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Biology Study Guide Exam 3

8.1 Like begets like, more or less.

Asexual reproduction: the creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent, without the participation of egg and sperm. In asexual reproduction, there is one simple principle of inheritance: lone parent and offspring have identical genes.

Sexual reproduction: offsprings produced by this method look more alike to its parents than to other unrelated individuals. Each offspring inherits a combination of genes from its parents, thus sexual reproduction can produce great variation among offsprings.

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8.2 Cells arise only from preexisting cells.

In 1838 German physician Rudolf Virchow stated: Where a cell exists, there must have been a preexisting cell. Perpetuation of life is based in the cell cycle. Cell division plays different roles: In unicellular organism can reproduce a new entire organism. On larger scale can allow multicellular organism to reproduce asexually. This is the base for sperm and egg formation. Also allow sexual reproducing organism to develop from a single cell into an adult organism. Serves as renewal and repair of cells that die.

8.3 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary ssion.

Prokaryotic cells divides by binary ssion ( dividing in half). Its chromosomes are much smaller than eukaryotics, duplicating them in an orderly fashion and distributing the copies equally into two daughter cells. Process:

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1. As chromosomes is duplicating, one copy moves toward the opposite end of the cell. 2. Cell elongates while the process occurs. 3. When duplication is complete, and the bacterium has reach twice its size, the plasma membrane grows inward, diving into two daughter cells.

8.4 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate which each cell division.

Eukaryotic chromosomes are much larger than prokaryotics. Humans carry 25,000 genes, v. About 3,000 of a bacterium. In the nucleus the chromosomes exist in a material called chromatin, whichs combination of DNA and proteins.

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Eukaryotic chromosomes include some proteins that give structure and control activity of its genes. Humans have 46 chromosomes.

Well before the cell begin to divide, each chromosomes is copied. The result is called sister chromatids, which contained identical copies of the DNA. The two chromatids are joined together at a tightly narrow waist called the centromere. When a cell divides, the sister chromatids of a duplicated chromosomes separate from each other

8.5 The cells cycle multiples cells.

Cell division is the basis of reproduction for every organism. Enables a multicellular organism to grow to adult size. Also replaces worn-out cells or damaged one. Keep the total number of cell in a mature individual in constant balance.

Humans have around 100 trillion cells. Some divides once a day, other less often. Other almost never divide like muscle cells. Cell cycle: an ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is srt formed from a dividng parent cell until its own dividon into two cells. Consists of two stages: A growing stage (interphase) during which the cell doubles everything in its cytoplasm and duplicates the chromosomal DNA. Actual cell division called mitosis.

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Most of the cell cycle is spent in the interphase. During this stage: The cell increases its supplies of proteins. Creates more cytoplasmatic organelles. Grow in size. Chromosomes duplicates.
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

Interphase is divided into three sub phases:

G1 phase (rst gap) S phase G2 phase (second gap)

During all sub phases cell grows. Chromosomes are duplicated only in S phase. S stands for synthesis of DNA. At the beginning of this stage all DNA is single, but at the end DNA chromosomes are doubled. The mitotic phase is the part of the cell when it divides. This phases is divided into mitosis and cytokinesis. In Mitosis the nucleus divides and in Cytokinesis the cytoplasm is divided in two. Each newly produced daughter cell may then proceed through G1 and repeat the cycle.This is unique to eukaryotic cells.

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes

Mitosis is divided into: 1. Prophase 2. Pro-metaphase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase

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5. Telophase

Chromosomes movement depends on the mitotic spindle, a football-shaped structure of microtubules that guide the separation of sets of daughter cells. They emerged from the centrosomes. The absence of these structures do not thwart the process. Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for cell division. In preparation for cell division, it increases its size and makes a copy of its DNA, which is made during the S phase. Interphase is also considered to be the 'living' phase of the cell, in which the cell obtains nutrients, grows, reads its DNA, and conducts other "normal" cell functions. The majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of their time in interphase.

Prophase is a stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into double rod-shaped structures called chromosomes in which the chromatin becomes visible. This process, called chromatin condensation, is mediated by the condensing complex. Since the genetic material has been replicated in the prior interphase of the cell cycle, there are two identical copies of each chromosome in the cell. Those copies are called sister chromatids and they are attached to each other at a DNA element present on every chromosome called the centromere.

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Prometaphase is the phase of mitosis following prophase and preceding metaphase, in eukaryotic somatic cells. Prometaphase is sometimes simply included as part of the end of prophase and early metaphase. In prometaphase, the nuclear membrane breaks apart into numerous "membrane vesicles", and the chromosomes inside form protein structures called kinetochores. Kinetochore microtubules emerging from the centrosomes at the poles (ends) of the spindle reach the chromosomes and attach to the kinetochores , throwing the chromosomes into agitated motion

Metaphase is a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which condensed and highly coiled chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells. Metaphase accounts for approximately 4% of the cell cycle's duration[citation needed. Preceded by events in prometaphase and followed by anaphase, microtubules formed in prophase have already found and attached themselves to kinetochores in metaphase. In metaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene themselves on the metaphase plate (or equatorial plate),an imaginary line that is equidistant from the

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two centrosome poles.

Anaphase is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes are split and the sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell. Anaphase accounts for approximately 1% of the cell cycle's duration. It begins with the regulated triggering of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition.

Telophase is the nal stage in both meiosis and mitosis in a eukaryotic cell. During telophase, the effects of prophase and prometaphase (the nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrating) are reversed. Two daughter nuclei form in each daughter cell, and phosphatases de-phosphorylate the nuclear lamins at the ends of the cell, forming nuclear envelopes around each nucleus.Two theories as to how this happens are Vesicle fusionWhen fragments of the nuclear membrane fuse to rebuild the nuclear membrane

Reshaping of the endoplasmic reticulumwhere the parts of the endoplasmic reticulum containing absorbed nuclear membrane envelop the nuclear space, reforming a closed membrane.

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8.7 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells.

Cytokinesis is the division of the cell in two. Begins during telophase, although it can begin in late anaphase. In animal cells this process occurs as cleavage. The rst sign of these its the appearance of the cleavage furrow: a shallow groove in the cell surface. At the site the cytoplasm has a ring of microlaments made of actin, associated with molecules of the protein myosin.

Cytokinesis is different in plant cell division. During telophase, vesicles containing cell wall material collect at the middle of the parent cell. The vesicle fuse forming the cell plate. The cell plate grows outward. Eventually the cell plate fuse with the plasma membrane and that results in the production of two daughter cells.

8.8 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors affect cell division

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Cells need to control its growth to properly maintain the equilibrium. In lab test was found that: Cells fail to divide if an essential nutrient is left out. Mammalian cell only grows with an specic growth factor.

A growth factor is a protein secreted by certain body cells that stimulates other cells to divide. Different cell types respond specically to certain growth factors. Physical factors can be observed in density-dependent inhibition, a phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing. Studies shows that physical contact of cell-surface proteins between adjacent cells is responsible for inhibiting cell division. Also anchorage dependence is seen. They must be in contact with a solid surface to divide.

8.9 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system

Most cell are anchored and surrounded by nutrients. Yet they not undergo division unless signaled by other cells. The cell cycle controls system is a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle. Cell cycle is not like falling dominoes. Theyre set by controls inside the cell itself. A checkpoint in the cell cycle is critical. Animals cell generally have built-in stop signals that halt the cell cycle at checkpoint until overridden by by go-ahead signals.

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Major checkpoint in cell cycle: During the G1 and the G2

And the M phase

Intracellular signals detected by the control system tell whether key cellular processes up to each point have been completed and thus wether or not the cell cycle should proceed past that point. Also recieves messages from outside the cell. For most cell the G1 point is the most critical. When the cell does not past the G1 the cell exit the cell cycle and enters the G0 phase. This stage is non-dividing which is where nerve and muscle cells are.

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8.10 Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors

Cancer is a disease of the cell cycle. The cells divides with no control and if unchecked it can lead to the killing of the organism. The process begins when a normal cell undergoes transformation. The bodys immune system recognizes the threat and gets rid of it. If the cell evades destruction it turns into a tumor: abnormally growing mass in the body. If the lump remains in the same place it is called a benign tumor. If it is not, it is called then a malignant tumor.

The spreading of cancer cell is called metastasis. Cancer is named after the place is formed. Carcinomas: originated in the external or internal covering of the body. ( skin or lining of the intestine) Sarcoma: arise in tissues that support the body.(bone and muscle) Leukemia and Lymphomas: are blood related.(blood, bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes)

Cancer cells: Do not exhibit density-dependent inhibition Continue to divide even at high densities May have defective cell cycle control system

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Synthesize factors that allow them to grow out of control In culture they are immortal, can divided as long as they have supply of nutrients

8.12 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs.

Typical cell in the human body is called a somatic cell and have 46 chromosomes. Overall they are 23 pairs of sister chromatids. Two chromosomes composing a pair are called homologous chromosomes. Theyre called that way because both carry the genes of the same inherited characteristics.

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The genes that determines a characteristic pattern is located in a particular place , or locus, ( plural loci) on one chromosome.

The two chromosomes X and Y are an exception. Female have XX and males XY. Only small parts of X and Y are homologous. Theyre called the sex chromosomes. The other 22 pairs are called autosomes.In a pair one come from the mother and the other from the father.

8.13 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes.

Any cell with the total number of chromosomes is called a diploid cell, and the total of chromosomes is called the diploid number. ( abbreviated 2n) For humans the diploid number is 46, 2n=46. All cells in human body are diploid except the egg and sperm. Theyre known as the gametes. Each one has a single set of 22 autosomes chromosomes, plus a single chromosomes X or Y. A cell with a single chromosomes is called a haploid cell. Fertilization: the fusion of the sperm with the egg. The result is called the zygote, whichs diploid. Gametes are made by meiosis, which occurs only in reproductive organs. Meiosis only produce a daughter cell with half of chromosomes.

8.14 Meiosis

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8.15 Mitosis and Meiosis have important similarities and differences

All events unique in meiosis occur during meiosis I. In prophase I, duplicated homologous pair to form tetrads, four chromatids, which each pair of sister chromatids joined at their centromeres.

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