IP Topology

Internetworking Overview
Table of contents
Chapter 1
Introduction to Internetworking
Chapter 2
LAN Technologies
Chapter 3
Bridging
Chapter 4
Routing
Chapter 5
WAN Technologies
Chapter 6
ATM
Chapter 7
Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Chapter 1 Introduction to Internetworking
Chapter 1 Introduction to Internetworking

Chapter Objectives - At the end of this chapter students will be able to describe:
The difference between LANs and WANs
Internetworking Concepts The role of the Standards Organisations Proprietary & De-Facto Standards The OSI - 7 Layer Model Repeaters Vs Bridges/Switches Vs Routers
Ericsson Systems Expertise

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/1
1-1
Local Area Networks (LANs)

Method of connecting computer devices to enable users to share resources, for example, printers & file servers. Geographically bounded, for example, office building or campus High communications speeds (Mbps) Very low error rate A single cable system or medium for multiple attached devices
1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/2
Resource sharing The following are commonly shared and available for all users on a LAN to access: printers, file servers, database servers, mail servers, and application servers. Geographically bounded LAN technologies are designed to be used within an area of restricted size, typically a single building or campus. High communication speeds LANs were developed with speeds in excess of 1 Mbps for example 4Mbps and 16Mbps for Token Ring, 10 Mbps for Ethernet. With the advent of new technologies such as ATM, and improvements to existing ones such as Fast and Gigabit Ethernet, speeds in excess of 100 Mbps are now possible. Very low Error rate Most LAN protocols do little or no error checking and this is one of the design elements that permits their higher speeds. Single cable system or medium for multiple attached devices All devices function as if they were adjacent to each other. This implies that no special routing capabilities are required for communications traffic travelling from one device to another; just put the information on the LAN, and it will reach its destination.
1-2
Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Method of connecting networks and computer devices to enable users to share resources, for example, Web Services. No distance limitations Speed lower than that of a LAN

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/3
Resource sharing WANs connect together LANs so that the network resources of each LAN are available to all users irrespective of their location . Typically these resources include printers, file servers, database servers, mail servers, and application servers. Distance There are no distance limitations in WANs. Lower speeds Wide area analogue communications typically experience approximately one error in 10^6 bits transmitted. In a typical WAN protocol stack, error checking takes place at multiple levels of the stack. This requires both additional bits in the transmitted frame and additional processing time at both ends. This additional overhead contributes to reducing the speed available on WANs. Also the financial cost of high speeds WANs prevents them from being widely implemented.
1-3
Internetworking Concepts
Network A
Network B
Internetworking is the connection of multiple LANs or Network Segments together.
Network C
Network D

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/4
Internetworking refers to the connecting together of two or more networks, either LANs, WANs, or a mixture of the two. Companies typically have a mix of computing and communication systems that come from different vendors and have widely differing characteristics. The equipment may be sited at disparate locations around the world and the end-users will normally have a variety of different requirements. Normally users rapid access to information is a major requirement. It is vital to connect all of an organisations data networks together so that information sources and decision makers can communicate without unnecessary delay.
1-4
Why Internetwork?
Interconnect individual department LANs Interconnect between buildings - cost reasons Physical distance between devices is too great Reduce the load and improve performance Reliability Security

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5
Historically each department in an organisation sets up its own computer system and method of sharing information. As networks evolved it soon became obvious that there were many advantages to sharing information between departments. Rather than run a network backbone cable from one building to another, for example, coaxial cable, it may be cheaper to segment the network and interconnect them with fiber optic devices. There are distance limitations on all LAN types, for example, an Ethernet network based on thick-wire coaxial cable cannot exceed 500m and continue to operate. If the distance between two devices exceeds this, an internetworking device will be required to allow them to communicate. The greater the number of devices on a network the poorer the performance as they are all competing for the same limited amount of bandwidth. If a network is segmented into smaller networks then the probability of one corrupt device bringing down the network is reduced Internetworking devices can be configured to prevent users in one particular area accessing information in another.
1-5
Standards Organisations
ITU - International Telecommunications Union (formerly known as CCITT) IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers ANSI - American National Standards Institute FORUMS ISO - International Standards Organisation

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/6
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) - plays a large role in international standards development in the WAN. The ITU is responsible for all the V & X series recommendations e.g X25 protocol Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) - is responsible for the LAN standards such as IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring standard. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) - is primarily responsible for standardising anything that happens in the U.S. data communications industry. Forums - are formed when a number of big companies form partnerships to determine how a new technology concept, for example, ATM, should develop. International Standards Organisation (ISO) - is best known for developing the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) seven layer model. The members of the ISO are from the national standards organisations of the 89 member countries. The ISO has issued over 5000 standards.
1-6
Proprietary & De-Facto Standards Proprietary Standards

Not ratified by ISO Manufacturer specific Examples: Novell, DECnet, SNA
De-Facto
Not ratified by ISO Widely used in industry Supported by large number of manufacturers Example: TCP/IP

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/7
Any technology that can only be acquired through one manufacturer is classed as proprietary. The main drawback to proprietary products in a network is that if any additions or changes are required in the network, products from the same manufacturer have to be purchased, so that the same protocols can be used. Examples of proprietary protocols include IBM SNA, DECnet, and Novell Netware. A De-facto protocol/standard is one which is not ratified as part of the Open Systems model as designed by the ISO. However a standard attains de-facto status if it is used widely by the industry, and the products (hardware or software) can be purchased from a range of suppliers. The main de-facto system used in many networks is TCP/IP.
1-7
OSI - 7 Layer Model

APPLICATION PRESENTATION SESSION TRANSPORT NETWORK DATA LINK PHYSICAL
1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/8
Interfaces directly with application programs running on the devices. Provides code conversion and data reformatting. Co-ordinates interaction between end-to-end application processes. Provides end-to-end data integrity and quality of service. Switches and routes information to the appropriate network device. Transfers units of information to the other end of the physical link. Transmits/Receives on the network medium
The Physical Layer defines the type of medium, the transmission method, and the transmission rates available for the network. The Data Link Layer defines how the network medium is accessed: which protocols are used, the packet/framing methods, and the virtual circuit/connection services. The Network Layer standardises the way in which addressing is accomplished between linked networks. The Transport Layer handles the task of reliable message delivery and flow control between applications on different devices. The Session Layer establishes two-way communication between applications running on different devices on the network. The Presentation layer translates data formats so that devices with different languages can communicate The Application Layer interfaces directly with the application programs running on the devices. It provides services such as file access and transfer, peer-to-peer communication among applications, and resource sharing.
1-8
OSI - 7 Layer Model Analogy to Telephone System

APPLICATION PRESENTATION SESSION TRANSPORT NETWORK DATA LINK PHYSICAL
1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/9
The conversation , for example, Order tickets by credit card Built in translator, for example, French and English speaker Dialogue Management - Prevents both people speaking
Ensures the voice message is delivered correctly.
Determines where your call is going Format of telephone numbers and busy signals Copper & Fiber Optic Cabling, etc.
The Physical layer is the cabling, microwave dishes and satellites used throughout the world to link a phone to all other devices on the telephone system. It also includes the wiring into your house or office and the phone hardware. The Data Link Layer defines the format of telephone numbers, and busy signals. These parameters determine how you access the telephone lines from your phone. The Network Layer determines where your call is going, whether it is to the next building, the next town, or another country. This layer provides a sequence of numbers that indicates to the system the unique identity of the other phone you are trying to reach. The Transport layer arranges the data timeslots in order so that they are delivered in sequence. The Session Layer manages the conversation. It prevents both people from speaking at the same time. The Presentation Layer would be the equivalent of a built-in translator so that a French person could speak in French but be heard in English by an English speaker and vice-versa. The Application Layer can now be used as you are speaking to and understanding the person youve called. At this point you can carry out the required transaction , for example, ordering tickets by credit card.
1-9
OSI - 7 Layer Model & Internetworking Devices

SYSTEM A
A P Data
SYSTEM B
A P Data
Data Data
Data Data
Data
Data
N D
Data Data
Router Bridge Repeater

D
Data Data
101100011110101010010
101100011110101010010

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/10
Each layer operates independently of the others using a method referred to as encapsulation. At the sending device each layer receiving data from the layer above will process the data, add its own protocol header and transfer the data block to the layer below. The layer below will simply treat the data as a data block, it will not try to understand its meaning. The block will be processed by the layer, which adds its own protocol header and then passes the larger data block to the layer below. At the receiving device the reverse happens. When the data arrives, the first layer processes its peer header and then passes the data to the layer above which carries out the same action. Ultimately, the application data originally sent by the sending device will arrive at the receiving application. Routers operate at the network layer. They connect networks into internetworks that are physically unified, but in which each network retains its identity as a separate network environment. Bridges operate at the Data link layer. They connect network environments into logical and physical single internetworks. Repeaters operate at the Physical layer. They receive transmissions (bits) on a LAN segment and regenerate the bits to boost a degraded signal and extend the length of the LAN segment.
1-10
Repeaters v Bridges/Switches v Routers
Network Segment A
Network Segment A
Network Segment A
REPEATER
BRIDGE or SWITCH
ROUTER
C.D.
Network Segment B
B.D. C.D.
Network Segment B
B.D.
C.D.
Network Segment B
B.D.
Single Broadcast Domain Single Collision Domain
Single Broadcast Domain Two Separate Collision Domains
Two Separate Broadcast Domains Two Separate Collision Domains

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/11
To understand one of the key differences between internetworking products it is essential to appreciate what a collision domain and a broadcast domain is and the effect that each of the products has on these domains. Collision Domain - If two devices within the domain attempt to transmit simultaneously the packets will collide and re-transmission will occur. Broadcast Domain - If a device sends out a Network layer broadcast, for example, ARP request, it will be received by all devices within the same broadcast domain. Repeaters only regenerate the signal. They do not in anyway reduce network collisions or broadcast traffic. Bridges (and Switches) reduce the number of collision on the network by breaking the network into smaller segments. Two devices on either side of a bridge can put traffic on the LAN simultaneously and they will never collide with each other. (Note: A LAN switch is effectively a high-speed bridge and the details in this chapter apply to both devices) Routers like bridges reduce the number of collisions. In addition to this they stop network broadcast traffic, thus reducing the amount of traffic on each segment.
1-11
Summary
In Chapter One we discussed the difference between LANs and WANs and the reasons behind why an enterprise might want to internetwork. We discussed the different Standards Organisations, and the difference between proprietary and de-facto standards. We looked at the OSI 7 Layer model and spoke about its importance in internetworking. We looked at 3 different internetworking devices, namely repeaters, bridges and routers, and discussed their differences, and the consequences of using one rather than the other.
1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/12
1-12
Chapter 2 LAN Technologies
Chapter 2 LAN Technologies

l Chapter Objectives - After completing this chapter you will understand the essentials of:
l l l l l l
Ethernet and its access media Carrier Sense Multiple Access /Collision Detection access method Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet FDDI Wireless LANs

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/1
2-1
Network Topologies
Bus -
one continuous piece of cable, for example, Ethernet.
Ring - two ends of cable meet to form a complete circle,

for example, Token Ring.
Star -
a central hub with nodes stretching outwards, for example, ATM.

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/2
The topology of a network concerns the physical configuration of the devices and the cables that connect them. A network that uses a bus topology usually consists of a single cable to which network devices are attached. Any device attached to a bus can send a signal down the cable, and all devices can receive the signal. Ethernet is a typical network technology that employs the bus topology. In a network that uses a ring topology the computers are arranged in a closed loop. A cable connects the first device to a second device; another cable connects the second device to a third device, and so on until a cable connects the final device to the first. All information being passed around the network will pass through each network device. In a star topology all network devices are attached to a central point usually called a concentrator. The star topology has one single point of failure, if the concentrator fails to operate then none of the devices on the network can communicate, as all information must pass through the concentrator.
2-2
Bus Topology
Sending device (transmits bits of a frame)
Signal propagates along the entire cable Bus
Destination device (receives a copy of each bit)
Example: Ethernet
2/038 13 LUZBB 108116/3
A network that uses a bus topology usually consists of a single cable to which network devices are attached. Any device attached to a bus can send a signal down the cable, and all devices can receive the signal. What is Ethernet? The Oxford Dictionary defines it as: A system of communication for local area networks by coaxial cable that prevents simultaneous transmission by more than one station. Ethernet is a typical network technology that employs the bus topology. The Ethernet technology is a broadcast network which means that if a device wants to send a message over the network to another device, then all the devices connected to that network will also receive the message. Each device will check the message to determine if it is the required destination. If it is, then the message will be passed further into the device for processing.
2-3
Ethernet Access Media

Name 10Base5 10Base2 10baseT 10BaseF Cable Thick Coaxial Thin Coaxial Twisted Pair Fibre Optic Max Segment length 500 m 185 m 100 m 2 km Nodes per segment 100 30 1024 1024

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/4
There are several different Ethernet access media available, these include 10Base5, 10Base2 10BaseT and 10BaseF. The original medium for Ethernet is 10Base5. This is coaxial cable that is 1/2 inch in diameter with a centre wire. 10Base5 denotes the following: 10Mbps operation, baseband signalling and a maximum segment span of 500 (5*100) meters. This is also referred to as thick Ethernet. 10Base2 is smaller and more flexible than 10base5, and is sometimes called cheapnet, or thin-wire Ethernet. The maximum cable length is 185m and devices must have a space of 0.5m between them. This type of cable is easier to install than the thicker cable. On the other hand, the thinner cable suffers from greater noise resistance and attenuation. Most baseband coaxial cable use a special 50-ohm cable. This value refers to the impedance of the cable. Roughly speaking, impedance is the measure of the voltage which must be applied to the cable to achieve a given signal strength.
2-4
A LAN may be constructed entirely of twisted pair. The IEEE standard describing twisted pair is 10BaseT. There has been an increasing interest in the use of twisted pair as a transmission medium for LANs in recent years. One driving force behind this is that twisted pair is less expensive than coaxial cable. It is cheaper and easier to isolate problems. For example if the cable from the station to the hub fails it does not affect the other stations, as is the case with coaxial cable. The main reason why twisted pair is becoming so popular is because virtually all office buildings are equipped with spare twisted pairs, and these can be utilised when deploying LANs. 10baseF uses fibre optic cable. This alternative is expensive due to the cost of the connectors and terminators but it has excellent noise immunity and is ideal when running between buildings or widely separated network devices
2-5
CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection Listen Wait Send & Listen
Access All Terminals Detect Calculate Send

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5
Ethernet uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This means that any device can gain access to the network at any time. If a device wants to transmit data, it first listens to the network. If it hears nothing, then it will transmit. If two devices want to transmit simultaneously, they will both listen, hear no sound and transmit, a collision will then occur. The device must then wait for a random amount of time for the cable to become idle again before retransmitting the frame. However if the devices begin to transmit at the same time again another collision will occur. To avoid multiple collisions Ethernet requires each device to delay after a collision before attempting to retransmit. The main drawback to CSMA/CD is that it is impossible to calculate how long a device will have to wait before it can transmit.
2-6
Ethernet Frame Format

Number of bytes:
1
s f
2
Type
46-1500 Data
4 fcs
Preamble o
Destination Source Address Address
SOF = Start of frame FCS = Frame check sequence
Minimum frame size = 64 bytes Maximum frame size = 1518 bytes

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/6
The preamble is a field with an alternating pattern of ones and zeros. The preamble tells the receiving station that the frame is coming. The next field is the start of frame. This frame is used to synchronise the frame reception parts of all stations on the LAN. The destination and source addresses, both 6 bytes long, are next. The source address is always unicast but the destination address can be either unicast, multicast or broadcast. The type field specifies which layer protocol should receive the data when Ethernet processing is complete. The data field is next. This field contains the actual data that is to be transmitted. If the data is insufficient to fill up the frame (minimum size 64 bytes) then it will be filled out with padding bits. The final field is frame check sequence, which is used for error checking. The sending device calculates a number and sends it to the receiving device. The receiving device recalculates the number and, in this way, they can determine if an error has occurred.
2-7
Fast Ethernet
l Faster version of Ethernet - 100mbps l Identical frame format to Ethernet l Backwards compatible l Bit time is reduced from 100nsec to 10nsec

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/7
To date we have been discussing conventional Ethernet, its access media and one method used to overcome the problem of only a single station having access to the LAN at a time. Now we will look at solutions used to speed up the transmission rates. Fast Ethernet runs at 100Mbps as opposed to 10Mbps of Ethernet. Many organisations want faster networks but do not want to change all their hardware (which would be the case if they were to use alternative technologies, for example,FDDI). The perfect solution is to upgrade to Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet is backwards compatible so there is no need to change existing hardware and thus the cost of increased bandwidth is reduced to a reasonable price. Since the bit-time is reduced from 100nsec to10nsec it takes less time to transmit or receive data thus resulting in faster speeds. Fast Ethernet is good if you want to upgrade the general performance of your network, but if you have a specific high bandwidth requirement such as video conferencing perhaps gigabit Ethernet would be a better choice.
2-8
Fast Ethernet Transmission Media
Name
100 Base-TX 100 Base-T4 100 Base-FX
Cable Type
2 pair (category 5 UTP or STP) 4 pair UTP cable Fibre Optic Cable
Max Segment Length

100 m 100 m 2000 m

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/8
There are a number of different transmission media which can be used for Fast Ethernet. They all use two physical links between nodes, one for transmission and one for reception. 100Base - TX is a two-pair system for data grade (category 5) UTP or STP cabling. 100Base - T4 is a four-pair system for both voice and data grade (category 3,4 or 5) UTP cabling. It is a lower cost alternative. To achieve 100mbps over lower-quality cable, 100Base - T4 uses four twisted pair lines between nodes, with data transmission making use of three pairs in one direction at a time. 100Base - FX uses two optical fibres, one for transmission and one for reception.
2-9
Gigabit Ethernet
l Latest extension to Ethernet l 1000mbps - 10 fold increase in speed on Fast Ethernet l Compatible with existing Ethernet

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/9
Gigabit Ethernet is the next step in Ethernet. It runs at a speed of 1000mbps which is a 10-fold increase on Fast Ethernet. Like Fast Ethernet, it is also backward compatible. It was originally designed to transport data traffic over packet-based networks and Gigabit Ethernet is the next logical step. Gigabit Ethernet is attractive for 2 main reasons: It preserves Ethernet simplicity. It supports a very high bandwidth. The demand for gigabit speeds in the backbone is driven by the rapid deployment of Fast Ethernet to the desktop. It is a misconception that gigabit per second traffic is required to justify gigabit Ethernet. In fact gigabit Ethernet makes sense anywhere users simply require more than 100mbps throughput. This is commonplace in enterprises. Gigabit Ethernet does not, however, support real-time voice and video traffic, and it cannot deliver specific bit rates or deliver Quality of Service (QOS). Gigabit Ethernet is a familiar technology so investments in hardware and personnel are protected. It is also more sophisticated than Fast Ethernet and therefore will require more training and support.
2-10
FDDI
Ethernet
Token Ring
100mbps FDDI Ring
Workstation
2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/10
Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), is a high performance fibre optic LAN running at 100Mbps. It is used as a backbone to connect copper LANs and it is also used for high-speed office networks. It is used because of its reliability and its capacity. The main problem with it is that it uses different wiring and different hubs from Ethernet.
2-11
FDDI
SECONDARY
PRIMARY
Thru State
2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/11
Wrap State
The protocol for FDDI is modelled on the token ring, that is, the device must have the token in order to transmit. The major difference is that a device can put a new token onto the ring as soon as it has finished transmitting. This means that in a large ring several tokens can coexist. Data travels on the primary ring in a counter-clockwise direction. The primary ring carries the token, data and control information. All devices on the network are connected to the primary ring. Data travelling on the secondary ring rotates clockwise. The secondary ring is generally used for automatic recovery in the event of a ring failure. When both rings are fully functional a thru state exists. When a break on the primary ring occurs, the devices on either side of the break join the primary and secondary rings in a configuration called wrap state. Similarly if a device on the ring fails, the devices on either side of it join the primary and secondary rings together, also forming a wrap state.
2-12
Single Attachment/Dual Attachment Stations

SAS concentrator
concentrator
DAS
concentrator Back-up link
concentrator Primary link
SAS
Dual homed station e.g. router

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/12
Network devices which connect to an FDDI network are divided into two categories: concentrators and end stations There are two types of end stations available in FDDI: Single Attachment Stations (SAS) and Dual Attachment Stations (DAS). The Single Attachment Station contains one FDDI attachment. It is connected to one ring, normally the primary ring, and therefore does not participate in wrapping, that is, the removal of a station from the network, if failure occurs. The Dual Attachment Station contains two FDDI attachments. It can attach to both the primary and secondary rings and can participate in ring wrapping if failure occurs. A DAS can be connected directly to the FDDI network or a concentrator. Since there are two connections in Dual Attachments, it is possible to use one of the links as a backup link. This is called dual homing, and is often used for mission-critical situations.
2-13
FDDI
Number of bytes
8
preamble
2/6
2/6 SA
<4500 DATA
4 FCS ED
2 FS
SD FC DA
SD = Start-frame delimiter FC = Frame control DA = Destination address SA = Source address

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/13
FCS = Frame-check sequence ED = Ending delimiter FS = Frame status

The preamble synchronises the frame with each stations clock. The start delimiter, as the name suggests, indicates the start of the frame. The frame control bit tells what kind of frame this is: data or control, etc The destination address specifies which station the frame is destined for. The source address gives the address of the sending device. The information field contains information related to the control operation. The frame check sequence is the field that checks whether the data has been received correctly. The end delimiter marks the end of the frame. The frame status take care of acknowledgement so that the sending device knows if the frame as been read or not and if not, why. A comparison between this frame and the Token Ring frame shows that they are very similar. However, FDDI is more flexible and it contains no priority or reservation bits.
2-14
Wireless LANs (wLAN)

l What are they and how do they work ? l Features l Configurations l Technologies

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/14
A wireless LAN is a flexible data communications system implemented as an extension to, or as an alternative for, a wired LAN, using radio frequency (RF) technology. Wireless LANs are becoming widely recognised as a general purpose connectivity alternative for a broad range of business customers. For example, wLANs are particularly useful in the following contexts: in logistics, hospitals, colleges, and to assist decision making in remote locations. Wireless LANs are also a cost-effective solution for extending networks in older buildings. Wireless LANs use electromagnetic waves, either radio or infrared, to communicate between two points. Data being transmitted is superimposed on the carrier signal and can be accurately extracted at the receiving end.This process is known as modulation of the carrier by the data being transmitted. With radio transmission multiple carriers can coexist in the same space without interfering with each other provided the information is transmitted on different frequencies. A typical wireless LAN consists of a transmitter/receiver (transceiver), also called an access point (AP), and one or more end-users. At its simplest an access point receives, buffers and transmits data between the wireless LAN and the wired network. A single access point can support multiple users from a distance of 30m-100m . End-users access the wireless network via wireless LAN adapters. The adapters are implemented as PC cards in laptops and palmtop computers, as network cards in desktop computer, or are integrated into hand-held computers.
2-15
Features of Wireless LANs

l Mobility and Coverage l Throughput l Simplicity and Reliability l Interference and Compatibility l Security l Reduced Cost of Ownership

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/15
The Features of a wireless LAN are: 1. Mobility and Coverage: Wireless LANs give users real-time access to information anywhere in the organization. Typical wireless LANs have a coverage of 30m to 100m and the range can be extended through microcells and mobility achieved via roaming. 2. Throughput: Bit rates for the most widespread commercial wireless LANs are approximately 1.6 Mbps. This is sufficient to provide throughput for e-mail, shared server services, Internet access, multi-user databases and multi-user application access. It is worth noting here that state-of-the-art V.90 modems operate at 56.6 Kbps of throughput. This is almost thirty times slower than the wireless LAN. 3. Simplicity and Reliability: Installation is quick and easy and there is no need to pull cables through walls and ceilings. The wireless network can go where wire cannot. Wireless LANs can be configured in a wide variety of application-specific configurations. Troubleshooting and pre-configuration, at remote locations prior to the installation of entire networks, enhance their reliability.
2-16
4. Interference and Compatibility: Due to the lack of licensing in wireless LANs other unrelated products, such as microwave ovens, can transmit at the same frequency and cause interference to the system. Another concern is co-location of proprietary wireless LANs, i.e. LANs from different manufacturers. Some interfere with others while some coexist without interference. 5. Security: Since wireless technology is rooted in military applications, it is extremely difficult for eavesdroppers to listen in on wireless LAN traffic. Sophisticated encryption techniques are used to achieve very high levels of security. Generally a user must be a recognised member of the network to use it. 6. Reduced Cost-of Ownership: While initial costs may be higher than for a wired LAN, overall installation costs and life-cycle expenses can be significantly lower for two reasons. Wireless LANs eliminate the direct costs of cabling and labour. Due to the simplicity of alterations to the network, the indirect costs of user downtime and administration are significantly reduced.
2-17
Configurations for Wireless LANs
Client and Access Point
AP
Peer -to -Peer

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/16
Wireless LANs have two main configurations Peer-to-Peer: Two PCs with wireless adapter cards can set up an independent network when they are within range of each other. This is the most basic configuration for a wireless LAN. Client and Access Point: Access point installation can effectively double the range at which devices can communicate. An access point is connected to a wired network and can accommodate many clients. In many real-world applications a single access point can service 15-50 client devices.Access point range is typically 100 m indoors and 300 m outdoors. Multiple Access Points and Roaming: This is a variation of the client access point topology. The coverage of the access point is extended by installing more than one access point, thus ensuring blanket coverage of the required area. The ability to move about the network without interruption is known as roaming. Extension Points and Directional Antennae: As the names suggest an extension point extends a network to areas where normal coverage is extremely difficult. Directional antennae are used to extent the network between two buildings which are geographically separated. These are also variations on the client-access point topology.
2-18
Wireless LAN Technologies

l Narrowband l Spread Spectrum - Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) - Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) l Infra-Red

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/17
Narrowband: Such a radio system transmits and receives information on a specific frequency. The radio frequency is maintained as narrow as possible so as to pass the information only. Crosstalk is avoided by carefully coordinating different users on different channels. The main drawback for the customer is licensing, each site employing narrowband radio must have a license. Spread Spectrum: Spread spectrum is designed to trade bandwidth efficiency for reliability, integrity and security, i.e. more bandwidth is used than for narrowband transmission but the signal produced is louder and easier to detect, provided the receiver knows the parameters of the spread spectrum signal transmission. If a receiver is not tuned to the right frequency then the signal is received as background noise. There are two types of spread spectrum radio signals: FREQUENCY HOPPING and DIRECT SEQUENCE. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): This technology uses a narrowband carrier which changes frequency in a pattern known to both the transmitter and receiver, the net effect of which is to maintain a single logical channel. To all other receivers the FHSS appears as short noise pulses. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): DSSS generates a redundant bit pattern, called a chip, for each bit to be transmitted. The longer the chip the better the chance of recovering the original data. Even if one or more bits is damaged during transmission, algorithms in the receiver can recover the original data without re-transmission.
2-19
To all other receivers DSSS appears as low-power wideband noise and is ignored by narrowband receivers. The main disadvantage of this technology is that the bigger the chip used the more bandwidth is needed. Infra-Red (IR): Infra-red uses very high frequencies to carry data. IR cannot penetrate opaque objects and is thus directed (line-of-sight) or diffuse. Directed systems are very limited in range (typically 1 m) and are used for personal area networks and sometimes for specific wireless LAN applications. This is not practical for mobile users. Diffuse (or reflective) IR systems do not need line-of-sight but cells are limited to individual rooms.
2-20
Summary
In Chapter 2 we discussed the media used to implement Ethernet and Fast Ethernet and looked at some of their limitations. We looked at the frame formats for Ethernet and FDDI. We discussed CSMA/CD media access method. We discussed high speed LAN technologies of Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet and FDDI. We examined their characteristics and compared their speed and their frame format. We also introduced the topic of Wireless LANs and looked at their implementation.

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/18
2-21
Chapter 3 Bridging
Chapter 3. Bridging
l Chapter Objectives - At the end of this chapter students will know when and how to use bridges and switches in an internetwork. Topics include:
The different types of bridges
Transparent bridging operation Bridging loops The Spanning Tree protocol The advantages & disadvantages of bridges LAN switches

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/1
3-1
Types of Bridges
l Transparent Bridges
Developed by DEC for use in Ethernet Networks. Frames are forwarded one hop at a time towards the destination
l Source-Route Bridges
Developed by IBM for use in Token Ring Networks The entire route to a destination is predetermined prior to sending of data.

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/2
Transparent bridging Transparent bridging was developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). It is most often found in Ethernet networks in which bridges pass frames along one hop at a time based on tables associating end nodes with bridge interfaces. It is referred to as transparent bridging because the presence of the bridges is transparent to other network devices. The bridges do not alter the data frame. The address of the bridge is never the source or destination for a frame. Source-route bridging (SRB) Source-route bridging (SRB) was developed by IBM for use in Token Ring networks. With SRB the source places the complete source-to-destination route in the frame header of all inter-LAN frames. To discover a route to the destination, the source sends an explorer frame to determine where the destination is located.
3-2
Transparent Bridging Operation Learning, Forwarding & Filtering
1 A
BRIDGE
B C
2 3
Source Address table Address Interface 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 B 5 B 6 B 7 C 8 C 9 C

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/3
Learning When a transparent bridge is first turned on, it knows nothing about the network topology. It learns which devices can be reached on each of its interfaces by monitoring the source MAC address of all incoming frames. It maintains a database of these learned MAC addresses and their associated interfaces in a table. The bridge updates this table every time a device sends a frame, and deletes entries of devices not heard from within a specified time period. Forwarding If a bridge knows where a destination address is, it forwards frames on the associated interface. If the bridge does not know where the destination address is, it forwards the frame out every interface. This is called flooding. A bridge learns addresses and forwards traffic as follows: (Note: Assume that the source and destination addresses are located on different bridged networks, and neither address is known to the bridge) The bridge notes the source address and updates its tables. It forwards the frame out to all interfaces, except the one where it was received. If a reply comes back the bridge examines the source address, which was the original target address, and adds the entry to its table. The bridge forwards all subsequent communication between the devices.
3-3
Transparent Bridge Operation Example
1 A
BRIDGE
B C
2 3
Source 1 - Destination 4 Source 4 - Destination 1

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/4
Filtering A bridge will not forward a frame if the source and destination addresses are in the bridging table and are located on the same segment. A bridge learns addresses and filters traffic as follows: (Note :Assume that the source and destination devices are located on the same segment and only the destination address is unknown.) The sources sends a frame to the destination. The bridge sees the frame and floods the frame out all interfaces (except the incoming one). When the reply comes back, the bridge reads the source address and updates its tables. The bridge discards, or filters, all subsequent frames between the devices. Example of Transparent Bridge Operation : Device 1 on LAN A addresses a packet to device 4 on LAN B. The bridge receives this packet on Interface A and floods it out every other interface. The bridge now knows that address 1 is out interface A. The packet is received by device 4 and it replies with a packet which has a destination 1 and source 4. The bridge receives this packet on interface B, so it now knows that address 4 is out interface B. The bridge forwards the packet out interface A only, as it already knows where device 1 is. In this way the bridge has built up and stored two entries in its source address table.
3-4
Bridging loops
Packet with unknown destination
Bridge 1
Bridge 2
If the destination is unknown each bridge forwards copy of frame out every interface.
3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5
If a packet arrives at a bridge and the destination is unknown it floods this packet out every other interface. To increase reliability it is common to use two (or more) bridges in parallel between pairs of LANs. This arrangement, however, also introduces some additional problems because it causes loops in the topology. For example if a packet with an unknown destination arrives at bridge 1 from LAN 1, it forwards it onto LAN 2. Bridge 2 will now see this packet on LAN 2 and, since the destination is still unknown, it forwards it onto LAN 1. Once again bridge 1 sees the packet on LAN 1 and forwards it onto LAN 2 etc This cycle will go on forever, using up the bandwidth and blocking the transmission of other packets on both segments.
3-5
Preventing loops
Packet with unknown destination
FORWARDING
FORWARDING
FORWARDING
BLOCKING
Spanning tree protocol creates a loop-free topology by blocking duplicate paths between network segments and automatically activating backup paths if a link or bridge fails
3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/6
The spanning-tree protocol solves the problems associated with bridge loops. It allows redundant paths, but ensures a loop-free topology through a bridgeto-bridge protocol. It creates this loop-free topology by blocking duplicate paths between network segments and automatically activating backup paths if a link segment or bridge fails.
3-6
Spanning Tree Protocol

Root Bridge A B C
1
D
3
E
4
F
5
Symbols: LAN Bridge BLOCKING H
6
J

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/7
Spanning Tree operates as follows: The protocol elects the bridge with the lowest priority to be the root bridge. This priority can be configured by a network administrator. If it is not, then by default the bridge with the lowest MAC-address becomes the root. Every other bridge selects the lowest-cost path to the root bridge. Note that interface costs can be altered by a network administrator to select a preferred route. All interfaces on these paths forward traffic. All interfaces not on these paths block traffic. This ensures a unique path is established from every LAN to the root. The algorithm runs continuously to detect topology changes and update the tree
3-7
Bridging - Advantages
l Simple to install l Transparent to Users l Can connect networks running different protocols l Form logically single networks - easy movement of hosts l Can handle unroutable protocols l Relatively cheap

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/8
Bridges are simple to install. To use advanced bridging features such as custom filters, a minimal amount of configuration is required. In this case an easy-to-use interface will help to facilitate such configuration. The presence of a bridge is transparent to users from the instant it is first installed, and bridges adapt automatically to network changes. Additionally, bridge-based internetworks can be modified and reconfigured very easily. Bridges can connect networks running different protocols without requiring additional software. Because bridges operate below the network layer in the OSI model, the network manager does not need to decide in advance of installation which high level protocols will be used. Bridges form logically single networks - all interconnected network segments have the same network address. A bridge makes the movement of network devices, e.g. PCs, within the network easy. There is no need to configure new network addresses for these devices. Some low-level protocols such as DEC LAT and NetBIOS cannot be routed because they contain no network layer information; these must be bridged between segments. Bridges are cheaper than routers because of the underlying simplicity of the architecture.
3-8
Bridging - Disadvantages
l Cannot simultaneously use redundant paths l Cannot prevent a broadcast storm l Do not help in fault isolation

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/9
Bridges cannot load-share traffic over two paths to a single destination, because the Spanning Tree algorithm ensures that one of these paths will block all traffic. This is very expensive in the case of wide area links. For example, if a company purchased two separate 2Mb links to a remote site, only one of these could send traffic at any one time. Bridges cannot prevent a broadcast storm. This may occur with certain broadcast protocols which cause frames to be flooded out every port. If there is a malfunction or an incorrectly configured parameter on any network device, the level of traffic generated can be severe enough to crash the entire network. Bridges do not provide significant support for fault isolation or other distributed management capabilities. Networks become harder to manage and maintain as their size and complexity increases. Bridges form a single logical network often making fault isolation in very large bridged networks almost impossible. Also, it is very difficult for a network administrator to track what is running on the network and where.
3-9
LAN Switches
Switch
HUB
High Speed Backplane Each network device, for example, a file server, has dedicated bandwidth.
3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/10
A LAN switch is a network device containing a high-speed backplane (> 1 Gbps) and room for a number of plug-in cards. Each card typically contains 8 or 16 connectors. Usually each connector has a 10Base-T twisted pair to a single network device, for example, a file server. When a device sends a frame it first arrives at a plug-in card on the switch. This card checks to see if it is destined for one of the other devices connected to the same card. If so the frame is copied there. If not, the frame is sent over the high speed backplane to the destination devices card. Each input port of the plug-in card is buffered, so incoming frames are stored in the cards on-board RAM as they arrive. Each port is a separate collision domain, so collisions do not occur, if only a single device is connected to the port. An ethernet hub is a shared network segment. The network devices connected to the hub contend for bandwidth using CSMA/CD as described in Chapter 2. It is possible to connect a hub to a port on the switch as both use standard Ethernet frames. Frames arriving at the switch from the hub are treated like any other incoming frames: they are switched to the correct output line over the high-speed backplane.
3-10
Summary
In this chapter we differentiated between the two types of bridges. We discussed the steps a bridge must follow to get hardware addresses. We identified how bridging loops occur and how to prevent them. We discussed the advantages and disadvantages with bridges.

3/038 13 LZUBB 108116/11
3-11
Chapter 4 Routing
Chapter 4. Routing
l Chapter Objectives - At the end of this chapter you will be able to make the correct choice between router and bridges and understand:
The difference between Routable protocols and routing protocols The two-step routing process Determination of optimal Path The transport of packets through an internetwork Dynamic versus static routing Routing Protocols (RIP & OSPF) The advantages and disadvantages of routers

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/1
4-1
Routable Protocols and Routing Protocols

l Routable protocols are capable of being routed over an internetwork. For example, IP, DECnet, Appletalk, Netware, OSI, Banyan VINES, and XNS. l Routing protocols route packets through an internetwork. For example, RIP, IGRP, E-IGRP, OSPF, EGP, BGP.

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/2
Routable protocols Routable protocols are protocols that are routed over an internetwork. All of the following are examples of routable protocols: IP, DECnet, Appletalk, Netware, OSI, Banyan VINES, and Xerox Network Systems (XNS). Routing protocols Routing protocols are protocols that implement routing algorithms. In other words they route routable protocols through an internetwork. All of the following are examples of routing protocols: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (E-IGRP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
4-2
Two-Step Routing Process

1. Determination of Optimal Routing path. 2. Transport of packets through an internetwork.
APPLICATION PRESENTATION SESSION TRANSPORT NETWORK DATALINK PHYSICAL

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/3
Destination Network Destination Host Source Network Source Host
Routing involves two basic activities: determination of optimal routing paths and transport of packets through an internetwork. The latter, sometimes referred to as switching, is relatively straightforward. Path determination on the other hand can be very complex. To implement these activities the router uses the information available in the network layer protocol header. The address at the network layer consists of two main parts: Network identifier: Each router along the path uses this, to make routing decisions. Host (or device) identifier: The final router in a path uses this, to send data over the final leg of its journey.
4-3
1. Determination of optimal routing Path A 1 3

Network A C B Routing Table Interface Metric 1 10 2 100 3 100
C 2
Routing algorithms calculate route metrics to determine optimal routes to a destination

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/4
To aid the process of path determination, routing algorithms initialise and maintain routing tables, in routers. These tables typically contain three items: a network identifier - the network addresses of a remote network. an interface number - the interface that should be used to route traffic towards that particular remote network. a metric - a standard of measurement, for example, path length, that is used by routing algorithms to determine the optimal path to a destination. In the routing table a network identifier may have several interface numbers with different metrics corresponding to each number. The routing algorithm compares the metrics to determine the optimal route. When a router receives an incoming packet, it checks the destination address, looks it up in the routing table and selects the interface (next hop on the optimal route). Routers communicate with one another (and maintain their routing tables) through the transmission of routing update messages. By analysing routing updates from other routers a router can build up a picture of the network topology. Once the network topology is understood, routers can determine optimal routes to network destinations.
4-4
Dynamic Vs Static routing

Dynamic routes - Adjust in real time to network changes by analysing routing update message. Static Routes - Manually configured and changed by network administrator.
C
1 2
Static
Dynamic
3 4
B
4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5
Static routing tables are configured by a network administrator and do not change unless the administrator changes them. They prohibit a router from offering alternative routes if a network link goes down. Static routes work well in environments where network traffic is relatively predictable and network design is relatively simple. Dynamic routing algorithms adjust, in real time, to changing network circumstances. They do this by analysing incoming routing update messages. If the message indicates that a network change has occurred, the routing software recalculates routes and sends out new routing update messages. These messages permeate the network, causing routers to rerun their algorithms and change their routing tables accordingly. In the diagram above routers 1, 2 and 3 update each other dynamically. Router 2 has a static route configured to send all traffic destined for network D, via router 4. Similarly, Router 4 has a static route configured to send traffic destined for all networks except D, via router 2.
4-5
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

l Each Router sends all of its routing table to its neighbours only at pre-defined intervals.
Advantages lSimple configuration Disadvantages lSlow convergence lQuantity of update traffic lLimited size of internetwork
4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/6
Distance Vector Algorithms, of which Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one, are used by routers to build their own map of the network and send this map to all neighbouring routers. As the maps are transferred through the network, each router progressively incorporates this second-hand information into its own map of the network. In large networks, building an accurate map using DVAs can take a long time, and during this period some routers will have old and incorrect maps. DVA routers periodically broadcast their entire routing table, even if the routing tables have not changed. This typically occurs every thirty seconds. These broadcasts consume a large amount of bandwidth. The simple metrics used in DVAs limit the size of an internetwork, for example, RIP permits a maximum hop count of 15.
4-6
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

l Each router sends only the portion of its routing table that describes its own links to all routers on the internetwork when network changes occur
l Advantages Fast Convergence Conserve Network Bandwidth Route Selection based on a combination of Metrics l Disadvantages Heavy Memory use Expensive on bandwidth if frequent network changes CPU Utilisation
4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/7
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol is an example of a link state algorithm, used by routers, that adjusts to network changes quicker than RIP and is more robust. Each router updates the rest of the network with information on the direct connections it has to its neighbours. OSPF is reliable because information is transferred unaltered between routers. Link-state protocols, of which OSPF is one, broadcast link state advertisements (LSA) only when a network change has occurred. They also send an update following a large interval, typically every hour. Unlike RIP, which is based entirely on hop count, OSPF uses a combination of metrics (or measurements) to select the best route. Link-state protocols use large amounts of router memory to store topological databases, as each router keeps a map of the entire network. When a network experiences frequent changes, link-state routers use a large portion of network bandwidth by sending out LSAs at each network change. After receiving a new LSA, the router must run the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm and generate a new routing table. This process places heavy demands on the routers CPU.
4-7
Routing Metrics
lPath Length / Hop count lReliability lDelay lBandwidth lLoad lCommunications cost

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/8
Metrics are used by routing algorithms to select the best route. Sophisticated routing algorithms can use a combination of the following metrics: Path Length is the sum of the interface costs associated with each network link traversed. Hop count specifies the number of passes through internetworking products (such as routers) that a packet must take en route from a source to a destination. Reliability is usually assigned to network links by network administrators. The values assigned are based on how frequently the network link goes down and how long it typically takes to be repaired. Delay refers to the length of time to move a packet from source to destination through an internetwork. It is dependent on many factors including the bandwidth of intermediate network links, the port queues at each router along the way, network congestion on all intermediate network links, and the physical distance to be travelled. Bandwidth refers to the available traffic capacity of a link. Load refers to the degree to which a network resource (such as a router) is busy, for example, its CPU utilisation and packets processed per second. Communications cost is the actual financial cost associated with a particular route. A network administrator may configure routers so that traffic uses a slower link if it is cheaper to do so.
4-8
2. Transport of packets through an internetwork

Destination Host (Protocol Address) Router 1 (Physical address) Destination Host (Protocol Address) Router 2 (Physical address) Destination Host (Protocol Address) Destination Host (Physical address)
1 A
2 3
C
3
B
4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/9
Once a host determines it has to send a packet to a host on another network the following process occurs. The source host sends a packet addressed specifically to a routers physical (MAC) address, but with the protocol (network-layer) address of the destination host. The router examines the packets destination protocol address to determine whether it knows how to forward the packet to the next hop. If the router knows how to forward the packet, it changes the destination physical address to that of the next hop and forwards the packet. If the router doesnt know how to forward the packet it drops it. The packet is forwarded in this way until it reaches its final destination. Although the packets physical address may change many times, its protocol address remains the same.
4-9
Routers - Advantages
l Flexible - differentiate between paths using Metrics l Can load share over redundant paths l Network devices are aware of routers and they understand congestion messages l Easier to administer and control because each segment has a different address l Provide a protective firewall

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/10
Routers are generally more flexible than bridges. They can differentiate between different paths on the basis of factors such as cost, line speed, and line delay. Routers can be configured for equal-cost load splitting. This means that they can take advantage of all communication paths simultaneously and purchased bandwidth is not placed in stand-by mode. Network devices recognise when they are communicating through a router. If network congestion occurs, routers use a mechanism called source quench which indicates to network devices that they must slow down. Routers provide the network administrator with more control over resources on the network. Because each segment has a different address, it is easier for the administrator to track what is running on the network and where. Routers provide a protective firewall between network segments. This protects against broadcast storms and prevents incidents that occur on one segment from affecting another.
4-10
Routers - Disadvantages
l Protocol dependent -require software for each protocol they run l Network devices must be reconfigured if moved between network segments l Some protocols cannot be routed

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/11
Because routers are protocol-dependent devices, they require software for each protocol that they run. Each individual protocol must be separately installed. Routers make movement of network devices between network segments more difficult. Since each segment has a different network address, moving a device from one segment to another requires that the network administrator assign a new network address to the relocated network device. Some low level protocols, for example, DEC LAT and NetBIOS cannot be routed because they do not contain a network layer address. These protocols must be bridged.
4-11
Example Network Diagram

LAN switch 12 Port 100Mb UTP ports
100BaseT 100BaseT 100BaseT

Ethernet HUB 24 port
servers High end PCs
100BaseF
LAN switch
100BaseF
Router
100BaseF LAN switch
PCs and printers
Router
100 MB FDDI backbone
Router
Router
4/038 LZUBB 108116/12
WAN
4-12
Summary
In chapter 4 we examined the difference between routable protocols and routing protocols. We identified the two steps in the routing process and reviewed two protocols namely RIP and OSPF. We discussed routing metrics and we examined the advantages and disadvantages of routing.

4/038 13 LZUBB 108116/13
4-13
Chapter 5 WAN Technologies
Chapter 5 - WAN Technologies

l Chapter Objectives - At the end of this chapter students will be able to describe:
The characteristics & features of WANs The characteristics & features of X.25 The characteristics & features of Frame Relay The characteristics & features of ISDN The characteristics & features of PPP

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/1
5-1
A Wide Area Network
CSU/DSU Remote Link CSU/DSU

Dedicated or Switched
Router
Router
LAN Stockholm
LAN Dublin

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/2
A wide area network (WAN) uses dedicated or switched connections to link two geographically remote locations. A typical WAN and its equipment are shown above. A router sends data addressed to a remote site from a LAN in Dublin over a wide area connection to a LAN in Stockholm. The router is connected to either an analogue or a digital line. The routers are connected to an analogue line via modems and to digital lines via channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU). The carrier type will determine the exact type of equipment the WAN will need to use. Dedicated vs Switched Lines WANs use either dedicated or switched lines. A dedicated line is a permanent connection between two points which is usually leased on a monthly basis. A switched line does not need permanent connections between two points. Instead, it lets users set up temporary connections over multiple points for the duration of the call only.
5-2
Packet Switching vs Circuit Switching

ISDN Dublin Router P4 P3 P2 P1 Paris Router Circuit Switching London Router P3 Dublin Router Packet Switching Router Glasgow
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/3
P3 P4 Paris Router
P4 P2 P1
P4
X.25 Frame Relay
WAN services are provided through two primary switching technologies: packet switched and circuit switched. Circuit-Switching services provide a dedicated channel or circuit between the source and destination for the duration of the call only. A fixed amount of bandwidth is provided for the call and subscribers pay for this fixed amount of bandwidth while the call is in progress only. Circuit-switching has some serious drawbacks. Firstly, because there is fixed bandwidth these connections do not handle bursts of traffic well. Secondly, they are not very fault tolerant. This means that if a connection fails and the transmission stops. ISDN is an example of Circuit-Switching. Packet-Switching services do not need fixed virtual circuits as data is sent in packets, one at a time, through the network and each packet has the ability to take a different route through the network. Because there are no pre-defined circuits a packet switch can increase or decrease the bandwidth as needed. This means that packet switching can handle bursty traffic expertly and can route data round failed or congested lines. X.25 and Frame Relay are examples of Packet Switching.
5-3
The next question which arises is which switch do I use? The answer depends on two things: The type of traffic the network is expected to generate. The budget. If the expected traffic is delay sensitive, as in the case of video applications, then the fixed, guaranteed bandwidth of circuit-switching is required. If the traffic on the network is not delay sensitive then packet-switching is a reliable and economical service to employ in the network.
5-4
Packet Switching
1. Connection-Oriented A connection must be established between sending and receiving stations before data is sent.
2. Connectionless No connection is set up between transmitting and receiving stations before data is sent.

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/4
Packet-switched networks lend themselves to connectionless service. Packets are simply transmitted on the medium as soon as the network interface receives them. There is no delay for call set up and tear-down. However, these services are not always reliable, as they have no means of guaranteeing packet delivery or of determining when packets have been lost. Connection-oriented services, like voice calls, offer a secure and reliable delivery of information because a connection has been established in advance and is monitored for the duration of the call. These services also take time to set up and tear down. They generally do not make efficient use of the connection.
5-5
X.25
l X.25 is a protocol for packet switched data networks l It is widespread throughout the world l It corresponds to the lower 3 layers in the OSI model
OSI DTE Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5
X.25 DCE User Defined Process

X.25 Packet layer X.25 Link layer X.25 Physical layer X.25 Packet layer X.25 Link layer X.25 Physical layer
X.25 is a protocol for a packet switched data network. It has been around since 1976 and as such is the oldest packet switched protocol around. It is used in both the private and public networks. Public X.25 networks exist all over the world. X.25 specifies a standard between a host system and a packet-switched network. X.25 corresponds very well to the three lower layers in the OSI model. The Physical Layer: In X.25, this layer is called the X.21 interface. It specifies the physical interface between the data terminal equipment (DTE), a user device connected to a data network and, the data communications equipment (DCE), equipment which connects a computer or terminal to a packet switched network. The Link Access Layer: This layer of the X.25 model corresponds to the data-link layer of the OSI model. The protocol used is link access procedurebalanced (LAP-B) It provides the frame structure, error and flow- control mechanisms.
5-6
The Packet Layer: X.25 sets up reliable virtual connections throughout the packet-switched network in the packet layer. These virtual connections enable X.25 to provide the point-to-point or connection-oriented delivery of packets, rather than the connectionless delivery of packets that take place in other networks like IP-networks.
5-7
X.25 Operation
l Calling computer requests session l Called computer can accept or refuse l Full-duplex information passing l Either computer can terminate call l Two types of virtual circuits
Switched Virtual Circuits Permanent Virtual Circuit
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/6
In X.25, data is transmitted in packets over virtual circuits. A virtual circuit is a predetermined transmission path through a network over which packets travel. Remember that a packet can have several alternative paths over any given packet-switched network. Thus, establishing a path before transmitting a packet will both improve performance by shortening delivery time, and increase throughput by reducing packet overhead. This is because the packet header will not have to include routing information--it will only have a source address and a destination address. The virtual circuits service of X.25 provides for two types of virtual circuits: Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC): A Switched Virtual Circuit is a dynamically established virtual circuit using call set-up and call clearing procedures. Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC): A Permanent Virtual Circuit is a fixed, network-assigned virtual circuit. Data transfer occurs as with Switched Virtual Circuits, but no call set-up or clearing is required. To begin communication, one computer calls another to request a communication session. The called computer may accept or reject the connection . If the call is accepted, the two systems can begin full-duplex information transfer. Either side can terminate the connection at any time.
5-8
X.25 Frame Format

Number of bytes
3
Packet header (GFI,LCI PTI)
1-2014
User data
1
Flag
2
Frame check sequence
1
Flag
Frame Frame address control

Command/ Response
U/I/S
Layer 2
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/7
Layer 3
Layer 2
An X.25 frame is made up of a Layer 3 and a Layer 2 fields. The layer 3 X.25 header in made up of a General Format Identifier (GFI), a Logical Channel Identifier (LCI) and a Packet Type Identifier (PTI). The GFI is a 4-bit field that indicates the general format of the header. The LCI is a 12-bit field that identifies the virtual circuit. The PTI field indicates the type of packet, for example, call request. Addressing fields in call set-up packets provide source and destination DTE addresses. These are used to establish the virtual circuits that comprise X.25 communication. Once a call is established the packet switching network uses the LCI field of the data packet header to specify the particular virtual channel to the remote DTE.
5-9
The Layer 2 fields are made up of a flag, an address field, a frame control, the embedded Layer 3 fields, and a frame check sequence. The flag indicates the start of a frame. The address indicates whether the frame is carrying a command or a response. The control field is used for acknowledgement, flow control and to define the format of the remainder of the frame. The three frame formats are: Information Frames (I-Frames) perform data transfer. Supervisory Frames (S-Frames) perform supervisory functions such as acknowledgement of I-Frames, flow control and error recovery. Unnumbered Frames (U-Frames) perform link control functions such as link set-up and link disconnect The frame check sequence checks to see if the data has been sent in the correct order.
5-10
Frame Relay
l l l l
Method for accessing Wide Area Networks available at a variety of speeds, for example, 64kbps or 2mbps A 2 layer protocol Higher performance and greater efficiency than X.25 as it does not use error-correction or flow-control Suitable for use on digital-transmission technology over high quality reliable transmission links
Additional capabilities referred to as Local Management Interface (LMI), for example, global addressing
5/038 13 LZBB 108116/8
Frame Relay was originally the packet switching portion of the ISDN standard. In 1989 it emerged as a Wide Area Network protocol in its own right. Frame relay is a 2-layer protocol. It corresponds to the lower two layers of the OSI model. Frame Relay exploits the recent advances in WAN transmission technology. Earlier WAN protocols such as X.25 were developed when analogue transmission systems and copper media were predominant. These links are much less reliable than the fibre media and digital transmission links available today. Over links such as these, data link level protocols can forego time consuming error-correction algorithms, and leave them to be performed at higher protocol layers. Greater performance and efficiency are possible without sacrificing data integrity. Frame relay is designed with this approach in mind. Frame Relay includes a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) algorithm for detecting corrupt bits so that the data can be discarded. It does not include any protocol at this level for correcting bad data, for example, by retransmitting it.
5-11
Functions of a Frame Relay Switch
l Routes incoming frames to correct outgoing port. l Checks the Frame check Sequence field to determine status of the frame. If an error is detected the switch discards the frame.
l Checks to determine if the buffers are full. If they are the switch discards all further frames until the congestion is cleared.

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/9
Extensive error-checking and flow-control mechanisms will ensure packet delivery. However they also slow transmission of packets and thus reduce the overall performance of the network. Frame relay was developed with the assumption that the transmission media is reliable and relatively error free. Another assumption was that end-user applications can detect and recover from packet errors. Thus, frame relay discards packets with errors in them and if the buffers are full it will discard all incoming packets until the congestion is cleared. In short, frame relay makes little effort to detect errors or congestion and no attempt at all to correct them. What then, does it do? A frame relay switch has three core functions: Routes incoming frames to the correct outgoing port. Checks the Frame Check Sequence field to determine whether the frame contains an error and if so, discards the frame. Checks to determine if the buffers are full and if so, discards all incoming frames until the congestion is cleared.
5-12
Frame Relay Frame Format

1 Flag 2 Address variable Data 2 FCS 1 Flag
Header
Trailer
FCS = Frame check sequence DLCI = 10 bit Data Link Control Identifier Address field contains the circuit ID (called DLCI) and also notification bits.
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/10
The frame consists of a header, information field and trailer. The header includes a start flag and an address field. The address includes a 10-bit Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI). It identifies the logical connection that is multiplexed into the physical channel. In the basic Frame Relay applications, DLCIs have local significance. In global addressing, the values inserted into the DCLI field are globally significant. The address field also contains bits for congestion notification, address extension and discard eligibility. Within the trailer there is a Frame Checking Sequence. This is used to check whether the frame has been sent correctly. The length of the information field is variable, which means that it is adjustable to a maximum value, defined for the service concerned. The upper limit of the variable frame length is 8189 bytes.
5-13
Committed Information Rate (CIR) and Discard Eligibility
Frame Relay Network
Router
CIR 64k Frame Relay Switch Frame Relay Switch
= Packet
Bin
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/11
Whey you buy a frame relay service you will be asked to specify a committed information rate (CIR). The CIR is the minimum bandwidth that your carrier will guarantee to make available to you twenty four hours a day, seven days a week. The CIR is in no way tied in with the speed of your physical connection. This means that you can have a 2Mbps connection and only 64kbps CIR. If your network exceeds your CIR you are not necessarily out of luck. Frame relay can theoretically handle data bursts in excess of the allocated bandwidth. So, if the frame relay network receives a transmission from your network in excess of your CIR, it will attempt to open additional circuits to complete the transmission. If the network is not congested you can sometimes manage to send data bursts twice as large as your CIR. As frame relay networks have no flow-control mechanism, they have no means of slowing or stopping data transmission in a congested network. There is however, a means of notifying stations if the network becomes congested. If a station does not have an application designed to respond to the notification and suspend transmission, it will keep sending data to an already jammed network. Thus when a frame relay network gets congested it begins discarding packets. It selects frames for discarding in one of two ways: 1. Arbitrary Selection 2. Discard Eligibility
5-14
With arbitrary selection the network simply begins discarding packets when it gets congested. This method is definitely effective but it does not discriminate between packets sent within the users CIR and those which arrived in a burst over and above the CIR. An even greater disadvantage is the fact that it does not differentiate between mission-critical data and idle chit-chat. This is why most frame relay users prefer to use discard eligibility. With discard eligibility users can configure their routers to set flags in frame relay data for transmission. For example, a user could configure their router to flag all administrative traffic DE (discard eligible), but not all manufacturing related transmissions. Thus, should the network become congested, administration frames will be discarded. They will be retransmitted later when the congestion is cleared. All the manufacturing traffic on the other hand, will continue to its destination. With the DE flag you can prioritise information to ensure that it is only discarded as a last resort.
5-15
LMI Extensions - Global Addressing

Non-Extended Frame Relay Addressing Dublin DLCI = 10 (Sweden) DLCI = 20 (Dublin) Sweden
London DLCI = 10 (Canada) Global Addressing DLCI = 11 (Sweden) 10 Dublin DLCI = 30 (London) DLCI = 10 (Dublin)
Canada
11 Sweden
12 London
DLCI = 13 (Canada)
DLCI = 12 (London)
13 Canada

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/12
The Extended Frame Relay specification includes features that provide additional capabilities for complex internetworking environments and are referred to as the Local Management Interface (LMI). The LMI extensions facilitate large, complex inter-networks. The following are some of the extensions in LMI: Global addressing: This gives connection identifiers global rather than local significance, allowing them to be used to identify a specific interface to the Frame Relay network. In the top diagram the DLCIs have only local significance. The DLCI number refers only to Dublin and its immediate Frame Relay switch. There will be a new number programmed for each hop along the network. Therefore Dublin refers to its virtual circuits to Sweden with the DLCI number 10, and London can use the same number to refer to Canada. This means that, with normal Frame Relay addressing, static maps must be created to tell routers which DLCI to use to find a remote device.
5-16
The global addressing extension permits node identifiers. With this extension the values inserted in the DLCI field of a frame are globally significant, that is , each switch in the network knows that each DLCI value is pointing to a particular destination. In the lower diagram on the previous page, if the Dublin router wishes to send a frame to the Sweden router it must use a DLCI value of 11. All other devices use the same DLCI value when talking to Sweden. As each routers interface has a distinct value as its node identifier, individual devices can be distinguished. This permits adaptive routing in complex environments. Virtual circuit status messages: These provide communication and synchronisation between network and user devices. They report the existence of new private virtual channels (PVCs) and the deletion of already existing PVCs, thus preventing data being sent into black holes, that is, over PVCs that no longer exist. Multicasting: This allows the sender to send a single frame but to have it delivered by the network to multiple recipients. Simple flow control: This provides a flow control mechanism for those devices that need some level of flow control and whose higher layers cannot use the congestion notification bits.
5-17
Integrated Services Digital Network

l Carries multiple services - voice, video and data l Ideal for remote access to a central site from home or small office l Suitable for backing up leased lines l Provides clearer telephone service l Built on blocks of 64kbps

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/13
ISDN can carry multiple services - voice, video and data on a single network over existing twisted-pair copper wire. Remote users working from home or on the road can use high-speed ISDN to access central site resources, for example, to send and receive e-mail. Similarly a small office may use ISDN to access a central site if the level of access does not justify the use of a leased line. An ISDN connection can also act as a low-cost back-up for a leased line. Under normal circumstances data traffic would use the leased line but, if the line were to fail, an ISDN call could be automatically set up. ISDN lines, with the built in security of digital transmission, provide a less noisy telephone service than analogue lines. ISDNs basic beares service is called 64kbps unrestricted. This means that the ISDN network can transmit any kind of digital code-digitised images as well as data and digitised speech. This means that ISDN is suitable for mulitmedia services. New services can also be easily added with no network redesign-provided that the signals are digital and the transfer is based on applicable ISDN protocols. The bandwidth can be 30 * 64kbps = 1,920kbps.
5-18
Remote Access using ISDN

Corporate Office
Router Remote Office
Router
ISDN Network
* Primary Link Backup * Dial-up on Congestion * Dial-on-Demand

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/14
Primary Link Backup: With this application a router will usually communicate with a central site over a fixed link such as a leased line. If the fixed link fails the router will automatically use the ISDN line to dial up the central site and resume communications. When the fixed link is repaired the ISDN line is automatically dropped. Dial-up on Congestion: This application is similar to primary link backup, in that normal communications happen over the fixed link. In this case though, when the traffic exceeds the available bandwidth, the router automatically uses the ISDN line to provide additional bandwidth. When traffic levels fall below a pre-programmed level for a set time the router will terminate the ISDN call and all traffic returns to the fixed link automatically. Dial-on-Demand: With this application there is no fixed link with the central site. The router calls the central site when there is data to be sent. Once established the connection can be held open for other traffic than the specified data call. If there is no traffic on the link for a pre-set period of time the router will drop the call.
5-19
ISDN Technologies
B Voice,data B D Signalling, data
Basic Service 2B+D
Primary Service 30B+D

B = Bearer Channel - 64k D = Data Channel - 16k for Basic, 64k for Primary
B B B D
Voice, data Signalling, data

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/15
Basic Rate Access, 2B+D Basic Rate Access (BRA) is often referred to as 2B+D as it gives the subscriber: Two B-Channels, 64 kbits/s for voice, video and data. One D-Channel, 16 kbit/s for signalling and data. The two B-Channels are communication channels for the different services provided. The D-Channel is mainly used for signalling, but could also be used for sending data. A total bandwidth of 144 kbits can be used at the same time. The BRA is used for low traffic and thus the target area is small companies and households. Primary Rate Access, 30B+D Primary Rate Access (PRA) is often referred to as 30B+D as it gives the subscriber: Thirty B-Channels, 64 kbit/s each for voice and video and data One D-Channel, 64 kbit/s, for signalling and data. In total the bandwidth which can be used is 1984 kbit/s.
5-20
Point to Point Protocol - PPP

l Method of transmitting packets over serial point-to-point links l Internet standard for Encapsulation of IP packets l Supports other protocols as well as IP, for example, IPX and DECnet. l Extensible Link Control Protocol (LCP) to establish, configure and test the data link connection l A family of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and configuring different network-layer protocols
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/16
Point to Point Protocol (PPP), is a data link protocol and the internet standard for transmission of IP packets over serial lines. PPP handles,error detection and support for multiple protocols like IPX and DECnet. It also allows IP addresses to be negotiated at connection and permits authentication of users on the link. It transmits network packets using, for example, modems or ISDN devices, by placing them inside a high-level data-link control (HDLC) frame. Once the packets arrive at their destination, the PPP algorithm removes them from the HDLC frame and places them on the network. PPP provides three things: 1. A framing method that clearly defines the end of one frame and the beginning of another. 2. A control protocol for bringing lines up, testing them, negotiating options, and bringing them down again when the call is finished. This protocol is called Link Control Protocol (LCP). 3. A way to negotiate network layer options in such a way as to be independent of the network layer protocol to be used. This method has a different control protocol for each network layer supported and is known as Network Control Protocol (NCP). It is important to note that these phases occurs within the structure of the PPP format, and, therefore they only happen over an already-established physical link.
5-21
LCP/NCP Negotiations
ISP
Router
Modem
ISP Modem Stack All LCP and NCP Negotiations happen here.
Internet

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/17
In the above scenario the PC wants to use the Internet via the Internet Service Provider. The PC first calls the providers router via the modem. When the routers modem answers and establishes a connection, the PC sends a series of LCP packets in the payload field of some PPP frames. These packets, and their responses select the the PPP parameters to be used. Once these have been agreed upon, a series of NCP packets are sent to configure the network layer. Typically, our user wants to run TCP/IP, and so needs an IP address. The ISP has a block of addresses assigned to it and dynamically assigns one to each newly attached PC for the duration of their session. If an ISP has x IP address assigned to it, then x users can be logged on simultaneously, and the customer base for the ISP may by many times greater than x. The NCP for IP does the IP address assignment. The PC is now an Internet host and can send and receive IP packets. When the session is over the NCP will tear down the network layer connection and free up the IP address. The LCP shuts down the data link connection and finally the PC tells its modem to hang up and release the physical connection.
5-22
PPP Frame Format
1 or 2
variable Data
2 or 4 FCS
1 Flag
01111110
Flag Address Control Protocol

01111110 11111111 00000011

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/18
The PPP frame format closely resembles the HDLC format. The fields of the frame format for PPP are as follows. Flag - A single byte that indicates the beginning or end of a frame (01111110) Address - A single byte that contains the standard binary broadcast address (11111111) and avoids having to use data link addresses. Control - A single byte that requires the transmission of user data in an unsequenced frame (00000011). The address and control fields are always constant in the default configuration. LCP is the mechanism which negotiates an option to omit them and save two bytes per frame. Protocol - Two bytes that identify the protocol encapsulated in the information field. A value of 0 here implies network layer protocols like, IP and IPX. A value of 1 implies LCP and NCP. Data - The actual data that is being sent. FCS - The field which is used to check if any errors have occurred in transmission.
5-23
Example Wide Area Network

PLYMOUTH R ISDN Encapsulation PPP Ethernet Network Encapsulation Frame Relay One physical Frame Relay interface with virtual circuits to 3 locations dlci 505 64K R LONDON
5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/19
MAIDENHEAD
SMALL ABERDEEN OFFICE
(01752) 789901 (01224) 77112
R ISDN R
(01628) 771153 (01224) 771123
R 2Mbit Leased Line R ABERDEEN CENTRAL SITE PCs
R SERVER dlci 510 32K R CAMBERLEY dlci 515 32K R BIRMINGHAM

5-24
Comparison of Architectures
OSI Bottom Layers Transport
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol
X . 25
ISDN
FRAME RELAY
ATM
Network
Internet Protocol PPP and Others Various
Packet Layer AAL 1 - 5 LAP - B LAP - D LAP - F SAR

ATM Layer Physical Layer X . 21 Physical La yer I . 430 & I.431 Physical Layer I . 430 & I.431 Physical Layer SONET
Data Link
Physical

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/20
The above illustration shows us how the different WAN protocol stacks compare with the OSI model. The ITU Telecommunications Standardisation Sector (ITU-T) is a permanent organ of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which itself is a United Nations specialised agency. LAPB (Link Access Procedure, Balanced) was issued by ITU-T as part of its X.25 packet-switching network interface standard. LAPD (Link Access Procedure, D-Channel) was issued by ITU-T as part of its recommendation set for ISDN. LAPF (Link Access Procedure for Frame Mode Bearer Services) was issued by ITU-T as part of its Frame Relay standard. I.430 & I.431 are physical layer specifications issued by the ITU-T.
5-25
Summary
In Chapter 5 we introduced the concept of WANs. We looked at connection-oriented and connectionless packet service and discussed the differences between them. We examined the characteristics of WANs and their operation. We examined the characteristics of X.25, its operation and its frame format. We also examined Frame Relay and its characteristics and its frame format. We described ISDN technologies and the different access rates available. We discussed point-to-point protocol, its components and its frame format.

5/038 13 LZUBB 108116/21
5-26
Chapter 6 ATM
Chapter 6 - Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

l Chapter Objectives - At the end of this chapter students will be able to define:
The ATM Cell Format The ATM Cell Reference Model ATM Addressing ATM Switching ATM Signalling

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/1
6-1
Introduction
l Asynchronous Transfer Mode is a cell-switched, connectionoriented protocol. l Information is organised into small fixed-size packets called cells l Suitable for both constant rate traffic (audio, video) and variable rate traffic (data) l Typical ATM WAN speeds are 155mbps and 622mbps l ATM supports Quality of Service (QoS)
6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/2
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a cell-switched, connection-oriented protocol that combines the best from circuit switching, that is, low delay and the best from packet switching, that is, flexible bandwidth. ATM is also know as cell relay, in some ways it is similar to X.25 and Frame Relay, ATM involves the transfer of data in discrete channels. In ATM the information flow on each logical connection is organised into fixed-size packets called cells. The term Asynchronous refers to the fact that cells belonging to the same connection do not appear at regular intervals. The switching and multiplexing process (i.e. transfer mode) is based on address information in each cell (not on the cells position in time). Cell switching used in ATM is highly flexible and can handle both constant rate traffic and variable rate traffic easily. The common speeds for ATM networks are 155mbps and 622mbps, though gigabit speeds are also possible. One of the greatest advantages of ATM is its support for guaranteed Quality of Service. A device requesting a connection set up can request a certain QoS from the network and can be assured that the network will deliver that QoS for the duration of the connection. The QoS will define characteristics such as cell loss ratio, and cell delay.
6-2
ATM Cells
53 bytes Header 5 bytes Payload 48 bytes 40 bits GFC VPI 4 8 VCI 16 40 bits VPI VCI PT CLP HEC PT 3 CLP 1 HEC 8 GFC = Generic Flow Control VPI = Virtual Path Identifier VCI = Virtual Channel Identifier NNI header PT = Payload Type CLP = Congestion Loss Priority format HEC = Header Error Control
6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/3
Field length in bytes
UNI header format
The ATM cell is made up of 53 bytes, this cell is subdivided into a header and payload. The payload i.e. the information that is being sent, makes up 48 bytes. The ATM standards groups have defined two header formats. The User-Network Interface (UNI) specification defines communication between ATM end stations (such as workstation and routers) and ATM switches in ATM networks. The Network-Network Interface (NNI) specification defines communication between ATM switches. The UNI header consists of the following fields: GFC - 4 bits of generic flow control that can be used to provide local functions, such as identifying multiple stations that share a single ATM interface. The GFC field is typically not used and is set to a default value. VPI - 8 bits of virtual path identifier, which is used in conjunction with the VCI, to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. A virtual path is a bundle of virtual channels that have the same end point. VCI - 16 bits of virtual channel identifier, which is used in conjunction with the VPI, to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes thorough a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. A virtual channel is a logical connection between two end-devices through the ATM network
6-3
PT - 3 bits of payload type the first bit indicates whether the cell contains user data or control data. If the cell contains user data, the second bit indicates congestion, and the third bit indicates whether the cell is the last in the series of cells that represents a single AAL5 frame CLP - 1 bit of congestion loss priority, which indicates whether the cell should be discarded if it encounters extreme congestion as it moves through the network. HEC - 8 bits of header error control, which is a checksum calculated only on the header itself. The GFC field is not present in the format of the NNI header. Instead, the VPI field occupies the first 12 bits, which allows ATM switches to assign larger VPI values. With that exception , the format of the NNI header is identical to the format of the UNI format.
6-4
ATM Reference Model

Connection-Oriented Voice/Video Services Constant Bit Rate (CBR) Connection-Oriented Voice/Video Services Variable Bit Rate (VBR) Connectionless & Connection-Oriented Data Services Variable Bit Rate (VBR)
ATM Adaptation Layer ATM Layer Physical Layer

6/038 13 LZUBB 180116/4
The ATM reference model is divided into three layers, each of the layers having a separate function. These layers are called: Physical Layer ATM Layer ATM Adaptation Layer Each layer handles different parts of the connections. The Physical Layer is responsible for the actual transportation of cells. Outgoing cells are received asynchronously from the ATM Layer. Idle cells must be inserted into the frame when no real cells are available for transportation. The Physical Layer also keeps track of ATM cell boundaries, and packages cells into appropriate types of frame for the physical medium being used. ATM can use any physical medium capable of carrying ATM cells, for example SONET (Synchronous Optical Network).
6-5
The ATM Layer is responsible for establishing connections and passing cells through the ATM network. To do this, it uses the information contained in the header of each ATM cell. The ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) sits on top of the ATM layer and is composed of two sublayers; the convergence sublayer (CS) and the segmentation and reassembly sublayer (SAR). AAL translates user traffic coming from applications to ATM format. It is here also that ATM provides support for different applications. Examples of these applications are X.25 and LAN applications, as well as constant bit rate applications, like uncompressed video and multimedia applications. The convergence sublayer enables voice, video and data traffic to pass through the same switching fabric. This sublayer interprets the data coming from the higher level application and prepares it for processing by the SAR. The operations and functions carried out by the CS will vary depending on the type and format of the incoming data. The segmentation and reassembly sublayer takes the data from the CS and segments it into 48-byte cells at the transmission end. At the receiving end SAR reassembles the cells into the higher level information before passing it on to the final destination host. Several adaptation protocols have been defined for the AAL: AAL1: This is the adaptation protocol for Constant Bit Rate (CBR) services. AAL2: This is the adaptation protocol for Variable Bit Rate (VBR) services. AAL3/4: The combined AAL3 and AAL4 protocol was defined principally for linking LANs and WANs. AAL5: This protocol is suitable for packet data applications and signalling.
6-6
ATM Adaptation Layer 5

Data Frame Frame CS PDU AAL5 SAR PDU SAR PDU SAR PDU SAR PDU ATM layer ATM cell 0 Payload ATM cell 0 Payload ATM cell 0 Payload Segmentation And Re-assembly sublayer SAR Convergence sublayer
ATM cell 1 Payload

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5
The diagram above shows how AAL5 prepares a cell for transmission. First, the convergence sublayer of AAL5 appends a variable-length pad and a 8byte trailer to a frame. The pad is long enough to ensure that the resulting protocol data unit (PDU) falls on the 48-byte boundary of the ATM cell. The trailer includes the length of the frame and a 32-bit CRC computed across the entire PDU, which allows AAL5 at the destination to detect bit errors and lost or cell that are out of sequence. Next, the segmentation and reassembly segments the CS PDU into 48-bytes blocks. Then the ATM layer places each block into the payload field of an ATM cell. For all cells except the last cell, a bit in the PT field is set to zero to indicate that it is not the last cell in a series that represent a single frame. For the last cell, the bit in the PT field is set to one. When the cell arrives at its destination, the ATM layer extracts the payload field from the cell; the SAR sublayer reassembles the CS PDU; and the CS uses the CRC and the length field to verify that the frame has been transmitted and reassembled correctly.
6-7
Switching in ATM
41/76
VIDE O
3
41/37 VIDEO 8/42 DATA
4 1
73/78
VOICE
SAM
PBX
3 2/37
VIDE O
19/78
VOICE
5 2 6
98/42
DATA
17/37
VIDE O
Network servers ( Video/ IP )
Routing Table
Po rt
VIDEO DATA VIDEO VOICE
VPI / VCI 41/37 8/42 32/37 19/78
Port 3 5 6 4
VP I /VCI 41/76 98/42 17/37 73/78
1 1 2 2

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/6
ATM switches use the VPI and VCI fields of the cell header to identify the physical port that a cell must be sent to, on its way to its final destination. A virtual channel is equivalent to a virtual circuit - that is, both terms describe a logical connection between the two ends of a communication connection. A virtual path is a logical grouping of virtual circuits that allows an ATM switch to perform operations on a group of virtual circuits. The main function of an ATM switch is to receive cells on a port and switch those cells to the proper output port based on the VPI and VCI values of the cell. Switching is determined by a switching table, that maps input ports to output ports in accordance with the values in the VPI and VCI fields, as shown above. Say, for example, that two cells arrive on port 1 of the ATM switch. First, the switch examines the VPI and VCI fields of cell 1 and finds that the fields have a value of 8 and 42 respectively. The switch examines the switch table to determine on which port it should send the cell. It finds that when it receives a VPI of 8 and a VCI of 42 on port 1, it should send the cell out on port 5 with a VPI of 98 and a VCI of 42. So, for cell 1, the switch changes the VPI to 98 and the VCI to 42 and sends the cell out on port 5.
6-8
Next, the switch examines cell 2, which has a VPI of 41 and a VCI of 37. The table directs the switch to send out on port 3 cells received on port 1 that have a VPI of 41 and a VCI of 37 respectively, and to change the VPI and VCI to 41 and 76 respectively. Conversely, when a cell with a VPI and VCI of 98 and 42 respectively comes in on port 5, the table directs the switch to send the cell out on port 1 with a VPI and VCI of 8 and 42 respectively. When a cell with a VPI and VCI of 41 and 76 respectively comes in on port 3, the table directs the switch to send the cell out on port 1 with a VPI and VCI of 41 and 37 respectively. Note that VPI and VCI values are significant only to the local interface. The same process is used when cells arrive at ports two, four and six.
6-9
Virtual Path V virtual circuit switching
VC Switch
VCI 1 VCI 2 VCI 3 VPI 3 VCI 4 VPI 4
Port 2
VPI 1
VPI 4 VCI 1 VCI 2 VCI 1 VCI 2

Port 1
VCI 4
VPI 1 VPI 4
VP Switch
VPI 3
VCI 3 VCI 1 VCI 2
VPI 5
Port 3

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/7
The diagram above shows how the VPI field is used to group virtual channels (identified by their VCI values) into logical group. By reducing the number of fields that have to be changed as each cell passes through the switch, the performance of the switch increases. In the diagram above cells that enter the ATM switch on port 1 and have a VPI value of 4 are processed through the VP switch, which changes the VPI value of each cell to 5 but leaves the VCI value intact, and sends the cell out on port 3. Cells that have a VPI value of 1 are processed through the VC switch. For cells that have a VCI value of 1, the VC switch changes the VPI to 4 and the VCI to 4 and send the cell out on port 2. For cells that have a VCI value of 2, the VC switch changes the VPI to 3 and the VCI to 3 and send the cell out on port 3.
6-10
Advantages of Virtual Path Switching

l Only one virtual path has to be established for a source to a destination. l The routing of individual cells is easier when all virtual circuits for a given path are always in the same bundle. l Basing all routing on virtual paths makes it easier to switch a whole group of virtual circuits. l Virtual paths make it easier for carriers to offer closed user groups.

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/8
Using only the VPIs between interior switches has several advantages. To start with, once a virtual path has been established from a source to a destination, any additional virtual circuits along that path can follow the existing path. No new routing decisions have to be made. It is as though a bundle of twisted pairs has already been pulled from the source to the destination. Setting up a new connection merely requires allocating one of the unused pairs. Second, routing of individual cells is easier when all virtual circuits for a given path are always in the same bundle. The routing decision only involves looking at a 12-bit number, not a 12-bit number and a 16-bit number. Without going into the details, it should be clear that indexing into at table of 2*12 entries is feasible whereas indexing into a table of 2*28 entries is not. Third, basing all routing on virtual paths makes it easier to switch a whole group of virtual circuits. Consider, for example, the hypothetical US ATM backbone in the next slide. Normally, virtual circuits from NY to SF pass through Omaha and Denver. However, suppose a disturbance occurs on the Omaha-Denver line. By rerouting the Omaha-Denver virtual path to LA and then SF, all the virtual circuits (potentially up to 65 535 of them) can be switched in one operation instead of potentially thousands of operations.
6-11
Finally, virtual paths make it easier for carriers to offer closed user groups to corporate customers. A company can set up a network of permanent virtual paths among its various offices, and then allocate virtual circuits within these paths on demand. No calls can come into the private network from outside and no calls can leave the private network, except via special gateways. Many companies will like this kind of security.
6-12
Example ATM Switched Network

Source Incoming line Incoming VPI Destination Outgoing line Outgoing VPI NY 1 1 SF 4 1 NY 1 2 Denver 4 2 LA 3 1 Minneapolis 0 1 DC 1 3 LA 3 2 NY 1 1 SF 4 1 SF 4 3 DC 1 4 DC 1 5 SF 4 4 NY 1 2 Denver 4 2 SF 4 5 Minneapolis 0 2 NY 1 1 SF 4 1 Path NEW NEW NEW NEW OLD NEW NEW OLD NEW OLD
. .. . . . . . .. .
ORIGINAL PATH MINNEAPOLIS 0 SF DENVER 3 4 NEW PATH 1 LA 2 DALLAS
6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/9
.. .
NY DC
The Omaha Switch For each of its five incoming lines, it has a table, VPI table, indexed by incoming VPI that tells which of the five outgoing lines to use and what VPI to put in outgoing cells. Let us assume that five line are numbered for 0 to 4 clockwise starting at Minneapolis. For each outgoing line, the switch maintains a bit map telling which VPIs are currently in use on that line. When the switch is booted, all the entries in all the VPI table structures are marked as not in use. Similarly , all the bit maps are marked to indicated that all VPIs available (except the reserved ones). Now suppose calls come a shown in the above diagram. As each virtual path (and virtual circuit) is set up, entries are made in the tables. We will assume the virtual circuits are full duplex, so that each set up results in two entries, one for the forward traffic from the source and one for the reverse traffic from the destination. The table corresponds to the routes. For example, the first call generates the (4,1) entry for VPI 1 in the DC table because it refers to cells coming in on line 1 with VPI 1 and going to SF. However, and entry is also made in the Denver table for VPI 1 showing that cells coming in from Denver with VPI 1 should go out on line 1. These are cells travelling the other way (from SF to NY) on this virtual path. Note that tin some cases two or three virtual circuits are sharing a common path. No new table entries are needed for additional virtual circuits connecting a source to a destination that already have a path assigned.
6-13
ATM Signalling in an ATM Network

ATM Switch 1 PC A Connect to B Connect To B OK
OK
ATM Switch 3 ATM Switch 2
OK
Connect to B
Connect to B ATM Switch 4 OK PC B

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/10
As we have already seen, for a cell passing through an ATM network, there is a table of VPI and VCI values for each switch in the network. How we set up these tables determine the two types of ATM connections: Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC): A PVC is a connection set up by some external mechanism, typically network management, in which a set of switches between an ATM source and destination are programmed with the appropriate VPI and VCI values. Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC): An SVC is a connection that is set up automatically through a signalling protocol. SVCs do not need the manual intervention needed for PVC set up, thus they are likely to be more widely used. When an ATM device, PC A above, wants to establish a connection with PC B ( also an ATM device) it sends a signalling request packet to its ATM switch. This request has the ATM address of PC B as well as any QoS parameters needed for the connection. The packet is now examined by the switch. If there is an entry for PC B in its switch table and it can accommodate the QoS requested for the connection, it sets up a virtual circuit on the input link and forwards the signalling request out the output interface as specified in the switch table for the ATM address of PC B.
6-14
Every switch along the path to PC B will examine the signalling request and send it on to the next switch in the path if the QoS parameters can be supported. The virtual circuit is being set up during this process. If any switch cannot accommodate the QoS parameters then the request is rejected and a reject message is sent to the switch that made the request. If there is no alternative path then the virtual circuit is dropped. If an alternative path to the end point exists then that path will be tried in an attempt to complete the call. When the signalling request arrives at PC B it is again examined and, if PC B can support the QoS parameters it answers with an accept message. The accept message propagates itself back through the network to PC A and the switches set up the virtual path that all cells will follow to PC B. PC A receives the accept message from its home switch, as well as the VPI and VCI values that all cells from PC A should use to reach PC B.
6-15
Signalling in ATM
Private A TM n etwork
ATM network
UNI
PNNI
UNI
Dynamically Calculated Route for SVC

PNNI
PNNI PNNI PNNI
PNNI
PNNI
LAN
PNNI
UNI UNI
B-ICI
File Server UNI Signalling Link
Interconnected Network

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/11
There are three main signalling protocols used in ATM networks. They are User Network Interface (UNI), Private Node to Node Interface (PNNI) and B-ISDN Inter-Carrier Interface (B-ICI). They have roughly the following function: UNI - User Network Interface allows subscribers access to an ATM network, UNI subscriber recognition through ATM addressing, and allows recognition of the QoS contract and characteristics of the data to be sent across the connection. PNNI - Private Network-Network Interface provides the signalling and routing protocols required for managing and controlling the ATM network. Allows for the establishment and support of on-demand, switched connections, and the mechanisms that enable every node in the network to maintain up-to-date information about any changes in every other node in the network. B-ICI - Broadband Inter-Carrier Interface is the signalling and routing protocol for managing on demand, switched connections between one ATM network and another. B-ICI can also be used within an ATM network to improve control of traffic routing.
6-16
Signalling links are virtual connections that are permanently reserved. The diagram shows a simplistic view of the signalling links that convey signalling messages across different interface types, and between the following different types of signalling entity: A UNI subscriber connected to an ATM network node across a UNI. A private ATM network connected across a UNI to another ATM network. One node connected via a PNNI to another node within the same ATM network. The ATM network of one carrier connected across a B-ICI to the network of a different carrier.
6-17
ATM Address Formats

Data Country Code (DCC) Address Format AFI
(39)
DCC
HO-DSP
ESI
Sel
Acronym
Meaning
IDP
DSP
International Code Designator (ICD) Address Format AFI ICD

(47)
HO-DSP
ESI
Sel
IDP DSP AFI DCC ICD HO-DSP ESI E.164 Sel
Initial Domain Part Domain Specific Part Authority Format Identifier Data Country Code International Code Designator Higher-Order DSP End Station Identifier ITU Recommendation Selector
ATM Address Acronyms and Abbreviations
E.164 Address Format AFI

(45)
E 164
IDP
HO-DSP
DSP
ESI
Sel
20 Bytes
6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/12
ATM uses connection-on-demand operations. Therefore it is important to have a standardised convention for the coding of source and destination addresses. If Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs) are used, addressing is not an issue as the source and destination end-points and their connections are already defined. We only need supply the network with the VPI and VCI. However, if Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs) are used the destination can change with each session and so explicit addressing is necessary. Several ATM address formats have been developed, one for public networks and three for private networks. A typical ATM public network will use E.164 (ISDN) numbers. The Authority Format Identifier (AFI) is the first part of Initial Domain Part (IDP) for all ATM addresses. It defines the type of IDP. Also included in this part are the following: DCC addresses use the Data Country Code format. The 2-byte DCC field identifies the country the address is registered in, using codes specified by the ISO. ICD addresses are used by international organisations. The 2-byte ICD identifies the organisation. E.164 addresses use the address format designed for ISDN. A telephone number up to 15 digits long is coded in a 9-byte field. Following all this is the Domain Specific Part (DSP) and it is divided into two parts: the Higher-Order DSP, and End Station Identifier and Selector part (ESI/Sel). With the HO-DSP, the authority issuing the address can encode either routing or structural information.
6-18
The ESI/Sel are present in all ATM addresses and usually contains the Media Access Control (MAC) address of the sending host. The illustration on the previous page shows the address formats for the three PRIVATE networks, Data Country Code, International Code Designation and (Network Service Access Point (NSAP) encapsulated) E.164 address. Once the call has been mapped between the User Node Interfaces the VPI and VCI values can then be used for traffic identification.
6-19
Summary
In chapter 6 we examined the ATM cell and discussed in detail each part of the header. We looked at the ATM reference model and defined the functions each layer has, in particular the Adaptation Layer. We discussed ATM switching and looked at an example of its operation. We discussed the advantages of virtual path switching. We discussed ATM signalling and ATM addressing.

6/038 13 LZUBB 108116/13
6-20
Chapter 7
Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Chapter 7. Overview of TCP/IP Protocol Suite

l Chapter Objectives - At the end of this chapter students will be able to identify and describe
Internet Protocol (IP) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) IP version 6 (IPv6)

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/1
7-1
TCP/IP Architecture & Terminology

APPLICATION (FTP, TELNET, SNMP, DNS) Host Device TRANSPORT (TCP or UDP) INTERNET (IP, ARP, ICMP) NETWORK INTERFACE (LAN - ETH, TR, FDDI) (WAN - Serial lines, FR, ATM)
ROUTER

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/2
TCP/IP is not a single protocol; it refers to a family or suite of protocols. The suite consists of a four-layer model. Network interface layer The Network Interface Layer is equivalent to the combination of the Physical and Data Link Layers in the OSI model. It is responsible for formatting packets and placing them onto the underlying network. All common Data Link protocols support TCP/IP. Internet layer The Internet Layer is equivalent to the Network Layer in the OSI model. It is responsible for network addressing. The main protocols at this layer are: Internet Protocol (IP), Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), and Internet Group management Protocol (IGMP). The Transport layer The Transport Layer is equivalent to the Transport Layer in the OSI model. The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end message delivery and flow control. The main protocols at this layer are: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The Application layer The Application Layer is equivalent to the top three layers, (Application, Presentation and Session Layers), in the OSI model. The Application Layer is responsible for interfacing between user applications and the Transport Layer. Example applications commonly used are File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet, Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), and Domain Name system (DNS).
7-2
Encapsulation in an Ethernet Frame

6 6 2 46 - 1500 BYTES 4
C R C
DA. SA T IP Header
TCP Header
Application Data TCP Segment IP Packet
Ethernet Frame DA = Destination Address e.g. 00-80-37-12-34-56 SA = Source Address T = Type e.g. 0800 = IP, 6003 = DECnet CRC = Cyclic Redundancy Check Ethernet Frame Size - Minimum 64 Bytes Maximum 1518 Bytes
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/3
An Ethernet frame consists of a header, a trailer and a data portion. In the example above the data portion contains an IP packet. The IP packet is said to be encapsulated in an Ethernet frame. The IP packet itself consists of a header and a data portion. The data portion of the IP packet contains a TCP segment (or packet). The TCP segment consists of a TCP header and the actual application data. An Ethernet frame is always between 64 and 1,518 bytes in size. Sixteen bytes are required for the Ethernet header and trailer. The data portion of an Ethernet frame is always between 46 and 1,500 bytes.
7-3
Internet Protocol (IP)

l Provides logical 32-bit network addresses l Routes data packets l Connectionless protocol
No session is established
l Best effort delivery l Reliability is responsibility of higher-layer protocols and applications l Fragments and reassembles packets

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/4
IP is a connectionless protocol primarily responsible for addressing and routing packets between network devices. Connectionless means that a session is not established before exchanging data. IP is unreliable in that delivery is not guaranteed. It makes a best effort attempt to deliver a packet. Along the way a packet might be lost, delivered out of sequence, duplicated or delayed. An acknowledgement is not required when data is received. The sender or receiver is not informed when a packet is lost or out of sequence. The acknowledgement of packets is the responsibility of a higher-layer transport protocol, such as TCP. IP is also responsible for fragmenting and reassembling packets: Large packets must be divided into smaller pieces when the packet has to traverse a network that supports a smaller packet size. For example, an IP packet on a FDDI network could be up to 4,040 bytes long, if this packet then needs to traverse a ethernet network it must be split up into IP packets which are a maximum of 1,500 bytes long.
7-4
The Internet Protocol

Host A
Reliability & Sequencing
Host B
Reliability & Sequencing
Router
IP
Fires & Forgets Network Interface
IP
Routes If Possible
IP
Delivers as Received Network Interface
PACKET Fragmented Packet

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5
IP delivers its packets in a connectionless mode. It does not check to see if the receiving host can accept data and it does not keep a copy in case of errors. IP is therefore said to fire and forget. When a packet arrives at a router, it will forward the packet only if it knows a route to the destination. If the router does not know the destination it will drop the packet. The router does not send any acknowledgements to the sending device. If necessary the router will fragment the packet into smaller pieces.
7-5
The IP Address
193. 160. 1.0 200.12.5.0
193. 160. 1.1
Router
193. 160. 1.5
200.12.5.1
200.12.5.83
Binary Format Dotted Decimal notation
11000001 10100000 00000001 00000101 193. 160. 1.5

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/6
Every network interface on a TCP/IP device is identified by a globally unique IP address. Host devices, for example, PCs, typically have a single IP address. Routers, typically have two or more IP addresses depending on the number of interfaces they have. Each IP address is 32 bits long and is composed of four 8-bit fields, called octets. This address is normally represented in dotted decimal notation, by grouping the four octets and representing each byte in decimal form. Each octet represents a decimal number in the range 0-255. For example, 11000001 10100000 00000001 00000101, is known as 193.160.1.5 Each IP address defines the network ID and host ID. The network ID identifies the systems that are located on the same network or subnet. The network ID must be unique to the internetwork. The host ID identifies a TCP/IP network device (or host) within a network. The address for each host must be unique to the network ID. In the example above, the PC is connected to network 193. 160. 1.0 and has a unique host ID of .5.
7-6
Different IP Address Classes

NET ID HOST ID
CLASS A CLASS B CLASS C
NET ID
10
HOST ID
NET ID
110
HOST ID
Class A Class B Class C

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/7
Number of Hosts per Networks Network 126 16,777,214 16,384 65,534 2,097,152 254
1 Octet 1 126 128 191 192 - 223

st
There are five different address classes. The class of an IP address can be determined from the high-order (left-most) bits. Class A Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a very large number of hosts. The high-order bit in a class A address is always set to zero. The next seven bits (completing the first octet) complete the network ID. The remaining 24 bits (the last three octets) represent the host ID. This allows for 126 networks and approximately 17 million hosts per network. Class B Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to large-sized networks. The two high-order bits in a class B address are always set to binary 1 0. The next 14 bits (completing the first two octets) complete the network ID. The remaining 16 bits (last two octets) represent the host ID. This allows for 16,384 networks and approximately 65,000 hosts per network. Class C Class C addresses are used for small networks. The three high-order bits in a class C address are always set to binary 1 1 0. The next 21 bits (completing the first three octets) complete the network ID. The remaining 8 bits (last octet) represent the host ID. This allows for approximately 2 million networks and 254 hosts per network.
7-7
Class D Class D addresses are used for multicast group usage. A multicast group may contain one or more hosts, or none at all. The four high-order bits in a class D address are always set to binary 1 1 1 0. The remaining bits designate the specific group in which the client participates. There are no network or host bits in the multicast operations. Packets are passed to a selected subset of hosts on a network. Only those hosts registered for the multicast operation accept the packet. Class E Class E is an experimental address not available for general use: it is reserved for future use. The high-order bits in a class E address are set to 1 1 1 1 0.
7-8
Subnet Mask
l Blocks out a portion of the IP address to distinguish the Network ID from the host ID l Specifies whether the destinations host IP address is located on a local network or on a remote network l Default subnets are used on IP networks that are not divided into subnets
Class A Class B Class C Default Mask 255.0.0.0 Default Mask 255.255.0.0 Default Mask 255.255.255.0
l Subnetting allows an organisation to split up its network into smaller more efficient subnetworks.

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/8
A subnet mask is a 32-bit address used to: Block out a portion of the IP address to distinguish the network ID from the host ID. Specify whether the destinations host IP address is located on a local network or on a remote network. Each host on a TCP/IP network requires a subnet mask. A default subnet mask is used when a network is not divided into subnets. A customised subnet mask is used when a network is divided into subnets. In a default subnet mask all bits that correspond to the network ID are set to 1. The decimal value in each of these octets is 255. All bits that correspond to the host ID are set to 0. For example, the class B address 160.30.100.10 has a network ID of 160.30.0.0 and a host ID 100.10. The default mask is therefore 255.255.0.0
7-9
IP Packet Structure
32 bits (4 Bytes)
Version
IHL
Type of Service
Flags
Total Length Fragment Offset
Identification Time to Live Protocol
Header Checksum
IP header is normally 20 bytes long
Source Address Destination address Options (variable)

Padding
DATA (variable)
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/9
Version (4 bits): This specifies the version of the IP protocol and hence the format of the IP header being used. The current protocol version is 4 (IPv4), the new version is 6 (IPv6). IHL, Internet Header Length (4 bits): This is the length of the header in 32bit words. The minimum value is five, which is the most common header. Thus the header must be at least 20 bytes long. Type of Service (8 bits): This is an indication of the quality of service requested for the IP packet. It specifies reliability, precedence, delay, and throughput parameters. Total length (16 bits): This is the total packet length, including header and data, in bytes. Identification (16 bits): This is a unique number assigned by the sending device to aid in reassembling a fragmented packet. Its primary purpose is to allow the destination device to collect all fragments from a packet, since they will all have the same identification number. Flags (3 bits): These provide the fragmentation control fields.The first bit is not used and is always 0. If the second bit is 0, it means May fragment. If the second bit is 1, it means Dont fragment. If the third bit is 0, it means Last fragment. If the third bit is 1, it means More fragments. Fragment Offset (13 bits): This is used with fragmented packets to aid in reassembling the full packet. The value is the number of 8-byte pieces (header bytes are not counted) that are contained in earlier fragments. In the first fragment or in a unique fragment, this value is always zero.
7-10
Time to Live (8 bits): This contains the time, in seconds, that the packet is allowed to remain on an internetwork. Each IP device that the packet passes through will decreases the value by the time it takes it to process the IP header. All routers must decrease this value by a minimum of one. If the value drops to zero the packet is discarded. Protocol (8 bits): This indicates the higher level protocol to which IP should deliver the data in the packet, for example, UDP. Header Checksum (16 bits): This is a checksum on the header only, which ensures integrity of header values. The sending IP device performs a calculation on the bits in the IP header, excluding the header checksum field, and places the result in the header checksum field. The receiving device performs the same calculation and compares the result with the value in the header checksum field. If they are different then an error has occurred and the IP packet is discarded. Source Address (32 bits): This is the 32-bit IP address of the sending device Destination Address (32 bits): This is the 32-bit IP address of the receiving device. Options (variable): These are not required in every packet. They are mainly used for network testing or debugging. Data (variable): The total length of the data field plus header is a maximum of 65,535 bytes.
7-11
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

l A source must know a destinations hardware address before it can send an IP packet directly to it. l ARP is the mechanism that maps IP to hardware addresses. l ARP uses a local broadcast to obtain a hardware address l ARP stores mappings in cache for future use

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/10
Network devices must know each others hardware address to communicate on a network. Address resolution is the process of mapping a hosts IP address to its hardware address. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for obtaining hardware addresses of TCP/IP devices on broadcast-based networks. ARP uses a local broadcast of the destination IP address to acquire the hardware address of the destination device. Once the hardware address is obtained, both the IP address and the hardware address are stored as one entry in the ARP cache. The ARP cache is always checked for an IP address/hardware address mapping before initiating an ARP request broadcast.
7-12
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

If your IP address is 160.30.100.10 please send me a reply stating your hardware address
Source 160.30.100.20 00-AA-00-12-34-56
Broadcast Unicast Destination 160.30.100.10 00-A0-C9-78-9A-BC

Thats me and my Hardware address is 00-A0-C9-78-9A-BC

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/11
The source device knows its own IP and hardware address and the IP address of the device it wants to send the information to. It checks its existing ARP cache for the hardware address of the destination host. If no mapping is found, the source builds an ARP request packet, looking for the hardware address to match the IP address. The ARP request is a broadcast so all local devices receive and process it. Each device checks for a match with its own IP address. The destination device determines that there is a match and sends an ARP reply directly to the source device with its hardware address. Both devices update their ARP cache with the IP address/hardware address mapping of the other device. From then on the devices can communicate directly with each other. After a period of time if devices do not communicate with each other they will clear the entry from their ARP caches.
7-13
ARP packet Structure

32 bits (4 Bytes)
Hardware Type HLEN PLEN Protocol Type Operation code
Senders Hardware Address (Octets 0-3) Sender HA (Octets 4-5) Sender IP (Octets 2-3) Sender IP (Octets 0-1) Target HA (Octets 0-1)
Variable Length
Target HA (octets 2 - 5) Target IP (octets 0 - 3)

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/12
Hardware Type (16 bits): This specifies the hardware interface type, for example, Ethernet has a value of 1. Protocol type (16 bits): This specifies the higher-level protocol whose address needs mapping onto the hardware, for example, IP. HLEN, Hardware address length (8 bits): This specifies the length in bytes of the hardware address in this packet. PLEN, Protocol address length (8 bits): This specifies the length in bytes of the protocol address in this packet. For IP this will be four. Operation code (16 bits): This specifies whether this is an ARP request (1) or an ARP reply (2). Senders hardware address (48 bits): This contains the hardware address of the sender. Senders IP address (32 bits): This contains the protocol address of the sender. Targets hardware address (48 bits): This contains the hardware address of the target. Targets IP address (32 bits): This contains the protocol address of the target.
7-14
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

l Reports errors and control messages on behalf of IP l ICMP messages are encapsulated within an IP packet l One of the most frequently used debugging tools uses ICMP
It tests whether a destination is reachable and responding, by sending ICMP echo requests and receiving back ICMP echo replies. It carries out this test by using the PING command
l Echo Request and Reply Message format

IP Header...... Type Code Checksum Sequence Number Optional Data
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/13
Identifier
ICMP reports errors and sends control messages on behalf of IP. ICMP does not attempt to make IP a reliable protocol. It merely attempts to report errors and provide feedback on specific conditions. ICMP messages are carried as IP packets and are therefore unreliable. Type (8 bits): This specifies the type of ICMP message, for example, 0 is an echo reply, 3 is destination unreachable, 4 is a source quench, 5 is a redirect, 8 is an echo request. Code (8 bits): This contains an error code that further describes the problem. For example, in a destination unreachable message: 0 means network unreachable, 1 means host unreachable, 2 means protocol unreachable. Checksum (16 bits): This is a checksum carried out on the 8-byte ICMP header only. Identifier and Sequence number (16 bits each): These are used by the sender to match replies to requests. Optional Data: This field contains information to be returned to the sender. An echo reply always returns exactly the same data as was received in the request.
7-15
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
lConnection-oriented lEnd-to-End reliable delivery lProvides logical connections between pair of processes:
These are uniquely identified using sockets socket = IP address & port number e.g. FTP is port 21

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/14
TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented delivery service. Connection-oriented means that a session must be established before devices can exchange data. The data is transmitted in segments. Reliability is achieved by assigning a sequence number to each segment transmitted. If a TCP segment is broken into smaller pieces, the receiving device knows whether all pieces have been received. An acknowledgement is used to verify that the data was received. For each segment sent, the receiving device must return an acknowledgement (ACK) within a specified period. If an ACK is not received the data is retransmitted. TCP processes or applications communicate with each other by having both the sending and receiving device create end points, called sockets. Each socket has a socket number (address) consisting of the IP address of the device and a 16-bit number called a port. A port is used by transport protocols to identify which application protocol, or process, it must deliver incoming messages to. Port can use any number between 0 and 65,536. All well-known port numbers are below 256, for example, FTP is port 21, Telnet is port 23 and DNS is port 53. An application creates a socket by specifying three items: the IP address of the device, the transport protocol (TCP or UDP), and the port the application is using.
7-16
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
lUnits of data transferred between two devices running TCP software are called segments lSegments are exchanged to do the following:
Open a connection Agree window size Transfer data Send acknowledgements Close connection
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/15
A TCP session is initialised through a three-way handshake. During this process the two communicating devices synchronise the sending and receiving of segments, inform each other of the amount of data they are able to receive at once (window size and segment size), and establish a virtual connection. TCP uses a similar handshake process to end a connection.
7-17
TCP Packet Structure

32 bits (4 Bytes)
Source Port Destination Port
Sequence Number Acknowledgement Number

OFF Reserved Code Bits SET
Window Urgent Pointer

Padding
Checksum Options
DATA
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/16
Source port (16 bits): This is the TCP port number of the sending device. Destination port (16 bits): This is the TCP port number of the receiving device. Sequence number (32 bits): This is the sequence number of the data byte stream in the segment. Acknowledgement number (32 bits): This is the sequence number that the receiver expects to receive next. Offset (4 bits): This is the number of 32-bit words in the TCP header. It is needed because the Options field length is variable. Reserved (6 bits): Reserved for future use. It must be zero. Code Bits (6 bits): These are six flags that control the behaviour of a TCP packet. They are: 1. Urgent 2. Acknowledgement 3. Push 4. Reset connection 5. Synchronous 6. Finish. Window (16 bits): This is used in acknowledgement segments to implement flow control. It specifies the number of data bytes which the receiver is willing to accept. Checksum (16 bits): This is used to verify the integrity of the TCP header. The checksum is performed on a pseudo header consisting of information obtained from the IP as well as the TCP header Urgent Pointer (16 bits): When urgent data is being sent (as specified in the code bits), this points to the end of the urgent data in the segment. Options: This is used to specify maximum segment size during the establishment of a connection.
7-18
User Datagram Protocol

l Connectionless
No session is established
l Does not guarantee delivery

No sequence numbers No acknowledgements
l Reliability is the responsibility of the application l Uses port numbers as end points to communicate l UDP Packet Format
Source Port Length Destination Port UDP Checksum

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/17
UDP provides a connectionless packet service that offers unreliable, best effort delivery. This means that the arrival of packets is not guaranteed, nor is the correct sequencing of delivered packets. UDP is used by applications that do not require an acknowledgement of receipt of data and that typically transmit small amounts of data at one time, for example, the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). To use UDP, the application must supply the IP address and port number of the destination application. UDP ports are separate and distinct from TCP ports even though some of them use the same port numbers. The UDP header is divided into four 16-bit fields: Source port: This is the UDP protocol port number of the process on the sending device. Destination port: This is the UDP protocol port number of the process on the destination device. Length: This is the size in bytes of the UDP packet, including the header and data. The minimum length is 8 bytes, the length of the header alone. UDP Checksum: This is used to verify the integrity of the UDP header. The checksum is performed on a pseudo header consisting of information obtained from the IP as well as the UDP header.
7-19
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - DHCP

Non DHCP client DHCP client
IP Address 1 IP Address 2 1. Find a DHCP server DHCP client 2. Offer an address 3. Accept an address 4. Confirmation DHCP server DHCP Database IP Address 1 IP Address 2 IP Address 3

7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/18
DHCP centralises and manages the allocation of TCP/IP configuration information by automatically assigning IP addresses to devices configured to use DHCP. Implementing DHCP eliminates some of the configuration problems associated with manually configuring TCP/IP. Typing in the IP address, sub-net mask, or default gateway incorrectly can lead to problems including communication difficulties if the default gateway or subnet mask is wrong, and network problems associated with a duplicate IP address. Each time a DHCP client starts, it requests IP addressing information from a DHCP server, including: IP address Subnet mask Optional values, such as default gateway address and Domain Name Server (DNS) address. When a DHCP server receives a request, it selects IP addressing information from a pool of addresses defined in its database and offers it to the DHCP client. If the client accepts the offer, the IP addressing information is leased to the client for a specified period of time. If there is no available IP addressing information in the pool to lease to a client, the client cannot initialise TCP/IP
7-20
DHCP Operation
DHCPDISCOVER Source IP Address = 0.0.0.0 Dest. IP Address = 255.255.255.255 Hardware Address = 00-80-37-12-34-56
DHCPOFFER Source IP Address = 160.30.20.10 Dest. IP Address = 255.255.255.255 Offered IP Address = 160.30.20.150 Client Hardware Address = 00-80-37-12-34-56 Subnet mask = 255.255.255.0 Length of Lease = 72 hours Server identifier = 160.30.20.10
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/19
DHCP uses a four-phase process to configure a DHCP client. In the first two phases the client requests a lease from a DHCP server, and a DHCP server offers an IP address to the client. IP Lease Request The first time a client is initialised, it requests an IP address lease by broadcasting a request to all DHCP servers. Because the client does not have an IP address or know the IP address of a DCHP server, it uses 0.0.0.0 as the source address, and 255.255.255.255 as the destination address. The request for a lease is sent in a DHCPDISCOVER message. This message also contains the clients hardware address and computer name, so that DHCP servers know which client sent the request. IP Lease Offer All DHCP servers that receive the request, and have a valid configuration for the client, broadcast an offer with the following information: The clients hardware address, an offered IP address, a subnet mask, the length of the lease and a server identifier (the IP address of the offering DHCP server). A broadcast is used because the client does not yet have an IP address. The offer is sent as a DHCPOFFER message. The DHCP server reserves the IP address so that it will not be offered to another DHCP client. The DHCP client selects the IP address from the first offer it receives.
7-21
DHCP Operation
DHCPREQUEST Source IP Address = 0.0.0.0 Dest. IP Address = 255.255.255.255 Hardware Address = 00-80-37-12-34-56 Requested IP Address = 160.30.20.150 Server Identifier = 160.30.20.10
DHCPACK Source IP Address = 160.30.20.10 Dest. IP Address = 255.255.255.255 Offered IP Address = 160.30.20.150 Client Hardware Address 00.80.37.12.34.56 Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0 Length of Lease = 72 hours Server Identifier = 160.30.20.10 DHCP Option: Router = 160.30.20.1
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/20
In the last two phases, the client selects an offer and the DHCP server acknowledges the lease. IP Lease Selection After the client receives an offer from at least one DHCP server, it broadcasts to all DHCP servers that it has made a selection by accepting an offer. The broadcast is sent in a DHCPREQUEST message and includes the identifier (IP address) of the server whose offer was accepted. All other DHCP servers then retract their offer so that their IP addresses are available for the next IP lease request. IP Lease Acknowledgement (Successful) The DHCP server with the accepted offer broadcasts a successful acknowledgement to the client in the form of a DHCPACK message. This message contains a valid lease for an IP address and possibly other configuration information. When the DHCP client receives the acknowledgement, TCP/IP is completely initialised and is considered a bound DHCP client. Once bound the client can use TCP/IP to communicate on the internetwork.The client stores the IP address, subnet mask, and other IP addressing information locally.
7-22
IP Lease Acknowledgement (Unsuccessful) An unsuccessful acknowledgement (DHCPNACK) is broadcast if: The client is trying to lease its previous IP address and the IP address is no longer available, or The IP address is invalid because the client has been physically moved to a different subnet. When the client receives an unsuccessful acknowledgement, it returns to the process of requesting an IP lease. IP Lease Renewal All DHCP clients attempt to renew their lease when 50 percent of the lease time has expired. To renew its lease, a DHCP client sends a DHCPREQUEST message directly to the DHCP server from which it obtained the lease. If a lease cannot be renewed by the original DHCP server, the client still uses the address as 50 percent of the lease life is still available. The client will attempt to contact any available DHCP server when 87.5 percent of the lease time has expired. If this is unsuccessful and the lease expires, the DHCP clients can no longer use the IP address and communication over TCP/IP stops until a new IP address can be assigned to the client.
7-23
The future of IP - IP version 6 (IPv6)

l Enhancements to IPv4:
Larger address. 128 bits instead of 32 bits - allowing effectively an unlimited supply of Internet addresses. Simpler header. 7 instead of 13 fields - allows routers to process packets faster, thus improving throughput Better support for Options and they are presented differently (a series of fixed length headers rather than a single header with a variable length Option field). Enhanced security Better implementation of type-of-service, to cope better with MultiMedia traffic.
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/21
IPv6 was primarily developed to solve the problem of a shortage of available addresses in IPv4. This problem has been caused primarily because of the explosion of IP devices connecting to the Internet. The address in IPv6 is 16 bytes long. This is an increase in address space of 2 to the power of 96. It provides an effectively unlimited supply of Internet addresses. The header is simplified in IPv6. It contains only seven fields rather than 13 in IPv4. This change allows routers to process packets faster and thus improve throughput. There is better support for Options. The way Options are represented is different, making it simple for routers to skip over Options not intended for them. This feature speeds up packet processing time. Security is improved in IPv6. It includes features that support authentication and privacy. There is a better implementation of type of service. Instead of the type-ofservice field in IPv4, IPv6 enables the labelling of packets belonging to a particular traffic flow for which the sender requests special handling; this aids in the support of specialised traffic, such as real-time video.
7-24
Summary
In chapter 7 we examined the four layers in the TCP/IP protocol and described the functions of each layer. We discussed encapsulation and looked at an example of and IP packet encapsulated in an Ethernet packet. We looked at Internet Protocol (IP) and discussed its characteristics and how it transports data across a network. We also examined the IP packet structure and IPv6. We discussed the ARP mechanism and looked at an example of how it works. We also examined the ARP packet structure.We described Internal Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and discussed its functionality. We looked at Transmission control protocol (TCP) and discussed its characteristics. We examined how it transmits data across a network and its packet structure. We looked at User Datagram protocol (UDP) and its characteristics. We also reviewed Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and its characteristics.
7/038 13 LZUBB 108116/22
7-25
Exercises & Solutions
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNETWORKING
In this exercise you will learn about internetworking basics. 1. List two differences between LANs and WANs. 2. Why would an enterprise want to internetwork? 3. Name five standards organisations. 4. What is the difference between a proprietary and a de-facto standard? 5. What function does the Network layer serve? 6. What is a collision domain? 7. What is a broadcast domain? 8. What are the differences between repeaters, bridges and routers?
LAN TECHNOLOGIES
In this exercise you will learn about different LAN technologies. 1. Name three different types of network topologies. 2. What are the differences between Ethernet, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet? 3. What is the main reason for using CSMA/CD? 4. What is FDDI and why would you use it? 5. What is meant by wrapping? 6. Define SAS and DAS and what are their functions? 7. Give instances where wLANs are particularly useful other than those given in the notes. 8. What medium does a wLAN use for transmission? 9. Why are wLANs simple and reliable? 10. What is the difference between Peer-to-Peer and Client/Access Point?
BRIDGING
In this exercise you will learn about bridging. 1. Name the two types of bridging. 2. What are the three steps involved in transparent bridge operation? 3. What is a bridging loop and how is it prevented? 4. What is spanning tree? 5. List two advantages and two disadvantages of bridging.
ROUTING
In this exercise you will learn about routing. 1. Explain the difference between routable protocols and routing protocols. 2. What are the two steps involved in the routing process? 3. List four of the routing metrics available. 4. List two advantages of routing. 5. List two disadvantages of RIP. 6. List two disadvantages of OSPF.
WAN TECHNOLOGIES
In this exercise you will learn about WAN technologies. 1. What is the difference between Dedicated and Switched lines? 2. What are the two primary switching technologies used inWANs? 3. What layers of the OSI model does X.25 correspond to? 4. What is LAP-B and what is its function? 5. What are PVC and SVC? 6. What are the core functions of frame relay? 7. If frame relay has no flow-control how does it deal with congestion? 8. Describe Local and Global addressing. 9. What is Dial-up on Congestion? 10. Describe briefly what happens during LCP/NCP negotiation.
ATM
In this exercise you will learn about ATM. 1. ATM Combines what? 2. What does a basic ATM cell consist of? 3. What are the two types of header format available? 4. What is the function of AAL? 5. What are the two parts in an ATM switch and what is the difference between them? 6. What are the main functions of an ATM switch? 7. What are PVC and SVC? 8. What is the difference between UNI, PNNI and B-ICI? 9. What are the ATM address formats?
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

In this exercise you will learn about the TCP/IP protocol suite. 1. List the four layers in the TCP/IP architecture. 2. What are the main protocols that can be used in the Internet layer? 3. What is ARP responsible for? 4. What is ICMP responsible for? 5. What is the main difference between IP and TCP? 6. What is DHCP and what does it do? 7. What are the main differences between IPv4 and IPv6?
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNETWORKING
Solutions to Exercise
1. The two main differences between LANs andWANs are: That LANs are geographically bounded whereasWANs have no distance limitations. LANs also have a higher communication rate thanWANs. 2. An enterprise may internetwork for the following reasons: To reduce load To increase performance If the physical distance between the devices was to great In order to connect all their different departments
3. Five standards organisations are: ITU International Telecommunications Union IEEE Institute of Electrical Engineers ANSI American National Standards Institute FORUMS ISO International Standards Organisation
4. A proprietary standard is one that is manufacturer specific. A de-facto standard is one that is supported by a large number of manufacturers. 5. The Network layer switches and routes information to the appropriate network device. 6. If two devices within the same domain attempt to transmit simultaneously the packets will collide and re-transmission will occur. 7. Broadcast domain is if a device sends out a Network layer broadcast it will be received by all devices within the same broadcast domain. 8. A repeater regenerates the signal; they do not reduce network collisions or broadcast traffic. A bridge reduces the number of collisions on the network by breaking the network into smaller segments. A router like a bridge reduces the number of collisions, in addition to this they also stop network broadcast traffic, thus reducing the amount of traffic on each segment.
LAN TECHNOLOGIES
1. Bus Ring and Star are the three types of network topologies that are in existence. 2. Speed 10 Mbps verses 100Mbps. Access media, twisted pair cabling verses coaxial. Training ,when using gigabit Ethernet retraining of staff is necessary. 3. To over come the problem of devices not having access to the network at any time. 4. FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface) is a highperformance , fiber optic LAN working at 100Mpbs. It would be used as high speed backbone for existing LANs either, Ethernet or token-ring, and for its reliability and capacity. 5. Wrapping is the process which occurs when a break is experienced in the primary ring of an FDDI LAN and the devices either side of the break join the primary and secondary rings to maintain the ring topology. 6. SAS is a Single Attachment Station and is normally connected to the primary ring only. It does not take part in wrapping. DAS is a Dual Attachment Station usually attached to both rings and does perform wrapping when a fault is detected. 7. Own Suggestions!! 8. Radio waves and Infrared waves. 9. They can go where wired LANs cannot. They can be easily moved around. Entire networks can be pre-configured and troubleshot prior to installation at remote sites. Encryption also guarantees a high degree of security. 10. With Peer-to-Peer the sending and receiving stations must be within range of each other, typically a few meters. There is no fixed equipment. With Client/Access point the access acts like abasestation with which the mobile client communicates as it moves about. The range is 30m-100m.
BRIDGING
1. The two different types of bridges are transparent bridges and source-route bridges. 2. There are three steps involved in transparent bridging operation are: Learning Forwarding Filtering 3. If a packet arrives at an address and the destination is unknown, it is flooded out to every other interface. A bridging loop occurs when this information is continually circulated around through the bridges. This uses up bandwidth and blocks the transmission of other packets. Using the spanning tree protocol can prevent the problem. 4. Spanning Tree is a protocol that eliminates bridging loops in LANs. It allows redundant paths, but ensures a loop-free topology through a bridge-to-bridge protocol. 5. The advantages of bridging are as follows: They are simple to install They are transparent to users They can handle unroutable protocols They are relatively cheap
The disadvantages associated with bridging are as follows: They cannot simultaneously use redundant paths They cannot prevent a broadcast storm They do not help in fault isolation.
ROUTING
1. Routable protocols are protocols that are routed over an internetwork. Routing protocols are protocols that implement routing algorithms; in other words they route routable protocols through and internetwork. 2. The two steps involved in the routing process are Determination of Optimal Routing path. Transport of packets through an internetwork. 3. The following is a list of routing metrics available; Path Length/Hop count Reliability Delay Bandwidth Load Communication cost
4. The following are the advantages of routers; Routers are more flexible than bridges They can load share over redundant paths They provide a protective firewall They are easier to administer and control because each segment has a different address.
5. The disadvantages of RIP are: Slow convergence Quantity of update traffic Limits the size of internetwork
6. The disadvantages of OSPF are: Heavy memory use CPU utilisation Expensive
WAN TECHNOLOGIES
1. A dedicated line is a permanent connection between two points. A leased line isa n example of a dedicated line. A switched line on the other hand does not need permanent connections. Instead, it lets users setup temporary connections for the duration of the call. The two primary switching technologies are packet switching and circuit switching. The X.25 corresponds to the bottom three layer of the OSI model, that is, Physical layer, the Data Link layer and the Network layer. LAP-B=Link Access Protocol-Balanced, is a link layer protocol and its main functions are : Establishing virtual connections. Handling flow-control. Tearing down circuits after a call. Acknowledgement of receipt of packets. A Permanent Virtual Circuit is a fixed network-assigned virtual circuit. A Switched Virtual Circuit is a dynamically established virtual circuit with call set-up and call clearing procedures.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6. The core functions of frame relay are: Routing incoming frames to the correct outgoing port. Checking frames for errors. Checking buffer status, if they are full then all other frames are discarded. 7. Frame relay deals with congestion in two ways: Arbitrary Selection Discard Eligibility 8. Local addressing is where the DLCI value has relevance to the source station and its home switch. Other remote switches can also use the same DLCI. Global addressing has relevance to the entire network. Each switch in the network will use the same DLCI when talking to an individual destination.
9. Dial-up on Congestion occurs when the traffic on the dedicated line exceeds the
available bandwidth and the automatically uses the ISDN line to provide additional bandwidth.
10. Once a connection is established the LCP are sent to the destination. The
responses and the original requests select the PPP parameters to be used. NCP packets are now sent to configure the network layer and to assign an IP address to the caller. When the session is over NCP will tear down the network layer connection and free up the IP address. LCP will shut down the data link connection.
ATM
1. ATM combines the best features from circuit switching and packet switching, low delay and flexible bandwidth respectively. 2. The ATM cell consists of a payload and a header. 3. There are two types of header available these are UNI header format and NNI header format. 4. ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) translates incoming traffic from application format to ATM format. It also provides support for connection-oriented connectionless and variable rate applications. 5. The two parts to an ATM switch are Virtual Channels and Virtual Paths. A virtual path is a path set up through a switch for the duration of a call and it is made up of virtual channels. Each can be switched individually. 6. The main function of an ATM switch is to receive cells on a port and switch those cells to the proper output port based on the VPI and VCI values of the cell. 7. PVC is Permanent Virtual Circuit. It is a connection set up by network management in which a set of switches between a source and destination are programmed with the appropriate VPI and VCI values. SVC is Switched Virtual Circuit. It is a connection set up dynamically by the signalling protocol. 8. UNI, User Network Interface allows, subscriber access to the network, subscriber recognition through ATM addressing, recognition of Quality of Service contract and data to be sent over the network. PNNI, Private Network-Network Interface provides the routing protocols for Managing and controlling the ATM network. B-ICI, Broadband Inter-Carrier Interface is the signalling and routing protocol for managing on demand, switched connections between ATM networks. 9. The three ATM address formats are: Data Country Code (DCC), International Code Designator (ICD) and E.164 (ISDN format).
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

1. The four layer in the TCP/IP suite are: Network interface Internet Transport Application
2. The main protocols used in the internet layer are: IP ARP ICMP 3. ARP is responsible for obtaining hardware address of TCP/IP devices on broadcast-based networks. 4. ICMP reports errors and sends control messages on behalf of IP. 5. The main difference between IP and TCP is that TCP is reliable whereas IP is not, it is a best effort delivery system. 6. DHCP, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. It automatically assigns IP addresses to devices in a network configured to use DCHP and in this way it manages to allocation of TCP/IP configuration information. 7. Larger Address, 16 bytes instead of 4. Simpler Header, 7 fieldsverses 13. Improved security. Etc.
Ericsson Radio System AB MV/ERA/GDP/K S-126 25 Stockholm, Sweden Telephone: + 46 8 719 9222 http://internal-training.ericsson.se/

IP Topology

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

IP Topology

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Internetworking Overview

Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Chapter 1 Introduction to Internetworking

Chapter 1 Introduction to Internetworking

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Local Area Networks (LANs)

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Internetworking is the connection of multiple LANs or Network Segments together.

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Proprietary & De-Facto Standards Proprietary Standards

Ericsson Systems Expertise

OSI - 7 Layer Model

OSI - 7 Layer Model Analogy to Telephone System

OSI - 7 Layer Model & Internetworking Devices

Router Bridge Repeater

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Repeaters v Bridges/Switches v Routers

Single Broadcast Domain Single Collision Domain

Single Broadcast Domain Two Separate Collision Domains

Two Separate Broadcast Domains Two Separate Collision Domains

Ericsson Systems Expertise

1/038 13 LZUBB 108116/12

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Chapter 2 LAN Technologies

Chapter 2 LAN Technologies

Ericsson Systems Expertise

one continuous piece of cable, for example, Ethernet.

Ring - two ends of cable meet to form a complete circle,

a central hub with nodes stretching outwards, for example, ATM.

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Sending device (transmits bits of a frame)

Signal propagates along the entire cable Bus

Destination device (receives a copy of each bit)

Ethernet Access Media

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Access All Terminals Detect Calculate Send

2/038 13 LZUBB 108116/5

Ethernet Frame Format

Destination Source Address Address

SOF = Start of frame FCS = Frame check sequence

Minimum frame size = 64 bytes Maximum frame size = 1518 bytes

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Fast Ethernet Transmission Media

Max Segment Length

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Ericsson Systems Expertise

100mbps FDDI Ring

Single Attachment/Dual Attachment Stations

concentrator Back-up link

concentrator Primary link

Dual homed station e.g. router

SD = Start-frame delimiter FC = Frame control DA = Destination address SA = Source address

FCS = Frame-check sequence ED = Ending delimiter FS = Frame status

Wireless LANs (wLAN)

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Features of Wireless LANs

Ericsson Systems Expertise

Configurations for Wireless LANs

Client and Access Point

Peer -to -Peer