Objectives:

The objectives of this experiment is to know the effect of the frequency on the gain of a RC coupled amplifier and also to measure the input impedance , output impedance and phase relationships of the amplifier .

Equipments Required:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Bread board one unit Multimeter one unit Resistor 68k (2) ,33k (2) ,560 (2) ,470 (2) ,100 Capacitor (10F) four piece Oscilloscope one unit Signal generator one unit DC voltage sourse one unit n-p-n Transistor (C828) two pieces Chords and wire lot.

Circuit Diagram:

Data:

Frequency(kHz) 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 40 100 200 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Vi(peak) 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12

Vo(peak) 0.18 0.32 0.48 1.38 2.45 4.74 5.23 6.04 6.24 6.24 6.24 6.24 6.24 6.15 6.014 5.88

dB=10log(v0/vi) 1.76 4.26 6.02 10.6 13.1 15.97 16.8 17 17.16 17.16 17.16 17.16 17.16 17.1 17 16.9

Report: 1. The frequency response of the circuit is shown in the semilog graph paper. 2. The input impedance was 2.33k.
Current through 100 , I100 = 4 =1k Input impedance = 0.004 Putting the channel one connection in the 100 . We measured voltage and the current. Dividing the input voltage by this current we got the input impedance. To measure the output impedance we placed a potentiometer at the output and varying the resistance of potentiometer we made the output voltage half of its previous value. Then we measured the potentiometer impedance. We can say this as the output impedance of the amplifier. The output impedance was R0=24.8k. v 0 6.24 = = 52 The midband gain was Av = vi 0.12 The voltage across 100, V100= 0.4v (peak) Input voltage = 4V (peak) .4 A=0.004A . 100

3.

The output voltage V01 in the mid band was found to be 1.6V with a gain of 11.25dB. For the second stage the input voltage is 1.6V and the output voltage is 6.24V. So, gain in the second stage is 5.9dB. For overall calculation the output voltage is 6.24V and the 6.24 = 17.16dB .We input voltage 0.12V. Every value is in p-p. So the overall gain is 10 log 0.12 see that 11.25+5.9=17.15. So the overall gain is the summation of individual gain in dB.

4.
Phase Relationship:
From the analysis of the amplifier we see that when the input voltage increases, the base current also increases. As a result the current I c increases but the voltage V CE reduces. These are shown in the figure. From these diagram we see that the input voltage and output voltage

are out of phase by 180 o . From the circuit diagram we see the signal is fed at the input terminal (between base and emitter) and output is taken from collector and emitter end of supply. The total instantaneous output voltage: VCE =VCC- iCRC When signal voltage increases in the positive half cycle the base current also increases. The result is that collector current and hence voltage drop icRc increases. As VCC is constant, therefore output voltage VCE decreases. So, the output is 180 o out of phase with the input. The fact of phase reversal can be readily proved mathematically. That differentiating we get; dvCE= 0- diCRC dvCE = -RC diC From the negative sign in the upper equation we can also visualize it. So the phase angle between input and output of one stage of CE amplifier is 180 o . We had coupled two CE amplifiers in this experiment. The output of the first stage is fed as the input of the nest stage. So for the two stage the last output will 180 o 2 = 360o out of phase with the first input.

5.

In a multistage amplifier the output of one stage makes the input of the next stage. We should not the output terminals of one amplifier to the input terminals of the next amplifier directly. We must use a suitable coupling network between two stages so that a minimum loss of voltage occurs when the signal passes through this network to the next stage. Also, the dc voltage at the output of one stage should not be permitted to go to the input of the next. If it does the biasing conditions of the next stage are disturbed. The coupling network not only couples two stages; if also forms a part of the load impedance of the preceding stage. Thus the performance of the amplifier will also depend upon the type of coupling network used. The three generally used coupling schemes are: a) Resistance-Capacitance (RC) coupling b) Transformer coupling. c) Direct coupling.

Resistance-Capacitance (RC) coupling:

The signal developed across the collector resistor R C of the first stage is coupled to the base of the second stage through the capacitor C C. The coupling capacitor C C blocks the dc voltage of the first stage from reaching the base of the second stage. In this way the dc biasing of the next stage is not interfered with. Advantages: I. It has excellent frequency response. The gain is constant over the audio frequency range which is the region of most importance for speech, music etc. II. It has lower cost since it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap. III. The circuit is very compact as the modern resistors and capacitors are small and extremely light. Disadvantages: I. The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain. It is because the low resistance presented by the input of each stage to the preceding stage decreases the effective load resistance and hence the gain.

II. They have the tendency to become noisy with age, particularly in moist climates. III. Impedance matching is poor. It is because the output impedance of RC coupled amplifier is several hundred ohms whereas the input impedance of a speaker is only a few ohms. Hence, little power will be transfer to the speaker.

6.

As the frequency of the input signal increases, the gain of the amplifier reduces. Several factors are responsible for this reduction in gain. Firstly the beta ( ) of the transistor is frequency dependent. Its value decreases at high frequencies. Because of this the voltage gain of the amplifier reduces as the frequency increases.

Another important factor responsible for the reduction in gain of the amplifier at high frequencies is the presence of the device. In case of a transistor there exists some capacitance due to the formation of a depletion layer at the junctions. There is another type of capacitance occurs in transistor due to diffusion of minority carriers which is called the diffusion capacitance. These capacitances have no physical appearance; but are inherently present with the device. The capacitance C bc between the base and collector connects the output with the input. Because of this negative feedback takes place in the circuit and the gain decreases. This feedback effect is more, when the capacitance C bc provides a better

conducting path for the ac current. Such is the case at high frequencies. As the frequency increases, the reactive impedance of the capacitor becomes smaller. The capacitance C be offers a low-impedance path at high frequencies in the input side. This reduces the input impedance of the device and their effective input signal is reduced. So, the gain falls. Similarly, the capacitance Cce produces a shunting effect at high frequencies in the output side. Besides the junction capacitances there are wiring capacitance Cw1 and Cw2 as shown in the figure. THE connecting wires of the circuit are separated by air which serves as dielectric. This gives rise to some capacitance between the wires, though the capacitance value may be very small. But at high frequencies even these small capacitances (5 to 20 pF) become important. For a multi stage amplifier the effect of the capacitance Cce, Cw2 and the input capacitance Ci of the next stage can be represented by a single shunt capacitance Cs = Cce + Cw2 +Ci

Xcs = 2 fCs

The higher the frequency the lower is the impedance offered by Cs and lower will be the output voltage vo.

7.

The capacitor CE is connected across the emitter resistor R E. This capacitor is meant to bypass the ac current to ground. The impedance of the capacitor is quite low (as good as a short=circuit) in the mid-frequency range as well as in high-frequency range. Therefore at these frequencies the emitter is effectively grounded for ac current. However, as the frequency decreases the reactance of the capacitor CE comes comprisable the resistance RE. The bypassing action of the capacitor is no longer as good as at mid-band high-frequencies. The emitter is not at ground potential for ac. The emitter current ie divides into two parts i1 and i2. One part i1 passes through the resistor RE. The rest of the current i2 (= i e i1) passes through the capacitor CE. Due to current i1 in RE an ac voltage i 1RE is developed. Then the effective input voltage to the amplifier, which is the voltage between the base and emitter of the transistor becomes Vbe = vs i1RE The effective input voltage is thus reduced. The output voltage v o of the amplifier will vo now naturally be reduced. In other words the gain of the amplifier (= ) reduces. This vi reduction in gain occurs due to the inability of the capacitor CE to bypass ac current. The lower the frequency the higher is the impedance of the capacitor CE and greater is the reduction in gain.

8. In the second stage the bypass capacitor was not used. The reason is to reduce the gain. If
we add the bypass capacitor the gain will be so high that the signal swing of i c and VCE may be cutoff. Because in that case the amplitude is so high that the signal swing may go out of the active region. To see the output voltage low, keeping this high gain, we need to decrease the input signal amplitude. But out signal generators give distorted sine wave or signal for very low amplitude and the output not cutoff or distorted we need to reduce the gain. If we do not include the bypass capacitor we achieve it. When Vce, ic, ib, vbe signal swing have high amplitude then i b hence ic swing may be in the nonlinear input, output characteristics. So for pure sine wave in the input we may not get a pure sine wave in the output. For these reasons we needed in this experiment to reduce the gain. And by not using the bypass capacitor with negative feedback application we confirmed it.

Discussion:
A practical amplifier circuit is meant to raise the voltage level of the input signal. This signal may be obtained from the piezoelectric crystal of record player, the sound head of a tape recorder, the microphone in case PA system or from a detector circuit of a radio or TV receiver. Such a signal is not of a signal is not of a single frequency. But it considers of a band of frequencies. For example the electrical signal produced by the voice of human being or by a musical orchestra may contain frequencies as 30 Hz and as high as 15KHz. Such a signal is called audio signal. If the loudspeakers are to reproduce the original sound faithfully, the amplifier used must amplify all the frequency components of the signal equally well. If it does not do so the output of the loudspeakers will not be an exact replica of the original sound. There could be three kind of distortion in the output amplified signal. In practical situations the signal is not a simple sinusoidal voltage. It has a complex wave shape. Such a signal is equivalent to a signal obtained by adding a number of sinusoidal voltages of different frequencies. These sinusoidal voltages are called the frequency components of the signal. If all the frequency components of the signal are not amplified

equally well by the amplifier frequency distortion is said to occur. The cause for this distortion is non-constant gain for different frequency. Phase distortion is said to occur if the phase relationship between various frequency components making up the signal waveform is not the same in the output as in the input. It means that the time of transmission or the delay introduced by the amplifier is different for different frequencies. The reactive component of the circuit is responsible for causing this type of distortion. This distortion is objectionable in video amplifiers used in television. Harmonic distortion is said to occur when the output contains new frequency components that are not present in the input signal. This new frequencies are the harmonics of the frequencies present in the input. Harmonic distortion in an amplifier occurs because of the nonlinearity in the dynamic transfer characteristic curve. Hence this distortion is also called nonlinear distortion. If the input is a sinusoidal voltage the output is no longer a pure sine wave. This type of distortion is also sometimes called amplitude distortion.