EIILM UNIVERSITY, SIKKIM

DIPLOMA CIVIL ENGINEERING, SEMESTER III, YEAR-2nd BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Duration -3 Hours Note: 1. Attempt any FIVE questions. 2. All questions carry equal marks. 1. Differentiate between rock and soil? 1. Explain foundation and its purposes? Ans1 A foundation (also a charitable foundation) is a legal categorization of nonprofit organizations that will typically either donate funds and support to other organizations, or provide the source of funding for its own charitable purposes. This type of non-profit organization differs from a private foundation which is typically endowed by an individual or family. Foundations in civil law The term "foundation," in general, is used to describe a distinct legal entity. Foundations as legal structures (legal entities) and/or legal persons (legal personality), may have a diversity of forms and may follow diverse regulations depending on the jurisdiction where they are created. In some jurisdictions, a foundation may acquire its legal personality when it is entered in a public registry, while in other countries a foundation may acquire legal personality by the mere action of creation through a required document. Unlike a company, foundations have no shareholders, though they may have a board, an assembly and voting members. A foundation may hold assets in its own name for the purposes set out in its constitutive documents, and its administration and operation are carried out in accordance with its statutes or articles of association rather than fiduciary principles. The foundation has a distinct patrimony independent of its founder. Foundations are often set up for charitable purposes, family patrimony and collective purposes. Max Marks: 60

Finland
Foundations in Finland must have state approval and register at the National Board of Patents and Registration within six months from its creation. A minimum capital of 25,000 is obligatory. A foundation can be created with any legal purpose and may have economic activity if this is specified in its Bylaws and the business supports the foundation's purpose.

France
There are not many Foundations in comparison to the rest of Europe. In practice public administration requires at least 1 million is considered necessary. States representatives have a mandatory seat in the Board. [1]

Germany
German regulations allow the creation of any foundation for public or private purposes in keeping with the concept of a gemeinwohlkonforme Allzweckstiftung ("general-purpose foundation compatible with the common good"). A foundation should not have commercial activities as its main purpose, but they are permitted if they serve the main purpose of the foundation. There is no minimum starting capital, although in practice at least 50,000 is considered necessary. A German foundation can either be charitable or serve a private interest. Charitable foundations enjoy tax exemptions. If they engage in commercial activities, only the commercially active part of the entity is taxed. A family foundation serving private interests is taxed like any other legal entity. There is no central register for German foundations. Only charitable foundations are subject to supervision by state authorities. Family foundations are not supervised after establishment. All forms of foundations can be dissolved, however, if they pursue anti-constitutional aims. Foundations are supervised by local authorities within each state (Bundesland) because each state has exclusive legislative power over the laws governing foundations. In contrast to many other countries, German law allows a tax sheltered charitable foundation to distribute up to one third of its profit to the founder and his next of kin, if they are needy, or to maintain the founder's grave. These benefits are subject to taxation. As of 2008, there are about 15,000 foundations in Germany, about 85% of them charitable foundations. More than 250 charitable German foundations have existed for more than 500 years; the oldest dates back to 1509. There are also large German corporations owned by foundations, including Bertelsmann, Carl Zeiss AG and Lidl. Foundations are the main providers of private scholarships to German students.

Italy
In Italy, a foundation is a private non profit and autonomous organization, its assets must be dedicated to a purpose established by the founder. The founder cannot receive any benefits from the foundation or have reverted the initial assets. The private foundations or civil code foundations are under the section about non commercial entities of the first book (Libro Primo) of the Civil Code of Law (Codice Civile) from 1942. The Art. 16 CC establishes that the statutes of the foundation must contain its name, purpose, assets, domicile, administrative organs and regulations, and how the grants will be distributed. The founder must write a declaration of intention including a purpose and endow assets for such purpose. This document can be in the form of a notarised deed or a will. To obtain legal personality, the foundation must enroll in the legal register of each Prefettura (local authority) or some cases the regional authority. There are several nuances in requirements according to each foundation's purpose and area of activity.

Portugal
A foundation (Fundao) in Portugal is normally credited by the Portuguese Foundation Centre (CPF - Centro Portugus de Fundaes), that was founded in 1993 by the Eng. Antnio de Almeida Foundation, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation and the Oriente Foundation.[2]

Spain
Foundations in Spain are organizations founded with the purpose of not seeking profit and serving the general needs of the public. Such foundation may be founded by private individuals or by the public. These foundations have an independent legal personality separate from their founders. Foundations serve the general needs of the public with a patrimony that funds public services and which may not be distributed to the founders' benefit.

2. Give various uses of stones in construction? Ans2 Crushed stone or angular rock is a form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the removed rock down to the desired size using crushers. It is distinct from gravel which is produced by natural processes of weathering and erosion, and typically has a more rounded shape. Uses Angular crushed stone is the key material for macadam road construction which depends on the interlocking of the individual stones' angular faces for its strength.[1] Crushed natural stone is also used similarly without a binder for riprap, railroad track ballast, and filter stone. It may also be used with a binder in a composite material such as concrete, tarmac, or asphalt concrete. According to the United States Geological Survey, 1.72 billion tonnes of crushed stone worth $13.8 billion was sold or used in 2006, of which 1.44 billion tonnes was used as construction aggregate, 74.9 million tonnes used for cement manufacture, and 18.1 million tonnes used to make lime. Crushed marble sold or used totaled 11.8 million tonnes, the majority of which was ground very fine and used as calcium carbonate. In 2006, 9.40 million tonnes of crushed stone (almost all limestone or dolomite) was used for soil treatment, primarily to reduce soil acidity. Soils tend to become acidic from heavy use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, unless a soil conditioner is used. Using aglime or agricultural lime, a finely-ground limestone or dolomite, to change the soil from acidic to nearly neutral particularly benefits crops by maximizing availability of plant nutrients, and also by reducing aluminum or manganese toxicity, promoting soil microbe activity, and improving the soil structure. In 2006, 5.29 million tonnes of crushed stone (mostly limestone or dolomite) was used as a flux in blast furnaces and in certain steel furnaces to react with gangue minerals (i.e. silica and silicate impurities) to produce liquid slag that floats and can be poured off from the much denser molten metal (i.e., iron). The slag cools to become a stone-like material that is commonly crushed and recycled as construction aggregate.

In addition, 4.53 million tonnes of crushed stone was used for fillers and extenders (including asphalt fillers or extenders), 2.71 million tonnes for sulfur oxide removal-mine dusting-acid water treatment, and 1.45 million tonnes sold or used for poultry grit or mineral food. Crushed stone is recycled primarily as construction aggregate or concrete. Landscape use Crushed stone or 'road metal' is used in landscape design and gardening for gardens, parks, and municipal and private projects as a mulch, walkway, path, and driveway pavement, and cell infill for modular permeable paving units. As a mineral mulch its benefits include erosion control, water conservation, weed suppression, and aesthetic qualities. It is often seen used in rock gardens and cactus gardens.

3. Explain the types of Building tiles and their uses? Ans3 A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, or even glass. Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from lightweight materials such as perlite, wood, and mineral wool, typically used for wall and ceiling applications. In another sense, a tile is a construction tile or similar object, such as rectangular counters used in playing games (see tile-based game). The word is derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula, meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay. Tiles are often used to form wall and floor coverings, and can range from simple square tiles to complex mosaics. Tiles are most often made from porcelain, fired clay or ceramic with a hard glaze, but other materials are also commonly used, such as glass, metal, cork, and stone. Tiling stone is typically marble, onyx, granite or slate. Thinner tiles can be used on walls than on floors, which require thicker, more durable surfaces.

Earthenware
Ceramic with a water absorption rate of more than 10% after firing it at temperatures between 950 - 1150C is known as earthenware. Earthenware is easy to work and easy to decorate. Because it is so porous though, it should only be used indoors to prevent weathering caused by frost. Earthenware is mainly used as glazed wall tiles. Two different procedures for manufacturing earthenware can be distinguished: In the monoporasa technology, i.e. single firing technology, the liquid glaze is applied onto the tile immediately after shaping. Then the desired decoration can be applied onto the tile. In the double firing technology (biporosa) the body is fired first. Afterwards it is glazed, decorated and then fired again.

Stoneware
Stoneware has a water absorption rate of less than 3% percent. Stoneware is frost proof due to its low porosity. Compared to earthenware, stoneware has a higher density and a better mechanical strength. Almost all tiles for floor coverings exposed to high traffic such as for industry, commerce or public areas are made of unglazed stoneware that can be seen, for instance, at Nuremberg Central Station. Stoneware tiles with glaze are classical ceramics for floors. Abrasion and slip resistance are determined by the technical properties of the glaze. Unlike earthenware, stoneware is fired at temperatures between 1150 - 1300C. Porosity can be reduced by adding fluorite and other fluxes.

Porcelain stoneware
Porcelain stoneware is characterised by its very low water absorption rate of less than 0.5%. Thus porcelain stoneware is a further development of stoneware tiles, whose water absorption rate lies under 3%. Porcelain stoneware is manufactured under high pressure by dry-pressing fine processed ceramic raw materials with large proportions of quartz, feldspar and other fluxes. Afterwards, the body is baked at high temperatures (1200 - 1300C) in a roller passage kiln. Due to its high breaking and wear resistance properties porcelain stoneware is often used in public areas and areas where wear conditions are particularly extreme. At the beginning of the development, porcelain stoneware was manufactured but unglazed. The low porosity permits polishing a tile and thus creating an extraordinary beautiful and brilliant surface. By applying ceramic powders of different colours or using soluble salts, unglazed porcelain stoneware can be decorated in different ways. However, the variety of possible visual effects is limited. Therefore it becomes more and more usual to manufacture glazed and imprinted porcelain stoneware. A huge variety of decors can be created due to the properties provided by this material. For instance, the most different types of stones, woods, fabrics, cork, leather etc. can be imitated. Glazed porcelain stoneware differs from glazed stoneware by a slightly higher breaking resistance and a complete frost resistance. Other properties, such as, for instance, chemical resistance, slip resistance and scratch hardness may vary significantly depending on the type of surface.

Cleaning, protection,care

Porcelain stoneware polished and matt

Newly laid areas

Adherence of dirt on hardly visible remains of joint material or adhesives makes later maintenance cleaning difficult.Thus all floor coverings should be cleaned with a standard cement residue remover. Residues of joints containing plastic can be removed with an intensive cleaner.

Preliminary cleaning in case of protective treatment of used and soiled tiles

Treatment of a used floor covering requires a thorough preliminary cleaning. All impurities and maintenance agents have to be removed from the surface and the pores. For this purpose, a commercially available intensive cleaner should be used under observance of the instructions for use.

Protective treatment against stains

Depending on the type of use of the floor covering, stains may appear despite the exceptional properties of porcelain stoneware tiles. A single treatment with a standard protective impregnation reduces delicateness and increases ease of care. Ingress of dirt, oil, grease, wax, paint etc. can be significantly reduced, so that hardly any stains appear or stains can be easily removed. This treatment is recommended for newly laid floor coverings with a polished surface. Whether or not this treatment is suitable for structured or matt surfaces has to be checked. In most cases an impregnation of very light or dark coloured floor coverings is effective. Some manufactureres offer factory-sealed matt ( currently even polished ) porcelain stoneware tiles.

Regular maintenance care

4. Write short notes on partition and cavity wall? Ans4 The principle of the cavity wall is quite simple. The cavity prevents moisture passing through the wall. As long as the cavity is kept clean and the wall ties are correctly positioned the house should remain dry even if the external leaf becomes saturated. Water is free to run down the inner face of the external leaf (and this is quite likely in severe exposures) and is either ejected via weep-holes or drips safely below the DPC. Early walls were usually brick in both leaves. During the 1930s blockwork became more popular for the internal leaf. Blocks contained all manner of aggregates depending on what was available locally. Early cavity walls are usually

250mm thick ( 10 inches) with the cavity 50 mm (2 inches). In modern construction cavities are often 75mm or more wide to accommodate insulation and allow a clear space between insulation and outer leaf. Of course, if cavities are bridged damp penetration can occur. The most common cause of bridging is debris in the cavity but it can also be caused by ties which slope towards the inner leaf or ties (some designs only) being laid upside down. This endoscope picture clearly shows mortar on the tie. The purpose of the ties is to bind the two halves of the wall together. Many early

ties have failed prematurely. This is usually because they had insufficient protection (usually in the form of galvanising). Sometimes, where walls were rendered the wall could be built from 2 block leaves or 2 leaves of common bricks. Spotting whether early walls are cavity or solid can be quite difficult if properties are rendered. The depth of the reveals is one clue; another can be found in the roof space at eaves level. 2 Early Cavity Walls By the end of the Victorian period cavity walls were not uncommon although most external walls were still built as solid walls. London Building Regulations (and many local by-laws) insisted that either the inner or outer leaf of a cavity wall should be 1 brick thick. The two leaves were held together by cast iron or wrought iron ties (left), or, in some cases, special cavity bricks (right). Click here for a drawing showing a Victorian cavity wall (taken from an 1898 textbook).

To see a short video clip explaini ng the problem s and demise of the solid wall, and the introduc tion of the cavity wall click here

By the 1920s the Regulations had been relaxed and most new houses were built with cavity walls, but with both leaves half-brick thick. The wall was typically 250mm thick (10inches). However, solid walls continued in some parts of the country for many years. Many Victorian houses, for example, those re-built after the Second World War (following bomb damage) were built with solid walls.

The most common form of an early cavity wall is shown on the left. An outer leaf of brickwork would be built in facing bricks and usually in stretcher bond (sometimes Flemish bond was used with 'snapped' headers, ie, headers broken in two). The inner leaf was usually formed in common bricks, ie, bricks intended to be plastered or kept out of sight. As with solid walls the internal plaster was usually lime based and applied in two or, preferably, three coats. In the 1930s and 40s this slowly gave way to gypsum plaster. In a solid wall headers bind the wall together. In a cavity wall this is not possible and the two leaves are tied together by wall ties. Early ties were sometimes formed in wrought iron or mild steel. They were sometimes unprotected or possibly coated in bitumen or zinc (galvanising). The ties were typically positioned every sixth course vertically and about 900mm apart horizontally. In practice these centres were often 'stretched' to save money. The tie on the right is from a 1920s house. You can see some deterioration at the bottom of the tie. The galvanised protection has disappeared leaving the steel free to rust. The rusty part was in the external leaf.

early cavity walls

Click here to see an example of modern bricklay ers in action. The basic techniqu e is the same nowada ys as it was a hundred years ago.

By the 1930s some developers were using concrete blocks for the inner leaf. These were often made from locally available aggregates, often industrial wastes. However, the use of blockwork was slow to catch on and even as late as the 1950s bricks were still used for internal leaves of cavity walls and internal partitions.

By the 1920s most walls included DPCs. Nowadays two separate DPCs are used (see left), one for each leaf. In some early cavity walls large pieces of slate were used which actually bridged the cavity. Other materials included lead, copper, asphalt and lead cored bitumen felt. Today, most DPCs are made from polythene.

The inner and outer leaf of a cavity wall should never touch they should always be separate d by a DPC.

3 Early Cavity Walls - Head, Sill and Jamb Openings in early cavity walls could take many forms. This page shows one or two of them for cavity walls built in the first half of the 20th century. Many aspects of good practice were ignored and the consequences of this sometimes manifested themselves in problems of damp penetration. However, many of these walls are still functioning quite adequately.

As shown in the top right photo the lintel was often formed in precast or insitu concrete. It could be in two halves, one for each leaf, or as a single deep lintel as shown in the left-hand examples. It should be clear that with a solid lintel damp penetration is a possibility due to mortar droppings bridging the cavity, or to water running across the top of the lintel. The example on the right of the graphic includes a cavity tray designed to prevent the above problems. However, condensation is still a risk and is easily confused with damp penetration. This is explained in more detail below. Cavity trays were not always used at the heads of openings. On many older houses they have been added subsequently. Look for tell tale signs, usually a few new courses of brickwork over the lintel. In this photo the cavity tray appears to be made from copper - you can just see the front 'strip' of the tray projecting from the wall. The construction on the left, known as a boot lintel, alleviated the problems shown above. The top of the lintel was usually coated in tar (from coal) or bitumen (from oil) to prevent water soaking into the lintel itself. However, even where these exist there is still another potential problem; condensation. This can occur on the inside face of the lintel because it is cold. The phenomenon is sometimes referred to as cold bridging. Moist air in a room comes into contact with the cold inner face of the lintel and condenses. The problem is often confused with damp penetration and, as a result, the diagnosis is often wrong. This can lead to expensive repairs which do nothing to alleviate the underlying problem. Some windows have soldier arches above them. This is a row of bricks on end, usually only in the outer leaf. The inner leaf often comprises a concrete lintel. In narrow openings the soldier arch stays in place due to the adhesive affects of the mortar. In wider openings you can sometimes find a steel or wrought iron bar as shown on the left. In a few cases the bricks may have steel reinforcing rods running through the holes in the bricks. At the jambs, ie, the sides of the opening, cavities were often closed to provide a good fixing for the frame and a good base for the internal plaster. The example on the left shows a cavity wall with the inner leaf returned to the outer leaf. This creates a path for damp penetration but there are still lots of examples of this construction, some of them damp free. Sometimes the cavity was left open as shown on the right. This does not

provide a very good fixing for the window. These examples both show a cavity closed but with the addition of a DPC. In the left hand example the DPC is a sheet material, possibly bitumen felt or even lead. The right hand example shows a cavity closed with plain tiles bedded in mortar. This principle, ie of providing a DPC, remains today. There were a variety of sill details. Two examples are shown here. In the left hand example the timber sill is bedded in mortar on the external leaf. A drip at the end of the sill prevents water from running back under the sill. In the right hand example a smaller sill section sits deeper in the jamb. A sub sill formed from plain tiles is bedded in mortar on a DPC. In this example the cavity is closed with a three quarter brick. 4 Modern Cavity Walls - Generally Below ground level it is common to find blockwork. Dense blocks and most aerated blocks are suitable for use below the ground. Holes in the blockwork, with lintels over for top for support, can be left for building services (water will be lower). Modern brick/block cavity walls vary in thickness depending on the nature of the cavity and the nature of the inner leaf. The cavity will normally be 50mm, 75mm or even 100mm wide. The thickness of the inner leaf depends on the type of blocks; 125mm aerated blocks are quite common. The use of thicker lightweight internal leaves or special aerated blocks can preclude the need for additional insulation. See the section on Building Regulations or Insulation for current requirements. Click here for another example of a modern cavity wall.
If bricks are used in the outer leaf its thicknes s is normall y 102.5m m; often referred to as 100mm or halfbrick.

Where insulation is required it can either be in the cavity or in the form of dry lining. External insulati on is rare in new cavity walls.

Where cavities are filled or partially filled good workma nship is vital to prevent rain penetra tion. Follow the tips in the bullet points below.

Ensure the cavity is kept clean Make sure all joints are well filled with mortar Use a tooled joint which compresses mortar and forms a good seal with the brick Ensure wall ties are level (or slope outwards) and keep ties clean Provide cavity trays (with stop ends if necessary) over lintels etc. which bridge the cavity Make sure DPC details are correct Make sure trapped water can escape through weep-holes Ensure cavity insulation is fitted in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.

Although cavity walls are formed in two leaves they should be regarded as a single structural unit. Neither leaf should normally be built over 1.35metres high (about 6 courses of blockwork) on its own; single leaves are more likely to suffer wind damage. Where rigid ties are used this difference should not exceed 2 blocks (rigid ties are less tolerant of difference in bed joint thickness and trying to bend them will dislodge masonry.) Details on the spacing of ties can

be found elsewhere on this site. The picture on the right shows an internal leaf which has been 'lifted' a bit high.

5. What are the advantages of partition wall? Ans5 A partition wall is a non-load bearing wall, positioned either part or all the way across a room. They allow better use of the space in your home, for instance, if you find a room too large for your needs, you can use a partition wall to split the space. Partition walls are also great for creating or increasing privacy in homes or offices.

Types of partition walls

Partition walls can be used to organise large Spaces

Partition walls can be made of any one of a variety of materials and can contribute to your homes design - glass partition walls, for instance will suit a modern or minimalistic property. The actual wall is made of glass that slides along a ceiling track and the glass is substantially reinforced to prevent accidental breakages. Other materials used to create partition walls include normal bricks, concrete or fibre cement sheet partitions. Bricks and concrete are understandably tougher than fibre cement sheets but all will withstand a fair bit of damage. An alternative is a partition made of metal sheets which tends to be good value for money as well as fire resistant, thin and durable. Wooden partition walls are considerably more expensive than the other materials available to you, but for good reason. Wooden partition walls can really give a homely, vintage feel to your house and bring warmth to any room. Or you could go completely in the opposite direction and opt for an art-deco style of wooden partition walls that provide a fresh modern look. It is also possible to have a moving partition installed so that you can open up or shrink the room whenever you like. Some partition walls slide along rails but usually wont fully move out the way unless you have them retract into the wall. If you want your partition out of the way as much as possible, an alternative option is a partition wall which folds back on itself when not in use.

Benefits of partition walls

The benefits of installing a partition wall are easy to see. They allow you to turn an overly large or mostly unused room into a useful space and can also provide privacy. If you need a new working space or a playroom for your children, a partition wall is a fairly cheap and quick option. Partition walls will naturally increase the value of your home, although not necessarily enough to pay for themselves. If designed and installed cleverly though, they could add real value to your home.

Installing partition walls

Unless you have building experience you will want to hire a professional to install your partition walls. Sliding partition walls may require fixing to the walls or ceiling and without the relevant experience you could put your home as well as yourself in danger. By hiring a building professional you cut the risk of causing problems to your home, as well as ensuring the work is done quickly and efficiently.

6. Give difference between arch and Lintel? Ans6

Arches and lintels are found wherever it is necessary to support a wall etc. over an opening which is usually not more than about two metres wide. They provide support in completely different ways and an understanding of this is fundamental to selecting, specifying and assessing them. Both arches and lintels occur naturally to some extent. The natural arch at Durdle Dor in Dorset is famous. It was many centuries before mankind understood the mechanics of the arch and devised the means to successfully construct them. However, the lintel was in a sense easier to use, if not understand. There are now so many different types of arches and lintels that a complete listing would be outside the scope of this Paper. Lintels are much simpler than arches, and the forces involved are completely within the lintel. They provide support by resisting the bending moments and shear forces resulting from the loads that are applied to them. The first examples were probably trees falling across a stream, and mankind quickly learnt how to make use of lintels. There are examples of stone being used as lintels as far back as prehistoric times. The earliest lintels were probably of stone, as used in The Great Pyramid of Giza, built about 2560 BC, and Stonehenge, built about 2300BC. The use of timber for lintels probably developed in parallel with stone and was greatly assisted by the development of Bronze Age tools in the Middle East before 3000BC. Much later, the introduction of iron tools in the Iron Age after 1200BC greatly increased the ability to work both stone and timber.

Diagram showing the main forces associated with a lintel.

General. There are many different shapes of lintels, determined by the properties of the material and the purpose for which the lintel is required. Stone and timber lintels are generally rectangular in cross section. Concrete lintels are usually either rectangular, L shaped (known as boot lintels), or rectangular but with one vertical face sloping (used in cavity walls). The development of concrete and steel lintels, together with the fashion for larger windows introduced in the 1950s and extended further in the1960s, required the use of stronger lintels to carry the increased loads. Windows up to 2.4m wide were not uncommon in the 1960s. These larger spans in turn required more attention to be paid to the bearings at the ends of these lintels due to the greater loads from them onto the masonry below. Further developments in building introduced corner lintels, which act as cantilevers, box lintels, and eaves lintels. As steel lintels were developed designs for solid walls, and internal walls became available. To improve the thermal insulation properties and provide easier fixings for items such as curtain rails open back lintels were introduced. As timber frame houses grew in popularity with developers timber frame lintels made of steel appeared. In recent years the increased thermal insulation requirements have precluded the continued use of some types of lintels for the external walls of buildings e.g. concrete boot lintels. Others, such as steel lintels, have had their designs revised by the inclusion of insulation within the cavity space of the lintel. British Standards. The design and manufacture of lintels are covered by various British Standards. BS 5977 covers the Specification for Prefabricated Lintels, and BS 7543 The Durability of Buildings, Building Elements, Products and Components their design life. There are also material specific Standards for the main materials used for lintels. BS EN ISO 1461 covers the Hot Dipped Galvanising of steel lintels. BS 7973 covers the requirements for spacers that can be used in reinforced concrete lintels.

Materials. Stone. Stone lintels can be found made from a variety of, usually local, stone. Hard durable stone, such as granite, resists natural deteoriation well, but softer stone, such as limestone, can be significantly weathered away over time. In theory the stone has no tensile strength and thus cannot be proven by calculation to be adequate to support the load. Stone is also vulnerable to defects within it, and to fractures occurring either naturally, or as a result of the quarrying, transporting and placing of the stone, or as a result of loading or thermal movement. For layered stone, such as some limestones, the direction of the layering in the lintel can significantly affect its weathering and strength. Once the stone has fractured its actual strength can fall to zero. It would then require careful removal and replacement, with adequate temporary support for the masonry above, in order to restore the structural strength and support to the wall. Lintels can also be made from reconstructed stone, sometimes called cast stone. These are common in areas where the external face of the wall is built of a local stone e.g. the Purbeck area. Reconstructed stone lintels are usually reinforced with steel bar reinforcement of the type used for reinforced concrete lintels. However, the stone and the manufacturing process by casting can result in a porous texture in the lintel and this can allow moisture to reach and then corrode the steel reinforcement. The lintels then require replacement which can be an expensive process as they need to be specially manufactured to the same size and with the same or matching stone as the original ones. The use of stainless steel reinforcement in these lintels is very cost effective and preferred to plain steel reinforcement. The reinforcement should always be positioned using spacers complying with BS 7973.

7. What are the properties and uses of special cement? Write their advantages? 8. What are vertical and horizontal DPC?

1.