised by its static nature.
Space planning
Skin 30 years
Structure 60 years
Services 15 years
Space planning 5 years
Stuff
Figure 2.5 The five S's and the rate of change diagram
The rate of change of the relatively static elements of the building may be expected to vary from 15
years for the services to 60 years for the structure of the building. Whereas an organisation today,
which represents space planning and stuff, may be expected to change almost completely within a 5-
year period.
This raises the importance of building design's contribution to productivity, as it is a long-term
influence, and identifies a key issue in designing for productivity. The key issue is the design of a
static building, which can provide for the productivity needs of organisations that are, by comparison,
very dynamic. This is of particular concern for existing buildings because if they are to provide for
productivity, they must at least be sympathetic to the needs of future organisations. Figure 2.6 shows
the nature of this issue, a dynamic organisation evolving in response to the external pressures of
economic and social change and advances in technology, whilst being contained within a static
building.
TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMY
SOCIE1Y
Figure 2.6 The dynamic organisation and the static building
To determine if existing buildings can provide for the productivity needs of future organisations, the
influence of the external factors that are forming organisations must be understood.
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for FUture Business Needs?
3.0 Change
Organisations have always had to adapt to changing economic and social pressures and keep up-to-
date with the latest technologies, but never before in history has the rate of change being so great, the
environment so competitive and knowledge so valued. This has caused organisations to adopt new
methods of operation, not only to increase profits but simply to survive. Many organisations today
appear to be under constant reorganisation. Their aim is to become faster at change, free of legacy and
flatter in hierarchy whilst adopting more flexible conditions to retain staff. The following sections
discuss the economic, social and organisational changes that are taking place today.
3.1 Changing Economy 23 24 25 26 27 28
John Maynard Keynes revolutionised economic thinking during the great depression of the 1930's by
recognising that the economy is not driven by supply but by what people are willing to bur".
"Real GDP does not depend on what can be produced [supply}. Real GDP depends on what
people are willinlZ to buy {demand/" (fohn Maynard Keynes)
Ever since this time businesses have being competing to provide customers with improved services
and products at the lowest prices. They have been achieving this for years by employing the latest
available technologies, developing better processes and cutting staff costs. As transportation and
communication methods have improved, businesses have been able to spread their nets further to gain
access to more market places. Similarly, customers are presented with more choice, and competition
between manufacturers has further increased.
This process of advancing technologies, improving communication and transportation has created the
global economy we have today. The pressures of globalisation have been growing since the end of the
Second World War, from which time the regulation of world trade has been reducing, most
significantly between the late 1970's and early 1980's. The process of deregulatin.g trade is considered
to be the way to liberate underdeveloped countries by improving health and education, and
relationships between countries, so reducing the risk of war. However, in doing this, business
competition has become global and is now often referred to as being super-competitive.
As water always flows along the path of least resistance, businesses always seek to reduce costs and
improve performance. As we have already seen with manufacturing industries, products are imported
and exported all around the world as businesses compete for market shares to maintain profits and
production levels. Production levels must be maintained to ensure economies of scale are gained from
mass production techniques. Through low labour costs and maintaining high production levels and a
reputation for quality, Japan has cornered the market for mass-produced electrical goods. In contrast,
manufacturing in the UK has declined, primarily due to high labour costs. These processes that have
been taking place among manufacturers around the world for many years is now set to begin in the
services businesses sector, due to the advent of cheap and effective Information technology
Communication (ITC) equipment which is removing the economic insulating effect of distance.
ITC equipment is already enabling services-based businesses in Europe and America to operate in
economies where labour rates are low and skills are in good and ready supply. Many businesses are
now using this labour for "back office" processing, technical support and even for customer contact in
the case of call centres. India is a particular target for these kinds of workers having 70%
unemployment and a supply of over 2 million graduates each year. Labour cost are only 40% of those
in Europe. South Korea, Vietnam, Russia and the Philippines are also emerging to provide similar
opportunities despite the inevitable questions about political stability.
IDBE Thesis, University ofCambddge 15 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
As these lower wage countries and economies develop, they are gaining the skills necessary to
compete directly with higher wage economies, such as the UK and America, for lucrative highly
skilled services sector work. This will inevitably cause the decline, or at least down-scaling, of many
services business in developed countries as experienced in the manufacturing industry. It is already the
cause of rising unemployment and contributing to reduced business confidence in the developed
world, reflected in current interest rates and the existence of deflation in Japan. In some respects, this
development may be viewed as the start of the balancing of wealth around the world, but it is the high
wage economies that are at risk of losing the most, as they must find ways of improving performance
in order to maintain their wealth.
The changes that have taken place in the manufacturing industry may take place in the highly skilled
services businesses. However, the most significant difference will be the pace of change. It took over
twenty years for a significant change in global manufacturing to occur, but with technology bridging
the effects of distance, the pace of change in the services sector could to be much quicker.
The highly skilled services sector businesses are different to manufacturing businesses in that
performance is more affected by the individual members of staff rather than the operation of the
organisation as a whole. As this sector of work becomes more competitive, a growing emphasis is
being placed on the knowledge and abilities of individual members of staff for business success. As
business competition increases the value of knowledge and the marginal benefits it can provide are
becoming increasingly valuable. In the most basic terms, talented staff can save costs through their
intellectual productivity.
Although knowledge workers are seen to hold the key to maintaining marginal business benefits, they
are in short supply. Most of the world's knowledge is currently in developed countries and this is
where the future success of the economy is seen to lie. It is therefore important for buildings to
provide an appropriate working environment for knowledge workers.
3.2 Changing Society'O,3!
It is widely recognised that the pressures of working life today are much greater than ever before. This
has been brought about by the shift in work from manufacturing to the service sector and knowledge
work, and the rapid adoption of information and communication technology systems. These have in
tum brought about increased competitiveness. There has also been a substantial erosion of government
support for both individuals and organisations, who are now clearly masters of their own fate. Added
to this, life in the office has changed dramatically. Masses of staff are no longer employed to complete
dull repetitive tasks. Technology has created work intensification, the erosion of traditional job
demarcations and increased workloads. All of which may be much more interesting and potentially
fulfilling, but it is also a major cause of stress-related illnesses and has eroded the quality of family
life. This is particularly evident when you consider that it is no longer possible for the average family
to live comfortably on a single income.
Through this economic and technological progress, a social change has taken place. Individuals are
now free to move between employers and redundancy is nO longer viewed as a threat to livelihood and
a source of shame, simply as an inconvenience, or perhaps an opportunity. Similarly, staff who find
themselves dissatisfied with their work conditions will simply seek alternative employment. In
essence, today, "there are no sticks and carrots are everywhere" for skilled workers.
Advancing technology is no longer a source of major upheaval as it was during the industrial
revolution. This was when cities developed which severed communities as people left the land. Today
technology is viewed as the potential source of reducing many of the problems that it originally
introduced. The government certainly recognises this and supports the introduction of flexible working
practices as the way to re-address the work-life balance. Equally, organisations, particularly those that
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 16 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8
employ knowledge workers, realise that happy, stress-free staff are better motivated and produce
better results.
3.2.1 Home Working
Advances in technology have enabled home working with full access to all necessary information.
The nature of knowledge work being more about results than process means that organisations do not
insist that everybody should go to the office every day, unless the job cannot be done anywhere else or
that strict times should be worked, unless co-ordination is disadvantaged.
Remote working with full access to resources is easily achieved with current lTC. The adoption of
remote working can be beneficial to employers, clients, staff, and family life by reducing unnecessary
distractions such as travelling. The diagram below shows the work location model being adopted by
some organisations and individuals.
CLIENT
Figure 3.1 Work location model
This does raise the question of whether offices will be needed in the future. However, continuous
home working has been recognised to have many negative effects including isolation, loss of
motivation and loyalty, and is therefore not considered a long-term solution". The office serves as
much more than just a place to work as wonderfully described by Leaman
33

"There is occasional talk about the demise of the office which I consider to be, like the death of
Mark Twain, wildly exaggerated. On the contrary, the office may well take on a greater social
role in the rapidly evolving culture. It will become the centre of operations for those workers
who are spending an increasing part of there time out of the office. It will of course be a place
of relief, humour, buzz and conviviality. The office becomes the centre of the social activity of
the corporation; it is the place where people come to meet, and perhaps just talk and catch up
on the goings on. It is where the social interaction happens automatically and the synergy of
corporations happens naturally.
This is the hub of activity; it is the village market place, surrounded by the business, rewritten
in a new twenty-first century model. This is not a new model, but merely one with an increased
importance for the office of the future. The canteens become the restaurants, the drinks
machines are replaced by cates, and as much business is done in these areas as on the
boulevards of Paris. It is the focus for social interaction and communication without which the
company withers. All of this may suggest an office environment that looks more akin to the
home than the office, a place of interaction, community and 'fraternity' ".
3.3 Organisational Change
Increased business competition and the rising importance of knowledge workers is causing business
organisations to change to become more flexible in structure and in staff working conditions.
3.3.1 Organisational Structure" '5
The days when large organisations benefited from their size and self-sufficiency are long gone. Today,
organisations focus On their core objectives and out-source for everything else, thereby reducing their
fixed overheads and reducing their loses when there is a sudden change in workload.
The diagrams below illustrate the need for organisations to become more flexible'6. The first graph
shows a traditional organisation with fixed overheads that grow as the level of work increases.
However, when there is a sudden change in workload the fixed overheads cannot be reduced quickly
enough to prevent profits being eroded. The second graph shows the model that most organisations are
now aiming fOLIn this case, the organisation's costs and commitments are designed to vary to match
demand through flexible leasing and supply arrangements. As the organisation grows it does so
without legacy, and is in a better position to cope with a downturn in work.
Cash
Flow
Time
Profit
Loss
Cash
Flow
Figure 3.2 Need for flexible organisational structure
3.3.2 Organisation Management'7
Profit
Overheads
Time
Knowledge based work is different to traditional office work in that the skills and abilities of the staff
are more directly related to the performance of the organisation. This therefore puts the emphasis on
organisations to not only create conditions which are conducive to knowledge work, but also to make
sure that high calibre staff are satisfied and retained.
Knowledge
C
Manag-
Organisa-
Hours of
workers ement
lions
work
become styles
become
valuable change
more
asset
flexible
Location
with staff
of work
Figure 3.3 Organisational management change
This is not only causing organisations to flatten their hierarchies and share responsibilities amongst all
their members, but also to empower staff to challenge the status quo and be comfortable in putting
forward ideas which may lead to advancing the organisation. The kind of management that seems to
suit these kinds of organisations would appear to be more humanistic and organic than mechanistic.
Traditional mechanistic styles are most unsuited to the requirements of flexibility and diversity of
tasks which knowledge work typically involves. Organic humanistic styles accommodate these
requirements better and can more easily adapt to the changes taking place. Perhaps the only view
contrary to this one is put forward by Professor Richard Scase, author of "The Living ZOO,,38. He
believes that traditional hierarchies are the only long-term solution
39
. Also Professor Price, a lecturer
in business at Sheffield University, recently observed that, "business and management theory is today
broadly comparable to nineteenth century medicine" which suggests little confidence in any theory4D.
One such humanistic "leadership" concept, which is gaining increasing popularity in America, is that
of primal leadership as proposed by Daniel Goleman
4l
Goleman postulates, "The task of a leader is to
prime good feeling in those which they lead, and through the powers of emotional intelligence inspire,
enthuse, motivate and gain commitment from staff'. By this method it is considered that managers
lead by example rather than controlling through fear, and evolve to become coaches, helping
individuals to improve, achieve their aspirations and gain satisfaction from their endeavours. Parallels
may be drawn between Goleman's leadership concept and that of Maslow's Motivation theory, where
the ultimate aim is self-actualisation. Clearly, this also aligns well with human nature and the nature of
knowledge work, and creates conditions for success to generate further success.
Direction of Movement
MECHANISTIC HUMANISTIC
Figure 3.4 Changing management styles
3.4 What Organisations Need From Buildings
Business organisations have to navigate the rapid economic, social, and technological changes and
look harder to find ways to enhance their performance in super-competitive markets. There is an
increasing sense that organisations are striving to make the office they occupy relate better to their
structure, climate and image, and provide for maximum productivity. There has been a lot of
investment in lTC, business processes, reorganisation and knowledge management, but little in the
buildings which organisations occupy. As observed by Leaman, "many organisations today are
completely frustrated by the desperate poverty of imagination in conventional offices, firms are
extremely articulate about their organisational features and get no response from a realistic industry
more dead than alive."
A few leading companies now recognise that the buildings they occupy are an untapped resource.
They realise that the building, and amenities within, are not only a means of impressing clients, but
also serve as a way of attracting and retaining the best staff. They are a method of changing the culture
of an organisation, a tool for implementing management strategies and a facility for stimulating
workers. As Duffy states: "The pressure is now on for every organisation to occupy flexible high
value space that promotes a sense of motivation and co-operative interaction among staf1"2".
The ideal design forms characteristic of offices prior to the 1960s have now been superseded. Rightly
or wrongly, the current trend in office design is towards intensification and diversification of building
use with much greater attention given to:
The adoption of new technologies
Growing emphasis on team working
Flexibility and adaptability of space use
Aesthetics from an organisational and staff perspective
The office being the hub of activity rather than the sole location
Designing to support people in their tasks
However, little consideration has been given to creating the conditions under which knowledge work
is best performed, despite it being seen as the key to continued global economic success. This is most
likely due to the confusion that surrounds the subject. Therefore designing office buildings for the
faster creation and commercialisation of knowledge, along with the current design trends, would
appear to be the next logical step in office design.
4.0 The Effects of Advancing Information Technology43
The requirements of current technology on the physical space is undefined with no documentation
investigating the effect of ITC integration into buildings in public circulation since the ORBIT studies
of the 1990s, when IT was first being introduced into offices
44
This documentation recognised the
need for raised floors and increased riser space inherent in all modem offices, and served as the death
sentence of many existing buildings. However, technology has progressed rapidly since this time. The
following paragraphs establish the status of technology, and identify the impact which technology has
on buildings today.
4.1 Advances in Office ITC
A little over ten years ago, general office ITC equipment consisted of telephones, electronic
typewriters and fax machines. At this time computers were large, expensive, hot machines that sat in
dedicated rooms, and were operated by technologists for privileged users. Today Computers are
smaller, cheaper, produce less heat and are considered standard office equipment, just like a desk or
chair. ITC equipment now provides us with e-mail, video conferencing and a whole host of other
digital devices that have sped up everyday tasks and changed the way we work.
The advances in office ITC equipment as observed by Ken Yeang is shown below 45.
o!C.eccce-- --- --- ----------- -- i
,
,
,---- - ----- --r --- ---- -- --J
Figure 4.1 Advances in office technology
4.2 What will ITC Equipment Offer in the Next Ten Years?
Office technology equipment is currently limited by computing speed and what may be termed
"flexibility." The rate at which computing speed increases is known to obey "Moore's Law", which
states that the computing speed and complexity double every eighteen months. This, as Steven
Hawldns suggests, is one of those exponential growths that cannot continue indefinitely. The diagram
below shows the exponential growth in computing speed (number of calculation per second) from
1972 to 2007 as achieved and forecast by Inte1
46

IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 21 Graham Beadle, !DDE 8
The .'r",.OOM',1 g,,,,,,h,,
tot"" 19n 1<,
0: 2007 01 ""'" CPU
f",,,. "hoc (i'.c <0(",1 <bip .. "' 'bo
0.,..,""",,' d {/.!,,,1>\icni por ,"(oM
Figure 4.2 Growth in computer speed
As computing power increases, more intensive applications such as speech and image recognition,
natural language processing and massive multi media data bases will appear on individual's desk-top
computers and note books. The next step will be when a computer becomes an active platform where
it will tell you when you have received an e-mail, read it to you and respond by voice recognition, and
expensive and cumbersome videoconference suites may be expected to be replaced by desktop
systems.
In addition to computing power increasing, we are currently on the verge of a bandwidth boom and
what is often referred to as the "wireless revolution". Bandwidth affects the speed at which
information is transferred. Presently, mainly businesses have access to broadband due to the limited
extent of the network and the cost of connection. However, broadband cable networks are growing
rapidly and this year 3G technology was launched. 3G technology is "wireless" broadband
communication, which will enable mobile computers to be just as connected and functional as a
desktop computer no matter were they are. This will provide endless flexibility in working habits and
is set to spawn a whole new generation of multi-media communication devices. Further developments
are WiFi and Bluetooth, which are short-range radio based technologies that are set to remove the
inconvenience of cables from peripheral devices. The combination of 3G and WiFi essentially means
that working environments can be entirely free from ITC cabling.
With the growth of these technologies it is clear that in the next ten years technology will have
minimal influence on the style of working, as anything that we can currently imagine will more than
likely be achievable. ITC will present a wide range of communications options such as: audio-
conferencing, video conferencing, e-mail chat, virtual presence etc. It is not unimaginable that the
office environment will be free from the masses of ITC cabling which presently occupy our buildings.
It is also realistic to imagine that corporate server rooms will be banished from offices and replaced by
remote specialised server farms accessed via the Internet.
Pnxluctivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
4.3 The Influence of Technology on Buildings
The most obvious influence this will have in buildings is the reversal of space requirements that was
brought about by the introduction of lTC. In turn this will eliminate the reason for demolition of many
existing buildings.
The introduction of technology into buildings brought with it raised floors and larger cooling systems
requiring greater structural floor-to-floor heights. It also introduced lTC distribution rooms, route and
riser space. The changes in floor-to floor heights over time as observed by Duffy are shown in Figure
4.2
47
. With the introduction of wire-free lTC equipment it may be expected that the mid 2000 section
will be similar to that of the Pre-1980s.
o
Pre 19805
00
o
1980s
IL
o
MId 1990s
Figure 4.2 Changing floor-to-floor heights related to the changing needs of
information technology
As these wire-free technologies are all currently available, some perhaps in an infantile state, it would
appear that lTC is likely to have little more than a requirement for desk space in the future and should
not represent a reason for demolishing an existing building.
5.0 Productivity Research
Despite the many studies on various issues that influence human performance, a clear theory or model
of how people relate to buildings has not been established, This is partially due to the difficulty in any
one theory being accepted due to the lack of empirical evidence, but primarily due to the unknown
psychological element. However the various studies, polls and theories offered by recognised pioneers
of human performance, such as Maslow and Herzberg, may be considered along with the lesser known
researchers to identify how buildings contribute to human performance.
By studying the work of these researchers, models are proposed which serve to identify the
mechanisms through which the physical building is considered to influence productivity at each level
of manifestation. The different levels of manifestation are considered to be the individual, the group
and the organisation.
Individual
Group
Organisation
Figure 5.1 Elements of overall building productivity
IDBE Tllesis, University of Cambridge 24 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
The models proposed are:
INDIVIDUAL
Model
Psychological
Sociological
GROUP
Model
Psychological
Sociological
ORGANISATION
Model
Psychological
Sociological
Psychological
Psychological
Psychological
Figure 5.2 Building productivity models
Physical
Performance
Physical
Performance
Physical
Performance
At each level, the inputs to the element that provide for performance are shown, along with
mechanisms through which human behaviour is affected. Where the human behaviour inputs are
shown to be physical, this is where the building is considered to influence performance, and in turn
productivity. In each case the physical input is accompanied by a psychological input that requires the
application of reasoning in order to select appropriate building productivity criteria. The following
sections provide further details on the derivation of each of these models.
IDBE 111esis, University of Cambridge 25 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Need,,?
5.1 Individual
The most consistently recognised contribution that buildings make to human performance and
productivity is through environmental satisfaction", simply through providing comfortable conditions.
The route through which environmental satisfaction contributes to productivity is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 5.3.
Performance Productivity
Figure 5.3 Relationship between environmental satisfaction and productivity
Environmental satisfaction has been proven to correlate well with job satisfaction along with several
other components such as the work itself, remuneration and relationships with fellow workers. Job
satisfaction is described by Sundstrom as representing: " the individual's attitude towards the job .... as
a summary evaluative judgement that reflects the individuals past and present experiences, including
experiences with the physical environment,,49.
The components of the physical environment that Sundstrom considers as contributing most to job
satisfaction are shown in the diagram below'D:
Lighting Work itself
Windows and daylighling Responsibility autonomy
Temperature Chance of advancement
Air quality Pay
NoiselMusic
Colour Supervision
Status symbols Relations with colleagues
Privacy Job security
Furniture! Equipment Company Policy
Figure 5.4 The physical environment as a component of job satisfaction
The conditions that influence comfort and satisfaction vary from person to person. Herzberg observed
this from his surveys that the influence of the physical environment was not as high as other job
IDBE The.sis, University of Cambridge 26 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
satisfaction components, being rated 10
th
out of 14 factors". This led him to his "Two-Factor Theory",
which suggests that an adequate environment does not contribute to job satisfaction, but an inadequate
environment distracts from it. Other researchers also support this theory52. In Herzberg's terms we
have two basic needs: the need to avoid pain and the need for self-actualisation. Hence providing
comfort avoids pain, but will not necessarily increase productivity as motivational needs also have to
be met (self-actualisation).
This relationship may be shown diagrammatically:
Psychological Physical
Psychological
Performance
Sociologic
Figure 5.5 Individual building productivity model
Maslow's Motivation Theory "hierarchy of needs" provides a simplistic model to relate elements of
the environment to performance". Maslow's Theory on motivation identified five major "need"
categories which apply to people in general, starting from fundamental physiological needs, leading
through a hierarchy of safety, social and esteem needs and finally the need for self actualisation, the
highest need of all.
Need Maslow
Self - the need to develop potentialities and
actualisation skills, to become what one believes one is
(selffulfilrneut) capable of becoming.
Esteem - the need to have a stable, firmly based,
high evaluation of oneself (self esteem) and
to have the respect of others (prestige).
These needs may be classified into two
subsidiary sets; first, the desire for
achievement, for adequacy, for confidence
in the face of the world, and for
independence and freedom, and, second, the
desire for reputation or status defmed as
respect or esteem from other people, and
manifested by recognition, attention,
importance, or appreciation.
Social - the need for love, affection and acceptance
al) belonging to a group
Safety - the need for protection against danger and
the deprivation of physiological needs
Physiological - the need for oxygen, food, water and sex
Figure 5.6 Maslow's "hierarchy of needs"
On the basis of Maslow's Theory it may be considered that a building contributes to the physiological
and safety needs of motivation. However, the achievement of these needs may be considered the most
basic of requirements, and does not contribute to the concentration and cognitive thinking required for
knowledge-type work. The building's long-term contribution to individual performance may be
recognised as providing environmental satisfaction but not motivation
Summary
On the basis of Herzberg's "Two Factor Theory" it may be appreciated that at an individual level a
building is considered an enabler of performance through providing environmental satisfaction, but
does not enhance performance. This Theory will be used for the selection of individual building
productivity criteria.
5.1 Group
As well as the building affecting performance through individual job satisfaction, it is also recognised
as contributor to group performance by influencing cohesion. The route through which cohesion
contributes to productivity is shown diagrammatically below.
Performance Productivity
Figure 5.7 Relationship between group cohesion and productivity
Sundstrom suggests, " the existence of a cohesive team contributes to the efficiency of a work unit.
The process underlying group formation is face to face conversation made convenient by the physical
environment.',54. Sundstrom considers this to be achieved by workspace layout, which affects privacy,
communication and cohesion. He identifies the following facets of the physical environment as being
influential
55
:
Room layout:
Seating arrangements
Furniture
Building Layout:
lnter-workspace proximity
Enclosure of works paces
Gathering space
The issues listed here are generally implemented through space planning processes. The relationship
between space planning, communication and performance may be shown diagrammatically, as in
Figure 5.8.
lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 28 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Psycholo gical Physical
Psychological
Performance
Sociological
Figure 5.8 Group building productivity model
Summary
Buildings may be considered to contribute to group productivity through enabling desired space
planning arrangements. On this basis again it may be recognised that the building serves as an enabler
of performance rather than an enhancer.
5.2 Organisation
There is little research on the influence that buildings have on the performance of an organisation.
However, Sundstrom
56
does postulate that the building influences performance through proximity,
separation and differentiation of work units, which can be a direct influence. Also by reinforcing
certain organisational characteristics, such as management structure, culture and image, the building
can have an indirect influence on performance. In overall "building productivity" terms, a building has
the most influence on performance by indirectly supporting management strategy, as the organisation
is considered the most influential element of overall productivity. See Section 2.5. The relationship
between organisational congruence, management and organisational performance may be shown
diagrammatically, as shown in Figure 5.9.
Psychological Physical
Psychological
Performance
Sociological
Figure 5.9 Organisational building productivity model
Summary
It is perhaps only at an organisational level that a building may enhance productivity through it's
indirect influence, rather than simply enabling it. It is however highly dependant on the arrangement
and scale of building complementing an occupying organisations unique requirements.
IDBE lbesis, University of Cambridge 29 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
5.4 Findings
The element through which a building may directly influence productivity most is the individual, as
this is the source of output, particularly in terms of knowledge workers, independent of group and
organisational productivity. The group may be considered the next most directly influenced by
building productivity through providing flexibility in space planning and therefore providing for
efficient communication. At an organisational level the building is considered to contribute the least
directly to productivity. At each of these levels, the building is viewed as a performance enabler rather
than an enhancer. However, it is at an organisational level a building may serve to enhance
performance by indirectly supporting management aims. The diagram below shows the relative order
of influence of each element through which overall building productivity manifests itself.
ORGANfSATION

GROUP
fNDfVIDUAL
INCREASING INFLUENCE
ORGANfSATION
(fndirectly)
Figure 5.10 The buildings influence on productivity
IDBE Thesis, Uolversity of Cambridge 30 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Proouctivily: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
6.0 The Individual's Relationship with the Environment
Theories on a building's affect on perfonnance indicate that an individual's relationship with a
building is based on physical and psychological elements. A building contributes to perfonnance
through providing an adequate environment and not serving as a distraction. The relationship of
distraction with dissatisfaction, and satisfaction providing for concentration and perfonnance, is
illustrated in Figure 6.1.
DISlRACTfON
DISSATISFACTION
LOW
PERFORMANCE
SATISFACTION
CONCENTRATION
HfGH
Figure 6.1 Satisfaction and concentration lead to perfonnance
6.1 Psychological Effects on Individual Productivity
One theory that addresses psychological effects on individual productivity has been put forward by
Donald Hebb. Hebb suggests that perfonnance is influenced through arousal, stress, overload,
distraction and fatigue
57
. This important theory will be discussed in the following sections.
6.1.1 Arousal
Arousal is seen as the gauge of alertness, ranging from extreme agitation to drowsiness. Central to this
theory is that the level of arousal must be appropriate for the task in hand. High arousal is
advantageous to the perfonnance of repetitive dull tasks, and low arousal is preferred for knowledge
based or complex tasks. Therefore an optimal level of environmental arousal must be attained to suit
the demands of the task.
IDBE lbesis, University of Cambridge 31 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
High
Performance
Low
Relaxation
Low
Optimal
range of
Arousal
Moderate
Arousal
Excitation
High
Figure 6.2 Relationship between arousal and performance
The physiological elements of increased arousal include heart rate, raised blood pressure, blood flow
in peripheral vessels, perspiration, skin temperature and muscular tension. Hence, the stimulation
properties of a physical environment reflect both physiological and psychological processes.
Sundstrom gives the example of how heat can create arousal, at least through the body's mechanism to
maintain a core body temperature". But intense environmental stimuli such as loud noises or bright
lights can lead to arousal for psychological reasons including perceived novelty or stress.
6.1.2 Distraction and Overload
Distraction effectively disrupts the performance of tasks, and in the office environment, concurs with
dissatisfaction. Overload occurs when information arrives at a greater rate than which it can be dealt
with. Hebb suggests that a consequence of distraction or overload is called "low priority inputs".
Elements of the physical environment such as loud noise, glare, high or low temperatures, may cause
people to ignore aspects of the job that they perceive as least important (or have little responsibility
for). Equally the environment may become a low priority input to the worker if overloaded. In which
case the environment will represent only a temporary influence on performance.
6.1.3 Fatigue
Fatigue is recognised as being a result of muscular tension. It oCcurs mostly in environments that
cause uncomfortable posture, strenuous movement and awkward procedures. It frequently occurs as a
result of poor or unsuited office furniture design such as chairs for example, which may cause back
pain, discomfort, distraction or even stress and may lead to reduced performance.
6,1.4 Neurological Research Supporting Donald Hebb's Theory
Recent neurological research, using positron emission tomographical brain scans, is beginning to show
that when we are distracted, overloaded or stressed, the chemicals our body releases tum off the part
of the brain that allows us to concentrate and think effectively, which supports Hebb's theory of the
1940' s. Maclean's model of the "Triune Brain" provides a useful metaphor of human brain operations,
which assists in understanding and explaining the relationship between performance and distraction
s9

The diagram below shows the brain in three layers and identifies the role of each. Essentially, the
brain layer shutdown sequence starts with small distractions turning off the frontal lateral cortex
within the cerebral cortex. This part of the brain is responsible for cognitive thinking. The shutdown
continues to the reptilian brain, responsible for basic fight, flight and flock reactions.
Cerebral Cortex (thinking cap)
Cognitive and problem solving
Language writing and drawing
Long range planning and forecasting
Discerning relations and patterns of meaning
Creates models for understanding
Some processing emotions
Reptilian brain
Fight or flight and flOCking behaviour
in response to fear and stress
Monitoring motor functions
Mating rituals
Territory
Hierarchies
Rate behaviour
Generates emotions
Filters information in and out
Immediate expressiveness
Sexuality
Social bonding and attachments from parental
bonding
Attention and sleep
Hub for long term memory via hippocampus
Governs concepts of value and truth
Validates knowledge and understanding
Figure 6.3 The "Triune Brain"
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 33
COGNITIVE
THINKING
human r in has a
predispositio 0 think
meaningfully a d make sense of
the world bu eeds to be in a
positive state
active and en
mind, stress free,
ged
mn t be as multi
sensory and otionally
engaged as p S 'ible- the dull,
boring and r p titive will be
filtered out a not engage
our thinking
The human
from thinkin
flight and flo
threat, In thi
is possible,
ain
'n shifts down
ode to fight,
'ng when under
s te, no learning
BLACKOUT
6.2 Elements of the Environment that Affect Individual Productivity
The following section provides reasoning for arriving at criterion that may be used for judging the
satisfaction occupants gain from an office workstation environment due to the physical structure
which envelopes it. There are no technically correct values as they are all affected by personal
experiences and expectations, gender, culture and age differences, but may be considered appropriate
for determining the general acceptability of an office environment.
The environmental factors associated with the physical environment, which are recognised by
Sundstrom as contributing to job satisfaction, are noted in Figure 5.4, Section 5.1. However, in terms
of the potential environmental satisfaction that a building might provide, status symbols and privacy
will not be considered, as they are secondary issues not associated with the physical building. In
addition, control, adaptation and windows will be considered, along with the issue of forgiveness.
There is no evidence to suggest that performance is reduced due to aesthetic features although this
element of buildings is often the most considered, possibly due to corporate image issues.
The diagram below shows the elements that influence performance, which will be considered further,
and identifies the interdependencies between them. This illustrates why the overall satisfaction an
individual has with their environment is a sum of the individual parts, rather than anyone individual
element as proposed by Leaman
60
and Sundstrom 61. All parts need to be achieved to a satisfactory
level, as severe dissatisfaction with one can cause loss of productivity through distraction or stress,
and ultimately lead to absenteeism.
Secondary issues:
Aesthetics
Figure 6.4 Elements of the building environment that influence
productivity and the interdependences between them
To gain a better understanding of an individual's satisfaction with various elements of a building the
author conducted a survey in an office of 42 staff. The Herzberg" Two Factor Theory" was applied,
with staff simply asked if satisfied or dissatisfied with various elements of their environment. The
results of this survey are shown in figure 6.5. Further details of this survey are shown in Appendix A.
Percentage
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40'
30
20
10
o
Figure 6.5 Office satisfaction survey summary
6.2.1 Control and Adaptation

Satisfied (%)
Dissatisfied (%)
Satisfaction with an environment is recognised as been more likely if users are provided with a means
of modifying conditions through controVadaptation. Control may be considered to be the ability to
change a setting at source, such as temperature, close a window that is the source of a draught, or
lower a blind to reduce glare. Adaptation may be considered as a secondary means of control that does
not eliminate the source of dissatisfaction but allows satisfaction to be achieved by blocking the
source. Examples of this are: users being able to install partitions as desired to reduce noise levels or
provide a level of privacy, wearing more clothing if feeling slightly cool, changing seat orientation to
avoid distractions.
Leaman states that" one of the most prominent findings of the office environment surveys was the
importance of control to the building user" and he related control to "loss of productivity and
complaints of ill health,,62. The graph below shows the results of Leaman's survey on the control of
various elements of the environment and the perceived affect on productivity shown in terms of
"greater productivity than average,,63. If control cannot be provided the response time to complaints
must be very quick to compensate
64
.
1.0
0.8
0.8
MoM or
,,,'
-,
...,
OA
aw"",,
02
0.0
-{)2
0 2 6
Degree of COfltrol (1ow=:1 , hlgh= 7)
Temperature
Ventilation
Ughling
Ovemllcontrol
8
Figure 6.6 The effect of control on perceived productivity
6.2.2 Forgiveness
Forgiveness is a factor that is difficult to quantify but influences an individual's satisfaction with an
environment. Where there is a recognised and justifiable reason for conditions not being ideal, people
are more likely to accept, or "forgive" the faults and rate a building with greater satisfaction
65
.
Forgiveness is an entirely psychological issue. Examples are: naturally ventilated buildings can
achieve better satisfaction as the user feel that they are contributing by reducing environmental issues,
and existing buildings may be forgiven for the inconveniences they introduce because the limitations
are recognised. However there is little information or quantification of such issues presently available,
although Building Usability Studies (BUS) are understood to be researching the forgiveness issue
66

6.2.3 Satisfaction and Environmental Factors
The relationship between the environmental factors and satisfaction is considered to follow the process
shown in Figure 6.7 and simplified in Figure 6.8. The individual environmental factors are sensed and
mentally processed and a response generated. If the response is unsatisfactory, the individual will
desire to modify the situation through either control or adaptation to achieve satisfaction. When the
behavioural differences of people are considered the powerful influence which human control and
adaptation provides may be recognised. The influence of forgiveness is also shown to influence human
response. For a user perspective control is the single most important factor underlying comfort
67
Experiences
Artificial lighting
Satisfaction
Sight
Windows and daylight
Culture
TouchIFeel
Thelmal comfort
Gender
Smell
Air quality
Age
Taste
Noise and music
Religion
Hear
Workstation and space
Expectations
ControVAdaptation
Forgiveness
Figure 6.7 The relationship between environmental factors and satisfaction - Detailed
Controll Adaptation
Figure 6.8 The relationship between environmental factors and satisfaction - Simplified
6.3 Environmental Factors
There is an abundance of laboratory and field studies on most of these elements of the environment,
which have been carried out in various contexts. However many studies are based on individual
occupants and miss out on the wider context of !be differences between buildings and their operational
and managerial circumstances. Buildings and occupying organisations are rarely similar which
complicates comparison, and the simple fact that users may perceive that they are being studied can
cause them to behave differently. Methodological and interpretational problems cause differences in
most studies that often lead to conflicting results. This makes it difficult to determine !be most
important issues.
The following sections identify the key criteria known about each aspect of the environment.
Herzberg's "Two Factor Theory", (which suggests that an adequate environment does not contribute
to productivity but an inadequate environment distracts from it) will be used, along with insights
obtained through surveys, to select a datum for the balance between satisfaction and dissatisfaction for
the majority of people. Hence, the finite detail is not important but !be adequacy of an environment for
the majority of users is.
The main sources of surveys used for this assessment are:

Sundstrom 68
CIBSE 69
Author's own
Productivity: Can Ex.isting Office Buildings Provide for Future Dusiness Needs?
6.3.1 Lighting
In terms of the office environment artificial lighting serves two primary purposes?o:
Facilitates the performance of visual tasks
The creation of an appropriate visual environment
Studies on lighting have shown that there is a good correlation between lighting intensity and quality,
quality being used to describe reading speed (performance). See Figure 6.9 71.
10
9
~ 8
g
m
~ 7
2
1 ~ ~ __ ~ ~ __ ~ - L __ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
o 400 800 1200 1600
Illuminance em desk (IK)
Figure 6.9 Mean assessment of light quality
The graph shows that performance increases with intensity of lighting, with diminishing returns. This
would suggest the brighter the better, although a balance must be gained between performance effects
and practical and economic requirements. Reading performance diminishes with lower lighting levels
as the contrast between text and background reduces, requiring greater effort and time to read. Figure
6.10 illustrates tills 72.
Figure 6.10 Contrast and reading performance
IDDE Thesis, University of Cambridge 38 Graham Beadle, IDilE 8
The current lighting standard for offices is 500 lux for general offices, and 300 - 500 lux in offices
with visual display units (VDU). The lower lighting level for VDU users reduces contrast and glare
problems that can cause fatigue.
From a performance point of view, it may be desirable to have all surfaces of a uniform brightness, but
this would create a bland appearance and provide poor modelling of facial features, hindering effective
communication. For these reasons it is normally desired that lighting should provide good definition of
textures and a building's internal architecture. This is normally achieved using directional light
designed to avoid introducing glare problems. A further consideration is the contrast in lighting levels
around the office space. This should be sufficiently consistent not to cause eyestrain when looking up
from a workstation to the surrounding space.
As recognised by Sundstrom
73
and confirmed by the authors survey (see Figure 6.5, Section 6.2)
artificial lighting is rarely identified as a source of dissatisfaction, provided it is designed to best
practice standards. Therefore, it may be concluded that the Herzberg "Two Factor Theory" will be
satisfied if office artificial lighting provides an adequate lighting level for the task performed and if
glare is avoided.
6.3.2 Windows and Daylighting
Windows perform many functions besides those that contribute directly to user satisfaction, which are
generally recognised as being: control, view and provision of daylight. As noted by Leaman
74
from a
study of building users "most satisfied staff sit next to windows". This is confirmed by the authors
survey work. Leaman believes this is because, "from a user perspective, perception of control is the
single most important factor underlying comfort,,75. This maybe correct, but it would impair
operations and be highly uneconomic if buildings were constructed solely on this basis.
It is known from surveys of workplaces with no windows that negative psychological effect have been
experienced, as "it seems to be associated with a feeling of being denied something that is one's
right,,76. Words associated with such environments taken from surveys are: cooped-up, isolated,
claustrophobia, depressed, tense.
Other researchers believe that outdoor lighting levels affect the body's circadian cycle and the
physiological processes associated with it
77
This means that a disruption in normal lighting patterns
can produce temporal disorientation, sleep deprivation, mood changes and mental exhaustion.
Conversely, research in a hospital in Pennsylvania claims that patients with views of vegetation
recover more quickly78. Views are also considered to contribute to knowledge work through providing
visual escape, for thought and assisting with maintaining concentration 79. The association of
daylighting with well-being is recognised in the Netherlands and Germany were health regulations
prohibit buildings where staff are more than 6m from windows. There are no such regulations in the
UK although the Building Research Establishment's environmental assessment method recognises that
daylighting can contribute to reduced absenteeism and increased productivityBO. This suggests that
office workers will benefit from having visual access to the outdoors from their workstations, and
sufficient daylighting provision.
In the 1930' s, before electric lighting was common, office depths were limited to 18m on the basis that
daylight would not penetrate more than 9m from a window. At this time experts recommended 12m
from window to window, such depths also served well for natural ventilation". These shallow depths
remained until the advent of air-conditioning which allowed comfortable temperatures to be
maintained in deep-plan buildings. A formula more commonly used by architects for building daylight
penetration estimates is 2.5 times a building's floor to ceiling height. A more accurate prediction
method for office design purposes, which recognises window design and building dimensions is 82:
Daylight penetration:
UW + UHw < 2/(l-Rb)
Where: L
W
Hw
Rb
Distance from the window (m)
Room width (m)
Window head height (m)
Average reflectance of surfaces
The depths given by this formula are shown in the table below for various room surface reflectances,
widths and window head heights
83

Reflectance (Rb) 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6
Room width (m)
3
10
3 10 3 10
Whldow head height Depth of daylight penetration (m)
(m)
2.5 4.5 6.7 5.4 8.0 6.8 10.0
3.0
5.0 7.7 6.0 9.2 7.5 U.S
3.5
5.4 8.6 6.5 10.4 8.1 13.0
Table 6.1 Limiting depths for daylighting
Survey work shows that occupants generally overestimate the contribution of natural daylight to desk
lighting particularly the further away they are from the windows".
Percentage
90 90
(%) of light
80 80
Estimated
provided by
70 70
daylight
60 60
50 50
40
40
30 30
20 20
10
4
3 10
0
0
2.4 3.3 4.2 5.1 7.5 10.5 13.5 18.9
2.4 3.3 4.2 5.1 7.5 10.5 13.5 18.9
Median distance from source of daylight (metre)
Figure 6.11 Measured and estimated daylight levels
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 40 Graham Bead1e, IDBE 8
However, this does not account for the issue of views. A view provides for well-being, visual
orientation and change of focus. Based on the above information a maximum acceptable distance of
6m from a window may be considered reasonable provided the building design also permits daylight
penetration to this depth. On the same premise, the maximum distance of 3m from an atrium may be
considered a maximum. This may be justified because an atrium may be expected to provide some
visual stimuli, but daylight penetration is adversely affected.
The effects of temperature on human performance and productivity have been the subject of hundreds
of studies, and there have been many collective reviews of the results of these studies. These reviews
have been largely inconclusive, and it is generally stated that the effects of temperature on mental
performance are not as clear as those on physical performance
8S
Although short term exposure to heat
and cold is noted as increasing mental performance, this is thought to be due to increased arousal.
Perhaps the best graphical representation of the effects of temperature on performance is that proposed
by Wyon 86 Figure 6.12.
Figure 6.12 Summarised relationships between temperature and performance
Figure 6.12, shows how mental performance may be expected to reduce with continued exposure to
temperatures higher than 20C.
However, temperature alone offers little guidance on whether thermal comfort and satisfaction with
the environment will be achieved. In terms of the Two-Factor Theory where the environment serves as
a distraction to performance, the important issue is that the occupant is not distracted by the thermal
environment. For this reason the thermal comfort standards as proposed by Fanger are considered
. 87
more appropnate .
The comfort assessment method proposed by Fanger takes account of air temperature, air movement,
radiant temperatures, humidity, clothing and activity levels. It is based on the assumption that a person
is comfortable when their body is in, or close to, thermal equilibrium with the surrounding
environment. By this method the percentage of people dissatisfied are calculated for the given room
conditions. The "best percentage people dissatisfied" score achievable is 5% since it is not statistically
possible to create an environment that will fully satisfy all occupants. The environment is considered
unacceptable if conditions frequently exceed 30% dissatisfaction. The method proposed by Fanger is
the basis of current international standards, but it does gain some criticism for being based on comfort
chamber tests and predicts comfort at slightly higher temperatures than measured in workplaces.
IDBE Thesis. University of Cambridge 41 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Air quality is concerned with the presence of air pollution which survey research has shown to be a
considerable problem in offices, being recognised as one of the major sources of sick building
syndrome in recent times. Air quality is reduced when pollutants, gases, dust, mist, vapour, or fibres
are present in the air, besides its natural constituents. The effects may be alleviated by increasing
ventilation rates, thereby reducing pollution concentrations. Certain pollutants do have well-
documented health effects. However "research on the effects of specific forms of pollution has been
infrequent, and the psychological effects are largely unknown"88.
The effects of air quality on performance have not been studied in any detail but in the terms of this
study, it is acceptable to assume that if ventilation rates are achieved as recommended by CIBSE there
should be little cause for reduced performance
89
However, it is recognised that a greater supply of
fresh air is associated with a feeling of well-being. Any performance reduction that does result from
air quality issues is due to the source of pollution. It should be mitigated and should not be the reason
for an increasing the ventilation rate, which could cause discomfort through draughts.
The ventilation rate recommended by CIBSE is 8 litres/second per person. This does not al10w for
smoking, which on no account should be allowed in office spaces, primarily for reasons of
satisfaction.
6.3.4 Noise and Music
6.3.5.1 Noise
Noise in offices and its affect on performance is one of the most researched elements of the office
environment and is recognised as being a major source of dissatisfaction. However much of the
research has been conducted within laboratories and does not relate to a real office context. A
summary of the findings from studies in offices suggests that the most disturbing sources of noise
are: 90 91;
Conversations
Phones ringing
Office machines
Conversations are the most disturbing noise source. This is not because of its physical qualities but
more because of its meaning to the listener. Annoyance caused by office noise is not related to its
general intensity but strongly related to the intensity of sound audible above background noise levels92.
Noise is generally associated with a decrease in accuracy. Predictable noise is sometimes associated
with increased performance of simple clerical and mental tasks
93
This may be explained by increased
arousal. However, studies on unpredictable noise, either intermittent or irregular, found it to be
associated with reduced levels of performance.
Most of the adverse effects of noise can be explained in terms of temporary distraction of attention.
Sundstrom suggests that, "issues concerning noise may be reduced to a question of balance, if noise is
too loud or erratic, and workers are likely to experience annoyance, distraction and perhaps
disturbance of their work". On the other hand, if background noise is too subdued, any moderately
loud sound may be audible above it. This includes conversations by colleagues, compromising privacy
and confidential conference. Moderate background noise may be used to mask unwanted sounds, but
this itself can be a cause of annoyance and distraction.
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 42 GrahamBeadle, IDBE 8
Setting acoustic criteria for the judgement of the suitability of an environment is difficult due to the
variety of task possible. Nevertheless, a relationship has been established
94
, which shows that
discomfort generally increases with greater occupancy levels, see Figure 6.13.
50
47
46
Percentage
40
(%) reporting
30
dissatisfaction
20
10
0
2 3 4-8 9-15 16+
Number of people
Figure 6.13 Percentage of workers complaining of excessive noise in
relation to the number of people in the office
It may be deduced that greater satisfaction may be gained if efforts are made to introduce sound
attenuation into offices to simulate the conditions of smaller offices and ensuring that sufficient
background noise is present to prevent over sensitivity to colleagues' conversations.
6.3.5.2 Music's
The introduction of music into offices is different from other noise because it is associated with
pleasure. Music may be played in some offices to boost employee morale through greater satisfaction,
stimulate performance or serve as background masking noise. For simple clerical tasks there is no
evidence to suggest that performance is impaired and music is generally considered to be of no harm
in most cases. However for complex mental tasks requiring concentration there are strong theoretical
reasons to suspect that music can create distraction and information overload. In summary, introducing
music for employee satisfaction, where clerical tasks are in progress, appears likely to succeed
provided the music is agreeable with the listeners' preferences.
6.3.5 Workstations and Space
The workstation is generally recognised as consisting of a work surface, chair, ITC equipment, storage
space and an associated floor space provision. Certain elements that make up the workstation have
been the subject of much research, like chair design, for example. The combined effect of the
individual elements has received little research in recent years, although Bartlett suggest the following
workstation issues affect productivity96:
Providing sufficient desk space will produce a more rapid and efficient completion of tasks.
Larger desk spaces reduce wasted time spent searching for documents, and allows papers to
be read and equipment operated more easily, thus reducing fatigue
Providing adequate storage space, which is immediately accessible, will directly eliminate
wasted time.
Ergonomics o.fwork station
ProductivHy: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
Sundstrom logically suggests that satisfaction may depend on the avoidance of discomfort due to
muscular fatigue. The avoidance of pain is central to Herzberg's theory and can be related to
dissatisfaction and therefore distraction from performance. The discomfort is caused by muscular
fatigue from an uncomfortable seating position or irregular movements required to access equipment
for tasks. However, over time, such physical movements may become habitual and cause less
discomfort through adaptation. Adaptation may overcome discomfort but may also distract from the
core task, reducing performance. In summary, the most important element of a workstation is for it to
be comfortable and provide good access to the equipment required to perform required tasks.
A component of the workstation is the floor space provision. Often, the emphasis is for organisations
to minimise space requirements with the aim of reducing costs. This can result in overcrowding. Work
space provisions significantly around the world. Leaman suggests the following typical densities (net
lettable areas) for the various locations
97
:
London 14 - 16.5 m
2
Sydney 14 - 15 m
2
Frankfurt Brussels and Amsterdam 25 -27m
2
Stockholm 30 -35m
2
US 20 - 21m
2
Survey work by Hakfoort and Lie reports that the average amount of space per person seems to
decline with larger bUildings
98
. Leaman observes that people may be more tolerant of conditions in
smaller buildings because they are more likely to have control over their environment
99

Crowding is related to dissatisfaction but the effects of it remain relatively unexplored, possibly due to
the contextual complexity. However, survey work carried out into employee's, satisfaction with floor
space, shown in Figure 6.14, suggests that 95% of people are satisfied with minimum of 9.3m2 100.
100
60
Percentage
(%) satisfied 40
20
1.8'3.6 3.75.5 5.6-7.4 7.5-9.2 9.3+
Number of people
Figure 6.14 Percentage of office workers satisfied with their
floor space as a function of net floor space per person
The primary issues related to crowding are: loss of privacy, reduced scope for adaptation and of course
the increased difficulty of working without being disturbed. The privacy issue has been studied with
the findings shown in Figure 6.15
101
.
lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 44 Graham Beadle. IDBE 8
....
Space
Conversational Privacy
Wom
40 or tess 41-60 61-80 81-100 100 or m o ~
Workmace size eftl)
Figure 6.15 The relationship between
workspace and privacy
This survey of satisfaction with workspace by Langdon was carried out in 1966 and may have been
influenced by the space required for task-associated equipment and storage
102
However, today, and
more so in the future, the space required for equipment and storage may be expected to diminish as
technology plays a greater role. This may be expected to place the emphasis for minimum space
provision on personal boundaries rather than operational requirements.
If this is the case, the proposals of Edward Hall may be considered
103
Hall postulates that we have
zones around us within which we feel comfortable with different people, depending on our
relationship with them. This is illustrated in Figure 6.15, shown in scale with a standard Herman
Miller desk
lo4

Intimate zone 0.5)
Personal zone (O.5m - 1.8m)
Social zone (1.8m - 3.0m)
D Public zone (+3.0m)
Figure 6.16 Desk space and Hall's Space Zone Theory
lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 45 Graham Beadle, lOBE 8
Based on Hall's model the green zone should only transiently be entered otherwise invasion of space
may be perceived, resulting in discomfort. Although this is not a precise science, it does suggest that
personal space may represent a limiting factor on space densities. The area covered by the green zone
equates to an area of 10m
2

In summary technology (office equipment) is getting smaller requiring less space, but it is the personal
boundaries that dictate the satisfaction one gains from the workspace. It may be concluded that a
workspace provision of 10m
2
per person may be the appropriate minimum space provision for
satisfaction.
6.3.7 Colour
Many claims are made about the influence that colours have on spaces, which relate more to personal
preferences, past experiences, and cultural differences and are largely unproven. Some examples of the
associations made about colour are that they can make things appear closer or further away or make
rooms appear larger or smaller. Studies that have been carried out do suggest that people prefer blue,
red, green, violet, orange and yellow in that order. However, preferences without context have little
value or application.
Studies specifically on office colours have shown different results with a preference for blue, green
and red in that order
lo5
Field research on colours has found little consistency except an association
with perceived space temperatures. Wann colours are generally recognised as being at the red and
orange end of the colour spectrum and cold colours the blue end stretching through to the green. There
are a number of cases where rooms have been repainted a "cold" colour with no other changes made,
and people have complained about being cold and have started wearing extra clothing.
Laboratory studies have also associated colours with arousal, and greater perfonnance in accuracy
testing recorded in rooms painted red10
6
However, these effects are considered short tenn and there is
no evidence of such effects in offices.
6.4 Summary of Selected Criteria for Individual Productivity
If the following criteria are achieved, individual satisfaction may be expected from an office
environment:
ControVAdaptation
Providing users with control and potential for adaptation can serve to provide satisfaction.
Lighting
Adequate lighting level for the task perfonned and glare avoided.
General offices 500 lux
Offices with VDU's 300-500 lux
Windows and daylighting
Maximum acceptable distance of 6m from a window provided the building design also pennits
daylight penetration to this depth. On the same premise, a maximum distance of 3m from an atrium is
acceptable.
Temperature and Thermal Comfort
Achieved the thennal comfort standards as prescribed by Prof Fanger with percentage dissatisfied of
less than 30% under extreme design conditions.
Air Quality
Ventilation rates as prescribed by CmSE (sources of pollution removed)
Noise
Introduce sound attenuation into offices to simulate the conditions of smaller offices, whilst ensuring
sufficient background noise levels are sustained.
Music
Music has limited affect on productivity as long as the work involves little concentration and the
music is agreeable with listeners' preferences.
Workstations
The most important element of a workstation is for it to be comfortable, and provide good accessibility
to equipment required to perform a task, and a minimum workspace provision of 10m
2
per person to
maintain acceptable personal boundaries.
Colour
Colour has no long-term effects on productivity but can influence thermal comfort.
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Fulure Business Needs?
7.0 Group Working
The importance of group working to overall performance is captured by Elton Mayo's statement: "its
no good getting the best man for the job if he cannot get on with his workmates. Good lighting,
ventilation and heating arrangements are of little consideration if the relationship between workers and
managers are unsatisfactory". Issues associated with group working are often recognised as being
within the realms of the behavioural scientist and psychologists who carry out most research into
management practices and space planning guidance.
Research on the physical environment and its influence on communication and group cohesion has
generally focused on interpersonal distance, psychological barriers. and symbols and sources of
comfort and environmental stress such as "crowding". Appendix B contains the most significant
findings from this research, summarised in order to convey the level of knowledge that currently exists
for space planners besides the regularly applied requirements for proximity. However there are few
conclusive results and the findings are sometimes contradictory. In the following section, issues
associated with space planning are discussed and a model proposed for the best arrangement of space
for knowledge work.
7.1 Space Planning
Space planning has long been recognised as being crucial to the successful and efficient operation of
an organisation, but few space planners fully appreciate the implications of their designs. The task has
traditionally been carried out by office managers who have historically awarded office spaces with the
best characteristics to senior staff, with the remainder of space being arranged on the basis of
corporate image and the minimisation of walking distance between people who need frequent contact.
More recently, space planning has been seen as the remit of architects and facilities managers, which
often results in arrangements being based on casual observations, personal preferences and past
experience, rather than any knowledge of the needs of the user.
The present trend with space planning is the adoption of open plan arrangements. This trend started in
America in the 1970's and crossed the Atlantic in the '80's. Today it is strongly associated with the
changing nature of organisations from old "Tayloristic" values to the flattening of hierarchies and
increased communication and knowledge sharing. However, the opening up of spaces has resulted in
the introduction of many problems that may be seen in offices today. Leaman portrays an excellent list
of tell-tail symptoms 107.
Problems in modern office are:
o Circulation routes indiscriminately cutting through and dividing working groups.
o People sitting at desks that are close to circulation routes or other sources of
distraction.
o People sitting with their backs to circulation routes and thus feeling unnerved by
people approaching from behind.
o Windows and views out are obstructed by desks, partitioning, cellular offices or
blinds left down.
o Working-group layouts that do not allow people to see or overhear their colleagues
properly.
o Situations where people cannot escape from the boisterous intrusions of their
colleagues.
o Poor, unusable or non-existent occupant control especially over cooling,
ventilation, glare and noise.
o Staff who use VDUsfor long periods sitting in the poorer locations (e.g. in the
centre of large open plan areas).
IDOE Thesis, University of Cambridge 48 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Fulure Business Needs?
Duffy also identifies the following paradoxes in arranging offices
108
:
Collaboration between people should be encouraged but not at the expense of
thwarting individual effort.
Managers should remain accessible but still be given conditions where they can
carry out concentrated work with little distraction.
Conditions of total privacy should be achievedfor the few individuals who require
them, but without completely separating them from other members of the group.
There are a number of space planning practices that are keeping pace with the changes taking place in
organisations and the nature of work, and taking advantage of behavioural research findings on the
issues that influence overall performance. This is enabling them to find a balance between the
paradoxes and arrive at solutions, which are tailored, to particular organisations' needs. The most
prominent character in the more scientific approach to space planning is Francis Duffy. Through his
studies of the way individuals and groups within organisations work, he has derived work-type
characteristics on the basis of the level of autonomy and interaction undertaken in the work task. He
defines these as: Cell, Den, Hive and Club.
A summary of work type characteristics along with typically associated space arrangements is shown
in Figures 7.1 & 7.2 109. A detailed description of these work styles is provided in Appendix C.
Den (several simple settings) Club (many rich complex settings)
Group process work Varied work (individual and group)
Low autonomy High autonomy
High interaction High interaction
PC, speciali,ed equipment Elaborate IT
9 to 5 hours. some variation Comolex timetablin.
Hive (Simple work stations) Cell (one rich complex setting)
Individual process work Isolated work
Low autonomy High autonomy
Low interaction Low interaction
Networked PC Laptop, networked PC
9 to 5 hours, shift work Individual time-tabling
Figure 7.1 Work-type characteristics
Hive Cell
Figure 7.2 Hive, Cell, Den, and Club space plans
IDBE 'lbesis, University of Cambridge 49 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Most organisations now seek a balance between enclosed and open plan spaces reflecting the social
and technical characteristics of various tasks. The diagram below shows how organisation space
budget trends have been changing with the nature of work over time according to Duffy"o.
Occasionally some organisations need open plan spaces with no partitioning of the space. Others
require predominantly cellular spaces. An organisation's requirements for space allocation must be
compatible with a building's form and module. The planning module and the depth of space is of
paramount importance for incorporating perimeter cellular offices.
1960,-
1970,
1970,-
19808
..
Beyond
2000
III
D
-
-
Figure 7.3 The changing office space budget
Off,ite (i.e. home, traveling)
Specialist (e.g. IT, meeting, amenity)
Group space/free address
Open plan
Enclosed
Studies have been carried out on how building forms lend themselves to the various work patterns as
shown below. Figure 7.4 shows that some building forms are more receptive to a multiplicity of
layouts than others. Duffy suggests the key to finding the right building in this sense is in the depth of
space"!
As tasks become increasingly diverse in the future, more varied types of workspace may be required.
On this basis, the most adaptable building capable of accommodating all of the various work types is
one with a 15m-floor plate depth, as highlighted in Figure 7.4. Leaman also considers this distance to
be the threshold of complexity after which the management of space is much more complicated!!2.
Building types Hive
00
[I]
"
I ~ ' ~ I ~
i!
Key:
I"" ....j
good
adequate
poor
...
De" Cell Club

...
...
... ... ...
...
Figure 7.4 Affinities between work patterns
and building types
7.1.1 Gathering Space
The new emphasis on creating knowledge sharing and interactivity has spawned a requirement for a
new kind of space within the office often referred to in this context as "gathering space". Gathering
spaces are designated communal spaces intended to enable staff to: "share and increase what they
know, discover what they know and exploit what they know" 113. In reality, gathering spaces have
always existed in some form or other but have not always been convemently located, and have rarely
been recognised on plans or in the planning of spaces.
The ideal characteristics of gathering spaces are noted to be
ll4
:
Convenient accessibility
Comfortable seating for conversations
One should pass through it on way to other places
Comfortable temperature, moderate background noise level without obscuring
speech but masking more distant noise, privacy may also be needed.
Gathering spaces may contain for example mailboxes, reference materials, and coffee machines.
7.2 Building Space Planning for Knowledge Based Work
An ideal theoretical space planning model for knowledge-based organisations may be devised by
considering the requirements for group and individual productivity.
The requirements for group productivity, of communication and cohesion, are best achieved by
optimising the distance between the knowledge workers and maximising their potential of meeting.
lndividiIal productivity is best achieved by providing a satisfactory working environment, which is
recognised as being perimeter spaces, near windows for example.
If a theoretical limit of 20m is taken for good communication and the preferred maximum distance
from the fa9ade is 6 (for individual satisfaction), the model shown in Figure 7.5 may be developed.
The central core space is then allocated to those who require very efficient communication routes,
such as the group leader and group co-ordinators. The central core also encompasses shared facilities
including the "gathering space" where all knowledge workers ideally gravitate. The spaces beyond the
20m distance are then best used for formal meeting spaces, storage, ITC hubs and other infrequently
used spaces.
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 51 Graham Beadle, IDDE 8
Productivity: Can ExisLing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
Figure 7.5 Theoretical model for Knowledge Worker Space Planning
This is not to suggest that offices for knowledge work are ideally round in plan, but it does suggest
that they are preferably hub based rather than of long and narrow dimensions. See Figure 7.6.
O j C j ~
Figure 7.6 Suitability of plan layouts for Know ledge Worker Space Planning
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 52 Graham Beadle, JDBE 8
7.3 Summary of Selected Criteria for Group Productivity
Space planning is about communication and group cohesion. If the requirements below can be
accommodated, a satisfactory solution may be expected for future knowledge based organisations.
Space planning should:
Reflect organisational culture (present or desired).
Provide sufficient flexibility to allow individuals to carry out adaptation and personalisation if
desired.
Reflect work type characteristics (den, club, hive, cell), preferably with a 15m floor plate
depth, and ideally lead to hub type office arrangement.
The building'S plan form must be suited to space planning layouts.
Spaces should be arranged to minimise walking distance to facilitate communication, 20m
being recognised as a preferred maximum distance.
Gathering spaces should be incorporated for knowledge generation.
Leaman's tell tale symptoms should be recognised and mitigated. See Section 7.1
8.0 Organisations
The overall building form contributes to an organisation's productivity indirectly by reinforcing
certain characteristics such as management structure, culture and image. The building also enables
productivity directly by allow for the efficient arrangement of work groups and shared facilities.
How groups within organisations occupy space raises similar issues to planning groups for individuals,
but the complexity introduced by individual personalities are removed, and the nature of a group's
operation and overall characteristics prevail.
Within large organisations, groups share senior management and facilities such as training rooms,
auditoria, a canteen etc. Locating work groups within a building, to minimise travel distances between
these facilities influences communication and productivity. Consideration needs to be given to the
interaction between each of these elements, and locating them appropriately. Figure 8.1 illustrates this.
Communication
routes
Figure 8.1 Building space planning model
However, for this to be achieved effectively, an organisation's scale and characteristics must be
matched to the building occupied. This can be a difficult task as organisations change not only due to
external pressures, but also through internal growth.
Figure 8.2 provides an example of how an organisation's needs change as they grow and illustrates the
need for different types ofbuildings
115

Customer'sales
Training
Research
Manufacl;uring
Distribution
Corporate HQ
Infant Youthl'ul
Figure 8.2 As organisations grow the requirements of space change to be more
specialised
8.1 Summary of Selected Criteria for Organisational Productivity
At an organisational level, a building provides for productivity indirectly through reinforcing
organisations' characteristics. These are as unique to each organisation, as physical arrangements are
to each building. The building's direct contribution is in enabling productivity through facilitating
efficient space planning of groups and shared facilities.
If the criteria noted below are met, a satisfactory solution may be expected for future knowledge based
organisations. A building should:
Be of appropriate scale to effectively accommodate an organisation
Provide good proximity between work groups and shared facilities
Reflect the organisation's desired image.
Support management aims
IDBE 111esis, University of Cambridge 55 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
9.0 Case Study
The aim of this case study is to detennine how well the major refurbishment of an existing building
can provide for the productivity requirements of future organisations. The study of a single building
provides the advantage of a coherent setting from which practical limitations can be identified that
may be considered generic of existing buildings of the same era, also potentially threatened with
demolition.
The major refurbishment project chosen for the basis of the case study is the Amp headquarters
building in Fitzrovia, London. Amp are a multinational engineering consultancy finn. Besides this,
being one of only very few major refurbishment of 1950's and '60's buildings, this project in
particularly provides a number of additional benefits as noted below:
The author, having been an employee of the firm for over 6 years, has a good knowledge of
the organisation, its staff, and the nature of the work.
The refurbishment work is nearing completion with Amp having undertaken the engineering
design and project management of the work. This enabled the author to learn about issues
associated with the refurbishment directly from those involved with the design and
constmction stages.
Amp's work is knowledge based, and highly varied in nature, autonomy and level of
interaction. This is seen to be representative of future business organisations.
The building is leased to Amp and the landlord requires the project to meet the British Council
of Offices requirements"
6
.
The case study begins with a description of the organisation, the work and the people, along with
background infonnation on the aims and perceived benefits of the refurbishment. This is followed by a
summary of a staff consultation and a description of the project. Understanding the nature of the work
carried out is one of the most important elements in understanding the building's effect on
performance.
An assessment of the building's potential for achieving the requirements of individual, group and
organisational productivity is then undertaken, based on the earlier findings. Finally, a comparison is
made between the refurbished building and what could have been achieved by a new building
occupying the same envelope.
9.1 Background Information
117
118 119 120
Amp have been based in Fitzrovia in London, in 10 separate buildings for over 50 years. Most of the
buildings were built in the 1950's and '60's. They were recognised as an embarrassment when clients
visited, due to the ramshackle layOl,lt and dreary old interiors. The company, being aware of the
changing nature of business and the importance of company branding, along with the issues of staff
attraction and retention, decided that something must be done. They wanted a headquarters building
that provided a "striking" and "modern" image for the organisation whilst providing an inspiring,
supportive place to work.
The project also presented an opportunity to re-examine the ways that the company worked and types
of spaces needed now and in the future. Amongst the mission statements, the desire is noted to achieve
a cultural change in Amp, embrace new technology and change the way buildings are used and
perceived. The project sponsors also recognised the sustainability benefits of retaining the existing
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Busine.<ls Needs?
structure. The aim of the Fitzrovia project was set: to create a single coherent campus by the major
refurbishment of the existing buildings.
The Arup Board are keen to promote the modem values of reducing the visible signs of hierarchy and
state their preferences for a "meritocratic" structure with transparency in their briefing documents for
the project. The management style aligns with the current managerial preference for humanism, which
is best conveyed by the company gaining 29
th
place in the Times Top 100 Companies To Work For
List
l2l

The nature of the work is engineering design. This is knowledge based, requiring individuals to
complete tasks with varied requirements for automation, communication and interaction, dependent on
project stages. The diagrams below show the current task characteristics and expected future change,
and the changing portion of task types within the organisational groups. As automation increases, the
group sizes are expected to reduce.
Degree of task interaction
Range
I

High Low
Future: Increased interaction
Degree of autonomy
Range
High Low
Future: Increased Autonomy
Variety of tasks
Range
High Low
Future: Increasing task variety
Duration of task:
Range
High 'Low
Future: Little change
Figure 9.1 Nature of current and future tasks, for the majority of staff
Management style
Direction of Movement c=:lJ
Mechanistic I'
Future: Becoming more "Humanistic"
Task types current and future
Staff task types
Management:
Engineers:
Technicians
Administration:
Support:
Coordinators:
Current
15%
55%
20%
4%
4%
2%
Figure 9.2 Management style and task types current and future
Humanistic
Future
15%
65%
10%
2%
2%
6%
In the early stages of the project SHM, the social analysts company, carried out a study on how the
staff use, and work within, the existing buildings122. The comments made by the staff and impressions
that researchers gained are noted in Appendix D. This provides a good independent insight into the
employees' preferences and attitudes.
9.2 The Building!23 !24
The new Arup campus will be built in 3 phases spread over 4 years allowing the project benefit from
the latest technological advances, to gain feed-back on earlier phases, and maximise design resources
for the first phase. The case study is based on a floor of phase I of the development.
The refurbishment involves stripping the building back to the bare structure and joining two existing
buildings together to create single open plan floor spaces. The building will have a single main
entrance providing access to the primary vertical circulation cores. The secondary (existing) escape
stair cores will be retained at each end of the floor plate and will be re-designed to incorporate service
risers.
The project will provide the following facilities:
Auditorium
Cyclist facilities, including bike store, changing areas and showers
Exhibition space for public access
Conference and meeting facilities
Accommodation for visiting overseas directors
Deli bar
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for F'llture Business Needs?
The flexible space integrated on each floor plate is intended to be multifunctional as illustrated in
Figure 9.3.
Flexible Meeting Social
Breakout DispJay Communal
Figure 9.3 Multifunctional flexible space
Amongst the many functions, these spaces are also intended to be the communication points within the
building. This is strongly emphasised in the fa<;;ade, where the hub breaks through the regular
horizontal linearity.
Basic Building Data:
Area:
Work station density:
Task types:
Types of space:
Typical working hours:
Space ownership
Building depth:
Slab to slab height
Floor to ceiling height
Types of environmental services:
General office lighting level:
Temperature, Winter:
Summer:
Noise level:
Fresh air ventilation rate:
Figure 9.4 Basic building data
2450 nnn
421lUU ~ ~ t ~
158 rnm _
330 rom
80mm ===#=
ITC Power
Recessed lighting
9,200 m
2
1 per 10m
2
Varied activities
Mixed
Flexible generally 9 am to 6 pm
All open plan dedicated workspaces
15m and 9m to central atrium
3.06m
2.45 m
Floor supply & perimeter heating
400 lux
22 2e
24 2e
NR 35 min NR 38 max
12 to IS Htres/second
Roar supply system
Inner skin of facade
Outer skin of facade
~ . Perimeter heating
Supply air duct
Figure 9.5 Environmental strategy section showing storey dimensions
l1li Primary Circulation
Interactive Space
Atria/Secondary
Circulation
Roof Garden
Figure 9.6 Diagram showing the three project phases and building massing
Figure 9.7 Cross section through refurbished building
t
_1
-1
I
~ o 0
+
.,

o
+
0
0
0 0 0 0
Figure 9.8 Second floor plan of existing building
0
0
Figure 9.9 Second floor plan of refurbished building
lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 62
C t f,:ve I and Mews
0
0
c;
~
+
a
N
,
0
0 v. 0
"
" +
,

-+
Figure 9.10 Views of external facade
Productivity: Can Ex.isting Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
- ' - ' ~ " - "3
Ground floor plan
View I
View 2
View 4
I
1
Figure 9.11 Visualisations of refurbished building interior
Second floor plan
First floor
View 3
View 5
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs'?
9.3 "Individual" Productivity Assessment
9.3.1 Artificial Lighting
The artificial lighting will generally be achieved using fluorescent tube luminaires recessed into the
suspended ceiling. The design illuminance is 400 lux, which is below the current best practice for
general offices, bnt in the mid range for VDU users. Glare, high contrast and the unevenness of
illumination levels have been avoided by following good practice guidelines. The lower lighting level
has been chosen for energy efficiency reasons. This level of 400 lnx is gradually becoming the
accepted design norm bnt has not yet been officially recognised. Research suggests that this is below
desirable levels for reading accuracy and speed shown in Fignre 9.12. Eqnally the lower lighting levels
are more condncive to VDU use.
10
9
Decrease in quality/pcrfonnance

14-1-- 400 lux
2

!liurnintlnce on desk (Ix)
Figure 9.12 Mean assessment of lighting quality
Overall, there is little reason to suspect that the artificial lighting will not be satisfactory to the
majority of users, as shown in the diagram below.

Fignre 9.13 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with artificial lighting
9.3.2 Daylighting and Windows
FulJ height perimeter glazing surrounds each office floor plate. The intention is to use glass
partitioning in perimeter celJular offices to assist in maximizing the penetration of natural daylight
throughout the floor space. The calculation proposed for daylighting, shown in Section 6.3.2 shows
that, assuming good exposure to the sky, daylight will penetrate just over 6m based on a celJular office
in a 4.3m structural module, and over 8m for an open plan space. Spaces within 3m of the atrium may
have some daylight, perhaps more perceived by occupants than actualJy achieved. The surrounding
buildings and trees adjacent to the fa9ade (dependant on the time of year) will reduce daylight
penetration distances in some locations. See Figure 9.14.
Building
Indicates office space with poor
dayHghting due to over shading by
adjacent buildings
Street Case study building Road Building
Figure 9.14 Section of building showing office floor space with clear view of sky
A significant portion of the building may be perceived as having poor daylighting, as shown in Figure
9.14. If sedentary workers are located in these areas it may be a cause of dissatisfaction.
lDilE thesis, University of Cambridge 66 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Figure 9.15 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with daylighting
A larger risk of potential dissatisfaction is expected from individuals over 6m from a window. The
plan below shows the areas considered to be an unsatisfactory distance from a window.
i l l l l ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I I I I I !
Figure 9.16 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with distance from
window
lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 67 GrahamBeadle, IDBE 8
With the proposed floor supply system, a reasonable level of comfort may be expected throughout the
offices. However, the system offers no user temperature control, and the building manager will set the
operation based on comments received from staff. On this basis, it will be crucial that management
respond quickly to complaints to minimise dissatisfaction.
The areas of greatest risk of discomfort are those in the O.5m perimeter strip, where the building
interacts with the external environment. Another is the top floor around the atrium. To compensate, the
design with integrated shading devices should limit discomfort to the design extremes. The
results of simulating such a system in operation on a warm summer day in London is shown are shown
in Figure 9.17.
Figure 9.17 shows that the percentage people dissatisfied, determined using Fanger's comfort criteria,
is generally low during normal working hours for a glazing transmissivities of less thanI5%. Under
such design conditions a maximum percentage people dissatisfied of 30% is considered acceptable,
increasing when strong sunlight shines on the
System OFF System ON
Ii
ooj----------;:---

15% transmissivity
*
1
1

I

o 1 a 3 4 5 e 7 8 a 10 11 12 1$ 14 15 16 17 18 19 2() 21 22 23 24
Hour of Day
29% l()%-S%J
Figure 9.17 Graph showing the percentage people dissatisfied - for a south facing
with various glazing transmissivity values
The plan below shows the areas that are likely to provide for the thermal comfort of occupants
Figure 9.18 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with thermal comfort
conditions
9.3.3 Air Quality
The air quality within the building is expected to be very good as the floor supply system supplies
roughly 1.5 to 2 times more fresh air to the office space than the minimum selected of 8 lis per person
for satisfaction (see Section 6.2.4). Figure 9.19 shows that satisfaction may be expected in all areas of
the building.
U'!,mmatisfied
Figure 9.19 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with air quality
9.3.5 Noise
An open plan office arrangement is to be adopted which can give rise to dissatisfaction through
distraction from, for example, noise generated by ringing phones and equipment, and most often by
colleagues conversations. The desire for an open-plan office to convey management policies, such as
transparency of operations and flattening of hierarchies, introduces these well-recognised paradoxes.
Due to the variety of task and concentration levels needed by consultants, noise is probably the
greatest source of potential dissatisfaction.
The offices have many hard surfaces within them, for example, full height glazing will surround the
office floor plate, full height glazing will also be used in the few cellularised offices, and the
balustrade to the atrium is glass. Perhaps the worst additional generator of noise will be the atrium
itself, which with its wooden floor and enveloping hard surfaces, will serve to reflect and echo voices
and foot fall throughout the building, and from floor to floor.
Measures taken to reduce the spread of noise include:
the use of acoustic ceilings
carpeted floor in the general office spaces
workstations pulled back one metre from the atrium edge.
However, these elements will provide little absorption to prevent horizontal noise propagation. The
acoustics may be improved by introducing masking noise as the floor supply systems are extremely
quiet and cannot perfonn such a function. Masking noise generators will be required. However, the
introduction of masking noise would increase the building's overall noise level, which may lead to
further complaints.
Another option is the introduction of more absorbent surfaces. This would require opaque vertical
elements and cause the loss of some transparency on the floor plates. A balance must then be
achieved. If a flexible, easily adjusted, solution were to be adopted, conditions may improve and
greater satisfaction gained through providing an element of control. The author is in the process of
gaining a patent for a product that achieves this function. Refer to Appendix E.
On the basis of the office being open plan, a high level of dissatisfaction is likely due to the variety of
task that will be carried out in the spaces. Undoubtedly, some occupiers will consider the space too
noisy, others too quiet. This is a recognised paradox with all open plan offices. On this basis, it may be
expected that the majority of the large open space will be found unsatisfactory by most individuals for
a multitude of reasons.
Figure 9.20 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with noise
9.3.6 Workstation and Space
The intention is to use the existing workstations in the refurbished building. This should not give rise
to significant dissatisfaction, as 74% of staff surveyed were content with the design of their
workstation. The workstation space provision is 10m
2
per person. This should also be considered
satisfactory. It is unlikely that satisfaction levels could be improved significantly using a standard desk
solution for all, as current policy dictates.

Figure 9.21 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with workstation
space
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 71 GrahamBeadle, lOBE 8
9.3.7 Control! Adaptation
Most occupants are expected to find the levels of control over their environment unsatisfactory. The
thermal comfort conditions will be set centrally, the lighting will be controlled locally and there will
be no user control over ventilation. although those close to windows will be able to operate them.
These problems may be considered typical of open plan offices and are not attributable to the existing
structure, but the building services design. The plan below shows the level of satisfaction associated
with each area of the office.

it:Oi,satisfied
Figure 9.22 Plan of building showing likely satisfaction/dissatisfaction with control provision
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 72 Graham Bead1e, IDBE 8
9.4 "Group" Productivity Assessment
The aim of this section is to discuss productivity issues related to group activities involving
communication and cohesion. Issues to be considered include desk arrangements in relation to the
existing structure and how well knowledge generation can be accommodated by the dimensioning of
the space.
The space planning of the areas within the offices will be completed by the occupying groups to suit
their own requirements using standard furniture and a demountable glass partitioning system. To date,
no knowledge-based work groups have produced plans; therefore a space planning arrangement has
been developed by the author for the basis of the case study and represents a likely layout for a typical
engineering group. In arriving at this notional office arrangement, consideration has been given to the
elements shown in the Figure 9.23.
Changing nature of the
work
Changing nature of the
tasks
Advances in technology
Changes to staff skill
requirements
Current staff preferences
Management style
Requirements for
productivity
Organisational aims for
cultural change
Figure 9.23 Elements considered in arriving at a space planning solution
Interviews were also carried out with members of an engineering group in order to determine the work
style preferences and the potential for change. It was found during interviews that most knowledge-
work based staff could not contemplate working without a permanent desk and considered that the
technology was available at all workstations for the range of tasks necessary to be completed.
Productivity; Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs?
A survey of the group's current workstation utilisation shows that occupancy levels are high for much
of the week as shown in Figure 9.24. There was a consensus of opinion that additional, shared, quiet
spaces would be desirable to enable occasional disruption-free concentration. Dedicated spaces for
itinerant staff and visitors were also considered desirable. The requirements for hot-desking were
minimal and it was found that people worked from home for only few days a year, if at all. Most
employees preferred the office for face-to-face communication, collaborative designing and the
general camaraderie of the workplace.
>-
100
"
c
'"
90
c.
"
80
"
"
70
0
" ' ~
60
"':11.
~ a . . .
50
CI)
40
Cl
'"
30
c
CI)
20
"

10 CI)
Q.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Figure 9.24 Desk occupancy survey results
The space planning arrangement proposed, and the designation of space, is shown in Figure 9.25. The
key influences in arriving at a space plan, additional to those determined in Section 7.0, are shown in
Appendix F.
"
Store
: ..................... ...... "; .... !
: Copy :
. .
..
00'
O()
/J." ....
........................... "

Store :

...........................
: r'aliID&la

: O'Dt::IO
,
......................

o 0 0
:Workstations
Qffi

ft!II'oJj"
: 0
:Workstations

............... "0',,.
Figure 9.25 Space planning arrangement for know ledge based engineering group
9.4.1 Building's Plan Form and Structure
The building's plan form, of 15m from window to window, is recognised by Duffy as being flexible
and effective for the integration of all recognised work patterns. See Figure 9.26.
Building types Hive
00
[I]
Iii 1"...,;Ij
Key:
good
adequate
poor
Den Cell Club
...
Figure 48 Summary of affinities between the work
patterns: building types
Figure 9.26 Summary of affinities
between work patterns and building types
However, the project space planners found that the close and irregular column spacing was obstructive
and restrictive when allocating office space. Standard space planning options were considered using
the organisation's existing standard "L" shaped Herman Miller desks and also bench type,
arrangements. Figure 9.27 shows the various generic desks arrangements using these types of desks.
6.1m
7 1
o . ~
1

G:';1%J
'0
l? CJo 00'00
"6 ...
0
(3 ...... 0 ~
0
' . .
00 00

LtrJ
o 0 0
0 0 O
~ .
; ~
m"o' m ................ .
0 ... 0

o 0 0
~
0 0 O
Figure 9.27 Various generic desk arrangements
shown within the building's structural grid
The target space-occupancy density of 1 person per 10 m
2
could be achieved, but the columns are an
obstruction. The current preference for new office buildings is for spans of between 7 and 9m instead
of 4.57 m here, as this allows for greater flexibility in space planning.
The existing structure is therefore a major restriction to space planning as it limits workstation
positions to the structural module, causing inefficient use of space.
The existing structure also imposes floor loading limitations, which could restrict the type of use for
some areas. It was not a problem in this case, but if it were it may have been accommodated by
organisational space planning activities.
The application of the knowledge-based space-planning principle (see Section 7.2) to a typical floor
plate is shown in Figure 9.28. Although the floor plan does not reflect the ideal dimensions, the
planning principle may still be applied about an elongated core, and used to gauge the effecti veness of
the floor plan. It can be seen that the majority of spaces on the floor plate are within 20m of the core
services, and most importantly, the gathering space is within 20 m of most workstations. The distance
between workstations is greater than 20m in a number of cases. This will reduce the effectiveness of
group working.
SCALE
10m
..................... " .........
.
: Store :
, .
, .
, ,
.........................
............. "" ......... .
Formal :

: meeting :
. .
. .
........................
............. " .... "" ....

,

,
orkstations:

" .... " ......
:- ...... " ... " ....... """ ............ ..

,

.. " .............. _ .. _"...... -
Ii .... " .. .................. .
: !
.
.
..... !
" .. "" .. :Workstations:
M _,_, ., ""'"" , __ .:
Ii .. .......... .. .............. "'.
.
.
.
.
: Formal :
.
: meeting :
.
. .......................................
.'
"
.
"""""..-, Aexible ,;
,," ...
, space
.. " ..
.
.
...
J\1eeting .. :..
""""' .... ,, ........................... ..
Figure 9.28 Application of knowledge based planning principle
The flexible spaces are considered social areas concerned with knowledge-sharing and increasing
communication. However, it is doubtful that they will serve well as gathering spaces as they do not
have the desirable characteristics (see Section 7.1.1) that these spaces require, particularly
accessibility. These spaces should serve well for the other intended functions, but the main role is in
enhancing the organisation's image.
9.5 "Organisation" Productivity Assessment
At an organisational level, the building's direct influence on productivity is achieved through enabling
logical space planning of the building.
The building's indirect influence on productivity, gained through supporting management aims, will
be achieved through the large open plan office arrangements and open central atrium which will
generate communication and increase familiarity between staff and groups.
The fagade of the bUilding is not opulent and may be considered suited to the occupying engineering
organisation. The brise-soleil and particularly the double skin facade are considered to offer a solution
to many environmental problems such as noise and solar control, and general reduction in energy
consumption. The common view on the colour of the facade is that it is too garish, but when it is
explained that the colour is intended to reflect that of the nearby BT Tower, there is a greater
acceptance.
Overall, the building may be expected to have no direct detrimental effects on organisational
productivity and should serve to indirectly enhance productivity through supporting management
aims.
9.6 Comparison with "New Build"
To determine how successful the refurbished building is in terms of productivity, a comparison has
been made with what could have been achieved within the same building envelope with a "new build"
office (see Figures 9.29 and 9.30). The main objective when planning an office space is to create the
maximum area of prime, or primary, office space. This is most effectively achieved by keeping clear
as much perimeter space as possible and locating the building's cores and circulation routes in the
deeper spaces. The remaining space is then termed secondary or storage, depending on access to
windows and daylight. Spaces designated as storage are generally considered undesirable for working
in due to the distance from windows, or because they are prone to distraction, for example, where
there are circulation routes on two or more sides.
Refurbish Primary office space
Multifunctional
Secondary office space
Circulation
Core
---J...
Figure 9.29 Space usage within refurbished building
Re-Build
Figure 9.30 Space usage if rebuilt
When the percentage of floor spaces are compared it is found that the refurbishment provides less
primary office space, which may also be interpreted to mean less satisfactory office space, and hence
less good productivity space. A comparison is shown in Figure 9.31.
Refurbished
16%
E1Prirre
44% ElSecondary
9Storage
I!ICirculation
C1Core Space
Figure 9.31 Space usage comparison
Re-build
58%
The location and size of the existing core is the most disadvantageous element of the refurbished
building, along with the restricted positioning of the atrium.
It may be concluded from this comparison that a new building could have resulted in more space
suited to enabling better individual productivity, but this would have had a negative effect on: space
planning flexibility by reducing the floor plan depth to less than 15m, and group productivity by
increasing the distance between some workstations. Also, the forgiveness inherent with the existing
structure, with its irregularities, unique characteristics and sustainability benefits, may offset any
dissatisfaction created, and perhaps equalise the productivity balance between the two options.
9.7 Findings from Case Study
Through considering the likely influence of the new Fitzrovia building on individual, group and
organisational productivity, it has been found that the building may cause a loss in productivity in
some spaces through being a source of dissatisfaction causing distraction to concentration, primarily
due to noise, poor window access and day-lighting, and a lack of user control.
On a group productivity basis, the building is well suited to the size of an average building group,
providing for good communication between all primary office space and core areas, which will also
serve well for cohesion. At an organisational level, the building should not be a cause of distraction,
and may initially boost morale and motivation through psychological effects.
The case study shows that the requirements of ITC have had little effect on the height of space (which
in the past has been the major reason for office buildings to be demolished). However, the structure
represents a major setback in terms of space planning with column layouts severely restricting the
office space use and setting out. The minimum workstation space requirement of 10m
2
per person for
comfort, privacy and adaptation, as recommended in Section 6.3.6, has been met. The floor loading
capacity of the existing structure did not impose limitations on the use of spaces in this instance.
When comparisons are made with what could have been achieved with a new building constructed
within the same building envelope, it was found that more primary office space could have been
created by relocating the cores to the central to the building, to free up the perimeter space. This would
have created more quality space which would have been better for individual productivity. In contrast,
the space actually created may be slightly remote and not as desirable for group productivity due to
reduced communication efficiency and reduced cohesion.
Overall, it may be concluded that the existing building structure has imposed major space
planninglflexibility restrictions and provides less high quality space than could have been provided by
a new building occupying the same envelope. This may be considered as the cost for the
environmental benefits. However, the building is well proportioned and will provide for good group
productivity within the occupying organisation.
It may be concluded from this work that existing buildings can provide for the productivity needs of
future knowledge based organisations.
Productivity; Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business N e e d ~ ?
10.0 Conclusion
The aim of this thesis was to determine if existing office buildings could provide for the productivity
needs of future organisations. If they can, this thesis would offer further justification for the reuse of
existing office structures in addition to the established sustainability benefits.
The assessment has been carried out considering the social, economic, organisational and
technological changes taking place, and adopting a multidisciplinary approach in determining the
buildings role in office productivity. Productivity literature has been researched and new models,
theories, and criteria for productivity have been assembled.
The application of these findings to a case study building has shown that an existing building can
provide for the productivity needs of future knowledge based organisations. However, the structure
can impose a loss in space planning flexibility and must be complementary to the occupying
organisation's aims.
The key findings from this work are noted below:
Social, economic, organisational and technological:
Business competition is global, and future success depends on highly skilled knowledge
workers.
Knowledge workers are becoming increasingly valuable and employers must keep them
satisfied in all respects.
Organisations are flattening traditional hierarchies and adopting more humanistic management
styles.
Organisations want buildings designed to support people in their tasks.
It is no longer justifiable to demolish existing office buildings on the basis that space for ITC
is inadequate.
Productivity:
The influence that buildings have on productivity relative to other elements has been
proposed.
Models were proposed which show the route through which buildings influence productivity
at an individual, group and organisational level.
lOBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 82 Graham Beadle, lDBE 8
Herzberg proposed that buildings, at best, enable performance, but do not serve to improve
performance. This was considered incorrect in the case of indirect organisational productivity
where performance could be enhanced through supporting management aims.
The order of influence that buildings have on individual, group and organisational
productivity is proposed. The building was considered to have least influence over direct
organisational productivity, but greatest influence over indirect organisational productivity.
An individual's relationship with an office environment has been explored, the prime elements
of influence identified and desirable criteria selected
A process model was proposed through which environmental factors were related to human
response and satisfaction.
It was considered that the minimum desired floor space provision was limited by personal
satisfaction rather than the traditional requirements for office equipment and storage space.
An ideal theoretical space planning methodology for knowledge-based organisations was
proposed, based on selected individual and group productivity requirements.
Appendix A Office Environment Survey
Staff Questionnaire
INITIALS
PLEASE TICK THE APPROPRIATE BOX REGARDING YOUR SATISFACTION/
DISSATISFACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT ABOUT YOUR WORKSTATION.
SATISFIED DISSATISFIED
ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
D D
WINDOW/DAY-LIGHTING
D D
TEMPERATURE
D D
AIR QUALITY
D D
NOISE
D D
COLOUR
D D
WORKSTATION
D
D
CONTROL OVER ENVIRONMENT
D D
AESTHETICS
D
D
FOR COLLEGE USE
Appendix A, cont;
Artificial Lighting
The following plans show the collective results for each
element of the office environment surveyed.
~ I E S
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
FlRE DtfT
Appendix A, conti
Windows
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
(lIES
F1R EXIT
Appendix A, conti
Temperature
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
F1RE EXIT
Appendix A, conti
Air quality
~ I E S
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge
"""
89
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
FIRE Oil
Appendix A, cont;
Noise
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
,.,
Kn'CHEN
FlF!f D:IT
lDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 90 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Appendix A, cont;
Colour
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
FIRE 011
Appendix A, conti
Workstation
Key
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
OiES
~ D ..
~ W O " " ' ' ' '
e;w .... "".9
000
[ill8
ClClCl
fiRE EXIT
IDEE Thesis, University of Cambridge 92 Graham Beadle, IDEE 8
Appendix A, cont;
Control Over Environment
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
FlRE oaT
Appendix A, cont;
Aesthetic
Satisfied
Dissatisfied
,,,
'''"'
FlRE EXIT
Productivity: Can Existing Office Bui1dings Provide for Future Business Needs?
AppendixB
The Physical Environment's Effect on Group Performance
Summary of findings from research on the physical environment and it's influence on
communication.
General
People prefer face-to-face communication
People select associates based on physical accessibility
There is a relationship between proximity and communication
Proximity is associated with informal communication
People tend to address people they can easily make eye contact with
People prefer certain distances for different encounters but can adapt to a variety of
arrangements
When distances are too great adaptation may be difficult
Loud background noise can interfere with conversation, the louder and closer people
need to be to communicate
Leaders
Leaders tend to occupy positions that permit maximum eye contact with group
members
Research on communications networks associated leaders with good accessibility to
members of the group
Cohesion
Co-workers whose work spaces are close together and whose jobs call for frequent
contact may develop close formal ties. These could form the basis of cohesive work
groups
Symbolism and self-identity
Personalisation of an assigned workstation may be a personality trait which some
exhibit more than others do as such it can be important to job satisfaction through an
individuals expression of territory or zone of control
Workers participation in the design of their office environment has been linked to
satisfaction with environment and job.
People are most satisfied with work spaces which reflect their status (Adam theory)
Desks serve as a psychological barrier the way people converse over them is less
open than withou t them
Studies on non-working settings have found comfortable pleasant environments
associated with relatively favourable reactions of people
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 95 Graham I3eadle, IDBE 8
Appendix B, cont;
Space planning
Office worker performance surveys show only a minority prefer private offices, and
greater variance as to the number of people in an office
Open plan offices
Experiments into non-territorial unassigned workstations show high levels of
satisfaction
Open plan offices promote interdepartmental communication, but decrease
confidential communication.
Crowding in offices is related to dissatisfaction but the effects are relatively
unexplored.
Private offices
There is little evidence to suggest that enclosure promotes cohesion through privacy
Non-designated work stations
There is no evidence to suggest greater satisfaction or better performance from shared
works paces as apposed to assigned
Shared facilities considerations
Significant time can be wasted travelling to, or queuing at, shared equipment.
IDBE Thesis, Universily of Cambridge 96 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
Productivity: Can Existing Office Buildings Provide for Future Business Needs'?
Appendix C
Description of Work Type Characteristics
Description of work type characteristics:
Den
The Den office space arrangement is associated with group process work, interactive but not
necessarily highly autonomous. The space is designed for group working with a range of
several simple settings, typically arranged in the open plan or group room. While the settings
are normally designed on the assumption that every individual occupies their own desk, the
group would also have access to shared equipment or special technical facilities that are used
as needed. The tasks are typically short duration involving teamwork. Typically,
organisations include design, research, some media work and advertising.
Club
The club office space.arrangement is for knowledge work: both highly autonomous and
highly interactive. The pattern of occupancy is intermittent and over an extended working
day. A wide variety of shared task based settings serve both concentrated individual and
group interactive work. Individuals and teams occupy space on an as-needed basis, moving
around the space to take advantage of a wide range of facilities.
Hive
The Hive office space arrangement is characterised by individual routine process work with
low levels of interaction and individual autonomy. The office worker sits at simple work
stations for continues periods of time on a regular 9 to 5 schedule (variants of this type
include 24 hour shift working). The settings are typically uniform, open planned, screened
and impersonal. Typical organisations or work groups include telesales, call centres, data
entry or processing, routine banking, financial and administrative operations, and basic
information services.
Cell
The Cell office space arrangement is for individual concentration work with little
interaction. Highly autonomous individuals occupy the office in an intermittent irregular
pattern with extended working days, working elsewhere some of the time (possibly at home,
at clients office, or travelling). Each individual is typically provided with the use of either an
enclosed cell or highly screened workstation in an open planned office. Each individual
setting must provide for a complex variety of tasks. The autonomous pattern of work,
implying a sporadic and irregular occupancy of the space means that the potential exists for
the settings needed by the individual to be planned and used on a shared basis, Typical
organisations include lawyers, some accountancy firms, academic offices, research
organisations and management consultancies.
AppendixD
Staff Preferences List
Staff preferences:
Preferences
Staff preference for communicating face-to-face, e-mail, telephone, informal environments,
video conferencing, flexibility to manage, when, where and how they work and interact.
Internal organisation and expression on the new Fitzrovia
Staff prefer workspace based on need rather than working hierarchy.
Expressed
Staff feel personal work space does not need to be large if meeting facilities, private areas
etc. are available elsewhere.
Staff expressed enthusiasm for hot-desking for those who spend substantial time out of the
office.
They also believe that having your own place was not only individually desirable but meant
others know where to find you.
Staff envisage flat screen and stow-away or pop-up technologies in conjunction with lap top
PC's making smaller workstations still fit for purpose.
Staff believe centralised storage away from individual work space would be ideal but
challenging to implement.
Staff found to be excited, enthused, sceptical.
Look and Ceel
Staff would like an environment that is impressive, modern, light, bright and warm with
uncluttered simple clean lines.
Staff don't want the space to look flashy and opulent.
Staff want a building that conveys a business which uses technology in innovative ways but
not generic glass and metal modern box.
Like
Modern, light, bright, impressive, natural, organic, hand crafted, earthy values
Ordered structure internally and externally, calm blues, greens, teaacotta, varied heights and
textures, colours etc.
Dislike
Flashy, opUlent, sea of obstacles.
Want
Staff want layouts to promote interaction and team working.
Staff desire access to spaces to have a cup of coffee, relax and talk informally.
Younger stafC wanted a space that exudes creativity, manic, learning, calm, cutting edge,
innovative, energy, and expression.
Staff would like an appropriate environment for a given activity rather than sitting in a shoe
box all day.
Staff wanted group differentiation across the landscape to prevent regimented look.
Staff felt space should be mUlti-purpose at multiple times without becoming intermediate
e.g. equip meeting rooms with mobile IT furnishings
Various fOnDS of meeting area.
Staff believe the external fa<;ade should convey Arup.
IDDE TIlcsis, University of Cambridge 98 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
AppendixE
Patent Application
FILING RECEIPT
GUeadJ.
15 G"Udfom Close
'Beytdey

UK
Hl!J18UL
PATEN'f APl'LlCATIONNUMRER 0318199.7
'Thc Patent Office, cor/firms Ter;eipL of a request -f0-t".g.t<U)( of a 'patent, dctaiis.of whicl\ have
Tt."Cordcd :&lOT(lllows :
Filing !late (Sec Note)
AppHcams
Ucst!'riplion (No.nf
Clilims (Ne,of Sheets)
I)mwln.b'S {No.uf Sht:elS)
Abstract
Statement ofIn'llenroxship {Form 71-77)
fnr'Rcarcn (ptlTm 9n7)
Request for Ex.IlID",UOIl (FOIll1 INn)
l'r1ority Documents
Translation of Pllont}' .D(lcumcnLot;
Olher AUad.ml!tlls Rr::Cel'1100
GRAHAM llEADLE
J
hi
J
Nonc
None
None
None
Nun'.!
Non.c
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'file ,Patent Offk.e
l'unccpt Boo;\':
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The appliC:lllinn number im::ludell lhell.e<l.(ll11.g abDve should un illl 'oorrespondcnOl; with
Tht:' ,"P-.:l.to:::m Office.
Any queries uti this rta::e.ipt suould be ,addressed to JanlT.lc Geron, ll!t 01633 81457U. An otht.""T enqu.irit:'s
,hould b.dhwed to CeJltrnlEnqu,ry linit, tol. OS,5 Q .100 .105.
The-aoo .....cftIJ:ng i:;. pmvir-;klnw wad m.ay tobealllCmkd ifthc pmyisiu-(ls of
section 15(1) (If lhl! Patto:::nl:-i Act 1977 are jjot mer.
IDBE Thesis, University of Cambridge 99 GrahamBeadle, IDBE 8
Appendix F
Space Planning of a Floor Plate
Space planning considerations:
An open plan office space has been provided for all staff including the Group Leader.
The circulation route has been logically placed along the centre of the main floor
plate.
The Group leader has been positioned centrally providing them with good access and
sight lines form most vantage points.
Partitions (glazed) have been incorporated to shield workers from noisy office
machinery (photo copiers)
Desks have been pulled back from the edge of the atrium to reduce distraction from
noises within the atrium.
Prime office space has been used for bays of workstations to maximise daylight and
views for occupants.
Meeting rooms are at the extremities of the office where workers may have felt
detached from the group if workstations were permanently located there.
A gathering space has been incorporated in the darker area of the floor plate. near and
on the route to the kitchen and main core toilets.
Desk spaces next to corridors face onto them to minimise distraction.
Itinerant work space has been provided adjacent to the atrium, perhaps the location
where noise distraction is most likely.
Large glazed partitions have been incorporated to reduce the transmission of sound
along large open spaces. Similarly, the floor length has been broken up by the
introduction of quiet booths.
Meeting rooms have been placed in the southwest corner because it is relatively
remote from the remainder of the group and will be prone to high solar gain although
the double skin facade will protect against this to some extent.
IDBE Thesis, University ofCamhridge 100 Graham Beadle, IDBE 8
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