The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33

A GIS-based fuzzy classification for mapping the agricultural soils

for N-fertilizers use
J.H. Assimakopoulos*, D.P. Kalivas, V.J. Kollias
Agricultural University of Athens, Laboratory of Soils and Agricultural Chemistry, 75 Iera Odos, Botanikos, Athens 11855,
Greece

Abstract

Special attention should be paid to the choice of the proper N-fertilizer, in order to avoid a further acidification
and degradation of acid soils and at the same time to improve nitrogen use efficiency and to limit the nitrate pollution
of the ground waters. Therefore, the risk of leaching of the fertilizer and of the acidification of the soils must be
considered prior to any N-fertilizer application. The application of N-fertilizers to the soil requires a good knowledge
of the soil–fertilizer relationship, which those who are planning the fertilization policy andyor applying it might not
have. In this study, a fuzzy classification methodology is presented for mapping the agricultural soils according to
the kind and the rate of application of N-fertilizer that should be used. The values of pH, clay, sand and carbonates
soil variables are estimated at each point of an area by applying geostatistical techniques. Using the pH values three
fuzzy sets: ‘no-risk-acidification’; ‘low-risk-acidification’; and ‘high-risk-acidification’ are produced and the member-
ships of each point to the three sets are estimated. Additionally, from the clay and sand values the membership grade
to the fuzzy set ‘risk-of-leaching’ is calculated. The parameters and their values, which are used for the construction
of the fuzzy sets, are based on the literature, the existing knowledge and the experimentation, of the soil–fertilizer
relationships and provide a consistent mechanism for mapping the soils according to the type of N-fertilizers that
should be applied and the rate of applications. The maps produced can easily be interpreted and used by non-experts
in the application of the fertilization policy at national, local and farm level. The methodology is presented through
a case study using data from the Amfilochia area, west Greece.
䊚 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Nitrogen-fertilizers use; N-acidifying fertilizers use; Nitrate leaching; Fuzzy sets; GIS

1. Introduction demonstrated that significant mistakes have been

The effect of nitrates in the environment is an
issue of major concern. The high intensity of
nitrification due to N-fertilization provides signif-
icant evidence for the environmental risks of nitro-
gen use in agriculture. Experience has so far
*Corresponding author. Tel.: q3-210-5294095; fax: q3-
210-5294092.
E-mail address: vkollias@aua.gr (J.H. Assimakopoulos).
made in the use of nitrogen fertilizers, resulting in
a low nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) (Leaver,
1991; Raum et al., 1999) and in nitrate pollution
of the surface and ground waters (Loegreid et al.,
1999). Low fertilizer NUE is of economic impor-
tance and also of concern for water quality. Nitrate
leached from the soil is a loss to the farmer and a
most unwelcome addition to surface and ground
water, which may pose a potential health hazard

0048-9697/03/$ - see front matter 䊚 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00055-X
20 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33
(Gangolli et al., 1994). Another serious problem
is the degradation of the soils regarding a further
decrease of the soil pH due to the use of nitrogen
acidifying fertilizers in acid soils (Ulrich, 1987;
Yassoglou et al., 1997).
These mistakes observed in the use of N-fertil-
izers are mainly due to the fact that basic properties
of fertilizers and soils are probably ignored, either
due to the lack of soil related information or,
alternatively, to the fact that the farmers disregard
the experts’ advice (Riley et al., 2001). Bielek
(1998) stated that in the most productive soils all
applied fertilizer nitrogen is transformed into
nitrate and the nitrification of mineralized nitrogen
from soil sources is stimulated as well. Therefore,
for protecting the best agricultural soils from deg-
radation, the water from the agricultural pollution
by nitrates and to increase the NUE, the choice of
the correct kind of fertilizer and its management
must be related to soil properties. Prediction and
mapping of the risk of acidification and that of
nitrate leaching would provide land managers with
information that would improve the quality of their
decisions concerning the fertilzation policy.
The conventional mapping methods result in
mapping units separated by sharp boundaries and
ignore the continuous nature of the soil and the
fact that changes in the soil parameters occur
gradually over the distance. In reality, soil often
varies gradually and the boundaries between dif-
ferent soil types are often diffused rather than
sharp. The knowledge of soil scientists about the
gradual gradation of soil properties over space and
the inclusion of different soil objects in soil map-
ping units cannot be fuzzy expressed by soil maps
constructed under crisp logic with conventional
cartographic techniques (Zhu, 1997).
The conventional classification methods allow a
soil to belong to a specific class and the soils that
are very near to the class boundaries are not
included. The risk of acidification or the risk of
leaching might be presented in a conventional map
with three different classes that correspond to the
no-risk, to the low risk and the severe risk,
respectively. However, assigning a soil variable
into one from several classes according to the
value of its measurement ignores the fact that the
transition from one class to the other may be
gradual and the boundaries between classes
uncertain.
In geographical processing, several techniques
have been used to handle uncertainty, including
Baysian networks, neural networks and fuzzy log-
ic. Fuzzy logic, which was introduced by Zadeh
(1965) to describe imprecision is considered the
most flexible one, both in terms of implementation
and understanding.
The classification of soils according to the risk
of acidification or the risk of leaching could be
more efficiently presented using fuzzy logic meth-
odology. In a fuzzy map each point stores the size
of this risk. Classification of the soils using fuzzy
set based methods mirrors reality better than crisp
Boolean approaches. In using the fuzzy set theory,
observations are grouped into continuous classes
in which individuals are assigned continuous class
membership values instead of classifying the
observations into exactly defined classes (Mc-
Bratney and Odeh, 1997; Kollias et al., 1999). In
the fuzzy classification each point of an area is
given a grade that denotes its membership to a set
whose central values define the boundaries of a
class, (e.g. risk of leaching). The application of
fuzzy set theory for the classification and the
assessment of land resources led to the develop-
ment of integrated geographical information sys-
tems with fuzzy retrieval and processing
capabilities (Kollias and Voliotis, 1991; Kollias
and Kalivas, 1998).
The objective of the present study is the map-
ping of agricultural soils according to the N-
fertilization policy (kind and rate of application)
that should be applied using information concern-
ing their risk of acidification and leaching and
thus to provide those who are planning the fertili-
zation policy and those who are applying it with
maps that will help them to perform their tasks
more efficiently. For the map production, method-
ologies concerning the relationships between soil
and fertilizers, based on the available scientific
knowledge and experimentation, are applied to
selected soil properties that can easily be found in
the standard soil surveys. The results of the appli-
 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33
cation of the methodology to the soils of the area
Valtos of Amfilochia of west Greece are presented.
2. Soil and N-fertilizer relationships
One basic property of the nitrogen fertilizers is
their effect on the soils’ acidity. Acidifying fertil-
izers are those whose nitrogen is either in ammo-
nium (NHq 4 ), or in amide (NH2 ) form and do not
contain a basic cation. When ammonium–acidify-
ing fertilizers are applied to the soils, the produced
Hq, during NHq 4 nitrification, exchange the
absorbed basic cations, which if leaching condi-
tions exist, are removed to a great extent together
with the NO3-ions (Ulrich, 1987; Coote et al.,
1989; Patriquin et al., 1993). When N-acidifying
fertilizers are used on acid soils, the threat of
further acidification is present, because there is no
source of basic cations (such as carbonates), for
substituting the cations that are removed. The
danger increases with lower soil pH and thus a
smaller base saturation. Ammonium sulfate almost
doubly contributes to the removal of the basic
cations, because of the contained sulfate anions.
In particular, urea contains the nitrogen in amide
form and needs to be incorporated in the soil, in
which water is necessary for its hydrolysis to
ammonia. The produced ammonia is temporarily
accumulated and increases the pH’s value, over
9.0 in calcareous soils (Clay et al., 1990). In such
a case, damages to the germination of the seeds
and to the young root system of the plants are
significant. Soil water progressively converts
ammonia into NHq 4 -ions that decrease pH, as
mentioned above. Soil acidity, induced by the N-
acidifying fertilizers, is also related to the amount
of fertilizer applied (Loegreid et al., 1999).
It should be mentioned that soil acidification
also results from acidifying deposition from the
atmosphere and from microbial processes (Loe-
greid et al., 1999). However, the nitrate leaching
process is considered the most important factor
that affect soil acidity in agricultural soils (Coote
et al., 1989).
The N-fertilizers’ effectiveness depends on the
soil’s capacity to hold the ammonia, and at the
same time on the retention of the nitrate. Nitrate
21
leaching is related to the water movement. There-
fore, the soil structure and hydrology is crucial.
For example, in the plough layer the presence of
macro-porous due to higher amounts of organic
matter content and cracking favor a bypass flow
of the water almost independently of soil texture.
On the contrary, it has been reported that simple
texture estimates can be used for basic soil leach-
ing classifications (Webster et al., 1986). In such
a case, the water flow is related more accurately
to the texture of 30–60 cm (Dekker and Bauma,
1984; Kosmas et al., 1991).
The fine textured (clayey) soils yield high cation
exchange capacity (CEC) and low hydraulic con-
ductivity values and hence, the threat of ammoni-
um and nitrate leaching losses is significantly
limited. On the contrary, in sandy soils larger
losses of ammonium and nitrate have been dem-
onstrated (Webster et al., 1986). The sandy soils,
that are leached, run a bigger danger of acidifica-
tion with smaller pH and CEC values and conse-
quently, smaller base saturation and smaller
amounts of basic cations.
Splitting the N amount required into doses timed
to crop demands, reduce leaching and emission
losses and improve NUE (Matson et al., 1998),
but the threat of rainfall still remains (Lord and
Mitchell, 1998).
Ammonium fertilizers, suitable for alkalic-cal-
careous soils, are usually applied on the soil
surface. This leads to significant gas losses of
ammonia that increase with increasing carbonates
content and, especially under dry conditions, are
often as high as 25% of the added nitrogen
(Terman, 1979). On the other hand, these losses
increase up to 45% when urea is applied on the
surface of these soils (Kucey, 1988). If incorpo-
ration is not attainable, the splitting into doses and
irrigation could reduce these losses. The problem
that still remains is for rainfed crops.
Ammonium ‘losses’ are also related to their
fixation by clay minerals, and those of ammonium
and nitrate to the immobilization by soil microbes
that convert it in organic forms. A low CyN ratio
in organic matter leads to the release of NHq 4 ,
which is available to plants, but also at risk of
losses (Loegreid et al., 1999).
22 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33

Fig. 1. The study area, the observation (d) and the validation (m) points.

3. Materials and methods
3.1. Study area
In the present study, analytical data from an
existing conventional general purpose soil survey
of approximately 3800 ha (scale 1:20 000) of the
Valtos area near Amfilochia in West Greece (Tsou-
loucha et al., 1996) have been used as the basic
source of information (Fig. 1). The area consists
mainly of flat parts with slopes 0–2% and a few
hilly areas with elevation 100–200 m above sea
level and slopes 6–20%. The soils of the area
have been developed in recent alluvial deposits or
 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33 23

in calcareous parent materials. According to Soil Table 1

Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1994), 90% of the The statistics of the observation and validation samples
soils are classified as Entisols and the remaining Soil variables Observation sample (130 points)
10% as Inceptisols.
Soil maps and analytical data were used for the Mean Minimum Maximum Variance
y% y% y% y%2
development of a Geographical Information Sys-
tem under the commercial GIS packages ARCy Clay 30–60 cm 34 12 67 143
INFO and ArcView (ESRI, 1997). Sand 30–60 cm 29 4 70 181
Carbonates 0–30 cm 2.13 0 14.2 6.97
1:1 soilywater
3.2. Data
pH 0–30 cm 6.71 4.39 7.75 0.67
pH 30–60 cm 6.96 4.76 8.26 0.63
Analytical data from 130 borings irregularly Validation sample (50 points)
spaced in the area (Fig. 1) with distance between
the borings of 300–500 m were used. The 130 y% y% y% y%2
Clay 30–60 cm 31 13 65 140
borings were used as observation points for this Sand 30–60 cm 31 10 71 179
study. Besides these points an extra 50 borings Carbonates 0–30 cm 2.24 0 14.6 6.94
were used to serve as validation points (Fig. 1). 1:1 soilywater
Validation points were irregularly distributed pH 0–30 cm 6.77 4.45 7.69 0.63
throughout the study area. The point data were pH 30–60 cm 6.89 4.55 8.10 0.61
stored in the spatial database of a GIS, which was
developed for the purposes of this study. Aspatial 130 studied soils, at the depth 30–60 cm, was
attributes were also stored. high (rs0.7, Ps0.01), probably due to the very
The pH values measured at depths of 0–30 and low organic matter content in this depth (-1.0%).
30–60 cm were used for the assessment of the For these reasons, the above criteria for the assess-
risk of acidification. The lower pH value between ment of the risk of leaching also express the risk
the two depths was considered in the calculations. of NHq 4 leaching.
For the assessment of the risk of leaching losses Terman (1979) stated that volatilization of
the clay and sand contents at the depth of 30–60 ammonia is more closely related to carbonates
cm were considered as accurate criteria (Kosmas content than the other soil properties. Ammonium
et al., 1991; Dekker and Bauma, 1984). The reason fertilizers are mainly applied on the soil surface,
is that the analytical data used do not contain therefore, carbonates content of 0–30 cm layers
information on soil macro-porous, cracks etc., were used as the criterion for the assessment of
which mainly exist in the surface horizon (0–30 ammonia gas losses.
cm). Soil data of this depth were used to define The statistics of the five soil variables: pH of
coarse and medium coarse textured soils (sand, surface and subsurface layers (0–30 cm and 30–
loamy sand and sandy loam) according to the 60 cm); clay and sand contents of the subsurface
triangle diagram of taxonomy (Alexander, 1952), layer and carbonates of the surface layer at the
which run a high risk of leaching (Webster et al., 130 observation points; and the 50 validation
1986). points are given in Table 1.
The value of CEC, that is the sum of clay and
3.3. Geostatistical analysis
organic CEC values, could be the criterion for the
assessment of the risk of ammonium leaching. The measured values of the soil properties at
However, sandy soils have lower CEC values than the observation points were used for the estimation
clay soils, because coarse textured soils are com- of the values at unvisited places using geostatistical
monly lower in both clay and humus content, and methods. The values of each soil property, were
CECs of a great number of soils demonstrate the estimated using the kriging interpolation technique,
general relationship between clay content and CEC to the points of a regular grid of 149=343 cells
(Brady, 1990). In fact, the correlation coefficient with cell size of 40=40 m. Ordinary kriging
between clay percentage and CEC values of the estimates the value of a soil variable at a point
24 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33

from its values at the surrounding points and a Table 2

semivariogram. The values of the IGF index
From the two grids with the interpolated pH Soil variable IGF
values, at depths of 0–30 and 30–60 cm, respec-
tively, a third grid was produced. Each point of Clay 30–60 cm 8.819=10y3
Sand 30–60 cm 1.216=10y2
the new grid was assigned the less favorable Carbonates 0–30 cm 1.910=10y2
(lower) value of pH. This grid was used for the pH 0–30 cm 2.469=10y2
assessment of the risk of acidification. pH 30–60 cm 1.620=10y2
The theory of the geostatistical methods will not
be discussed here in detail since this paper is
The effectiveness of the kriging results was
focused on the evaluation and mapping of the
evaluated by computing the indices mean error
suitability of soil for N-fertilizer use. For more
(M.E.) and mean square error (M.S.E.) from the
details on the application of geostatistics to soil
measured and predicted values at the 50 validation
data readers are referred to Journel and Huijbregts
points. The two indices are defined as:
(1978) and Webster and Oliver (2001). Here only
the basic requirements for the application of krig-
1 mw
ing and the validation of the interpolation results ˆ Žxi.z~,
yzŽxi.yz
m8
M.E.s x |

are given. is1

The basis of kriging is the semivariogram, which
defines variation as a function of distance. That 1 mw
ˆ Žxi.z~2.
yzŽxi.yz
m8
M.S.E.s x |

is: is1

1 N(h)w z2 The M.E. depicts the existence of bias and its

gŽh.s yzŽxiqh.yzŽxi.~
2NŽh. 8
x |

is1
Where g(h) is the semivariance of variable Z at
separation distance h and N(h) is the number of
pairs of points in the distance interval hqDh.
Values are calculated for each possible pair of
observation points and the mean values of the
semivariance are plotted for successive distance
intervals to produce the experimental semivario-
gram. A theoretical model is fitted to these points.
The semivariograms of the data values of the
studied soil properties were satisfactorily described
by a spherical model. The semivariograms were
computed using the geostatistical software VAR-
IOWIN (Pannatier, 1996). The selection of the
fitted models was based on the values of the IGF
(Indicative Goodness of Fit) index (Table 2) and
the visual inspection of the sample semivario-
grams. The IGF index, which was computed by
VARIOWIN software, is a standardized weighted
average squared difference between the observed
values and the fitted ones. Fig. 2 shows the
experimental semivariograms and the theoretical
models, which fitted the data values best.
degree and indicates the sign of the bias but it
usually tends to be lower than the actual error
since the negative and positive values cancel each
other. Bias is very important when using interpo-
lation data for further analysis and modeling. The
M.S.E. measures the average precision of the
prediction. It indicates the magnitude of extreme
errors and it is low when there is a central tendency
and extreme errors are small.
3.4. Fuzzy sets
There are two types of logic which are used and
applied in spatial data processing, Boolean and
fuzzy logic. Fuzziness is a type of imprecision
characterizing classes that for various reasons can-
not have or do not have sharply defined bounda-
ries. Fuzzy set theory is an extension of classical
set theory.
In binary or Boolean logic an element can only
be either ‘true’ (1) or ‘false’ (0). Any intermediate
value between these two states is impossible. A
fuzzy set consists of objects and their respective
grades of membership in this set. The membership
 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33 25

Fig. 2. The fitted semi-variograms of the five soil variables.

grade of an object can range from 0 to 1. The
value of 1 denotes full membership, whereas the
closer the value is to 0, the weaker the object’s
membership in the fuzzy set. Fuzzy set eliminates
the sharp boundary, which divides members and
non-members in a crisp set, by providing a tran-
sition between the full membership and non-mem-
bership. Continuous fuzzy classes can be
constructed based on the central concepts of clas-
ses that are defined a priori using experience and
scientific or heuristic knowledge. Fuzzy member-
ship approach allows consideration of partial mem-
berships to obviate the limitations of conventional
classification methods. The individuals are allocat-
ed to a class on the basis of how closely they
match the requirements of the classes.
26 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33
Fuzzy membership functions converts attribute
values on a continuous scale ranging from 0 to1.
Let X(x) be a space of objects denoted by X. Then
for each set A there exists a function.
mAŽx.gw0,1x
The literature of fuzzy sets refers to a large
number of functions that are used for the calcula-
tion of membership grades (Burrough and Mc-
Donnell, 1998). Fuzzy membership functions
(FMF) must be defined according to the nature of
the data. In this study for the calculation of the
membership grades the semantic import (SI) mod-
el was used. The following FMF models that were
used here are modifications of SI model.
FMF 1: mF(x)s1 for xFc1
mF(x)sw1q((xyc1)yd)2xy1 for x)c1
FMF 2: mF(x)s1 for xGc2
mF(x)sw1q((xyc2)yd) x 2 y1
for x-c2
FMF 3: mF(x)s1 for c1FxFc2
mF(x)sw1q((xyc1)yd)2xy1 for x-c1
mF(x)sw1q((xyc2)yd)2xy1 for x)c2
where c1 and c2 are the upper and lower limits,
respectively, of the central values (values with
membership grade 1) of the soil parameters. The
upper and lower class limits are specified, on
experience or conventionally imposed definitions,
before individuals are allocated on the basis of
how closely they match the requirements of the
classes. The parameter d defines the shape of the
function (the width of the transition zone at the
point with membership grade equal to 0.5) and
has the same units as the central values.
Join fuzzy operations can be used to combine
sets of different soil properties into more general
indices of soil quality. The join fuzzy membership
function (JMF) can be computed as the minimum,
Table 3
Prediction mean errors (M.E.) and mean square errors
(M.S.E.) of the five soil variables
Soil variable M.E. M.S.E.
Clay 30–60 cm 0.019 79.45
Sand 30–60 cm y0.003 75.25
pH 0–30 cm y0.001 0.19
pH 30–60 cm y0.002 0.19
Carbonates 0–30 cm y0.024 2.94
maximum or the weighted average of the mem-
bership grades of the single membership functions
FMF for each attribute value. In all the fuzzy sets
presented in this paper, a continuous sequence of
tones represents the level of membership in the
set, with white signifying no membership and
black full membership. For visualization purposes
the memberships are classified in a number of
classes.
4. Results and discussion
As mentioned above, the values of the five soil
variables (Table 1) at the 130 observation points
were interpolated to the points of a regular grid
using ordinary kriging.
The errors obtained from the cross-validation
test for each soil variable are presented in Table
3. The mean errors of all the soil variables are
close to zero. This indicates unbiasness of the
method. The relatively high M.S.E.s for clay and
sand percentages possibly reflect the greater value
differences of these soil variables across the study
area.
The five grids that resulted from the kriging
interpolation were used for the assessment of: (a)
the risk of leaching; (b) the risk of acidification;
and (c) the susceptibility of the soils to ammonia
losses of calcareous soils.
4.1. Risk of leaching
The fuzzy set ‘risk-of-leaching’ was produced
for the classification of soils according to the risk
of nitrate and ammonium leaching. The values of
clay content were used for the formation of the
set ‘clay-leaching’ while the values of sand content
 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33
were used for the formation of the set ‘sand-
leaching’. The FMF models used and the corre-
sponding parameters are presented in the graphs
of Fig. 3a,b. Soils with clay percentages less than
20 have full membership in the set ‘clay-leaching’,
while soils with sand percentages greater than 50
have full membership in the set ‘sand-leaching’.
The width 5 of the function curve at the cross-
over point was deemed satisfactory for the esti-
mation of membership grades of the clay content
variable. This implies that the membership grades
range from 1 to 0.5 for clay content values q5%
from the upper limit of the central clay values
(Fig. 3a). For the sand variable, the width of the
transition zone is set to 10 and the membership
grades range from 1 to 0.5 for sand values y10%
from the lower limit of the central values (Fig.
3b).
The fuzzy set ‘risk-of-leaching’ (Fig. 4) is
produced by joining the two sets ‘clay-leaching’
(Fig. 3c) and ‘sand-leaching’ (Fig. 3d) in such a
way that at each point of the new set a membership
grade is assigned which is calculated according to
the following formula. That is:
‘risk-of-leaching’s0.5 ‘clay-leaching’
q0.5 ‘sand-leaching’
Soils with black color (2.5% of the area) in the
fuzzy grid of Fig. 4 have a very high risk of
leaching. The results, which are presented on the
fuzzy set of Fig. 4 show a better representation of
the continuous variation of the leaching than a
conventional classification method.
4.2. Risk of acidification
The risk of acidification of soils is assessed
from the pH values. Three fuzzy sets, ‘no-risk-
acidification’, ‘low-risk-acidification’ and ‘high-
risk-acidification’ were formed. The membership
grades of each point of the area in the three sets
were calculated. The FMF models used and the
corresponding parameters are presented in the
graphs of Fig. 5a,b,c. The width of the function
curve at the cross-over point is set to 0.5.
27
Soils with pH values greater than 7.2 have full
membership in the set ‘no-risk-acidification’. Soils
with pH values between 6.7 and 7.2 have full
membership in the fuzzy set ‘low-risk-acidifica-
tion’, while soils with pH values less than 6.7
have full membership in the fuzzy set ‘high-risk-
acidification’. The soils with full membership in
the three sets are black in the fuzzy grids of Fig.
5d,e,f.
4.3. Ammonia gas losses
The soils that have full membership in the set
‘no-risk-acidification’ must be examined for
ammonia gas losses according to their carbonates
content. A new fuzzy set ‘low-ammonia-losses’
(Fig. 6) is produced. The new set, whose FMF
model and the corresponding parameters are given
in the graph of Fig. 6a, assigns membership grades
1 to the soils containing carbonates less than 3%.
Although there are not references in the relevant
literature, based on our experience we considered
such a low carbonates content satisfactory as an
upper limit for the fuzzy set ‘low-ammonia-losses’.
The fuzzy classification grid of the area is pre-
sented in Fig. 6b. Black color in the fuzzy grid of
Fig. 6b indicates full membership in the set ‘low-
ammonia-losses’.
4.4. Nitrogen management practices
It is important, both for farmer profit and for
the environment, to dose nitrogen fertilizer cor-
rectly for crop growth. In this section, we will
discuss the management practices (type and rate
of application) of nitrogen fertilizer that must be
followed in order to reduce the environmental
impacts from (a) nitrate pollution of waters and at
the same time increase of NUE and (b) soil
degradation.
The kind of N-fertilizer that can be used is
estimated from the soil’s risk of acidification while
the rate of applications is estimated from the risk
of leaching. N-acidifying fertilizers, all kind of N-
fertilizers or N-fertilizers containing a basic cation
can be used in soils depending on their member-
ship grade to the three fuzzy sets defined from the
pH values and described in Section 3.
28 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33

Fig. 3. The fuzzy membership function models (FMF) and the grids of the fuzzy sets ‘clay-leaching’ (a, c) and ‘sand-leaching’ (b,
d).

4.4.1. Use of N-acidifying fertilizers salts and have a base saturation of almost 100%,
In soils with no-risk of acidification (alcalic only acidifying fertilizers are recommended. Soils
pH)7.2 and usually 7.5–8.5), which are conse- with high membership grades in the fuzzy set ‘no-
quently characterized by the presence of carbonate risk-acidification’ (Fig. 5d) belong to this class.
 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33
Fig. 4. The fuzzy grid ‘risk-of-leaching’.
Approximately 22% of the soils are classified to
this class.
The soils of this class do not run the risk of
leaching, that is soils with low membership grades
in the fuzzy set ‘risk-of-leaching’, which have fine
to moderate fine texture and hence, small hydraulic
conductivity and high CEC value (Brady, 1990).
In these soils, very small to small leaching losses
are expected and if the danger for gas ammonia
losses is very small (assuming that ammonium
fertilizers are applied on the surface and urea is
incorporated into the soil) fertilization in a single
dose, if necessary, could be applied. An application
in two–three doses is preferable, synchronized
with crop demand (Powlson, 1997; Riley et al.,
2001). The splitting of the amount of the fertilizer
29
needed is also necessary: (a) for urea, in order to
reduce the stress on the seeds of young plant roots
(Haynes and Swift, 1987); and (b) for ammonium
fertilizers, applied into soils with carbonates great-
er than 3%, in order to reduce high gas ammonia
losses.
In soils with high risk of leaching, soils with
high membership grades in the fuzzy set ‘risk of
leaching’, and with high or low gas ammonia
losses, the amounts of N required have to be split
into doses (two or three). The expected result from
the gradual application on these soils is the reduc-
tion of leaching. For rainfed crops, the gradual
application is considered to be the only practice
that could reduce these losses. Using the informa-
tion presented in the maps of Fig. 5d, Fig. 4 and
Fig. 6b, a better management of these soils could
be achieved.
4.4.2. Use of all kinds of N-fertilizers
In soils with low risk of acidification (25.5% of
the area), that is soils with high base saturation
(f80%) and consequently, with high membership
grades in the fuzzy set ‘low-risk-acidification’,
practically all kinds of N-fertilizers (acidifying or
not) are recommended and are expected to produce
satisfactory results.
The management of soils with low risk of
acidification and no risk of leaching, should be
the same as that of soils with no risk of acidifica-
tion, in that they do not run risk of leaching. A
temporary increase of pH when urea is used will
not rise to an undesirably high level.
On the contrary, in soils with low risk of
acidification and high risk of leaching (sandy
soils), that consequently have low CEC (Brady,
1990) and very high hydraulic conductivity values,
significant groundwater pollution is expected,
especially in the case of intensive irrigation and
rainfalls (Powlson, 1997). In these soils, the N-
fertilizers required must be divided into many
(more than three) doses and intensive irrigation
must be avoided. For these soils the risk of a
further quick acidification is always present. Thus,
special attention must be paid to soils which have
pH values near the lower class limit, (e.g. 6.7).
Ammonium sulfate must be avoided. However, the
30 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33

Fig. 5. The fuzzy membership function models (FMF) and the grids of the fuzzy sets ‘no-risk-acidification’ (a, d), ‘low-risk-
acidification’ (b, e) and ‘high-risk-acidification’(c, f).
 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33
Fig. 6. The fuzzy membership function model (FMF) (a) and the fuzzy grid (b) of the fuzzy set ‘low-ammonia-losses’.
continuous use of acidifying fertilizers in those
soils should result in a pH decrease; accordingly,
their pH has to be periodically measured. An
alternative management solution could be the
incorporation of slow release fertilizers (Hicklen-
ton and Cairns, 1992), or foliar applications, yield-
ing very favorable results, especially for fruit trees
(Ferree and Forshey, 1988; Papanicolaou et al.,
1988).
The maps of Fig. 5e, Fig. 4 and Fig. 6b contain
all the information for better management of these
soils.
4.4.3. Use of N-fertilizers containing a basic cation
Soils with high membership grades in the fuzzy
set ‘high-risk-acidification’ (52.5%) are medium
to strongly acid soils that are threatened by further
acidification if continuously fertilized with any
kind of N-acidifying fertilizers. It is argued that
the soils’ acidification can be to such a degree,
that pH level will reach a value of 4.0 and the
soil’s productivity will be severely lowered
(Ulrich, 1987; Yassoglou et al., 1997). It is evident,
therefore, that in such soils the use of N-acidifying
fertilizers must be avoided and nitrogen fertilizers
31
containing a basic cation, have to be used. Slow
release fertilizers or foliar applications should also
be used only for reducing leaching.
In sandy soils the rate of application should be
the same as that mentioned in Section 4.4.2. After
the pH level has been corrected, for example after
liming, any kind of fertilizers can be used. A better
management of these soils can be achieved using
the information presented in the fuzzy maps of
Fig. 4 and Fig. 5f.
4.5. Fuzzy map
Although the continuous fuzzy classification
methods provide more detailed information about
the spatial distribution of soil properties, the con-
ventional classification methods is generally seen
as an easily understood representation. In order to
achieve sufficient simplicity in a form of a con-
ventional map we combined the three fuzzy fertil-
ization maps (Fig. 5e,f,g) into one, using a
straightforward defuzzification methodology. Each
point of the area was allocated to the fertilization
class which has the highest membership grade
(Fig. 7). The gray tones present the three fertili-
32 J.H. Assimakopoulos et al. / The Science of the Total Environment 309 (2003) 19–33
Fig. 7. The map of the study area for N-fertilizer use.
zation classes as defined in the legend of the
figure, while the black color presents areas with
high risk of leaching.
Although the map produced has the appearance
of a conventional polygon map each point stores
the membership grade to the class to which it
belongs as well as the membership grades to all
other classes. Therefore, the map produced is more
accurate than a map based on conventionally
defined crisp classes. Additionally, it retains the
ability for more detailed prediction of the spatial
distribution of the risk of acidification and conse-
quently, the applied fertilization policy.
5. Conclusions
Agriculture is putting serious strain on the envi-
ronment and is a source of pollution and environ-
mental problems. As soils can be improved but
also degraded through fertilization the choice of
the proper kind of fertilizer and the rate of appli-
cations are very important issues for crop growth
and the environment.
In this study, a methodology is presented for the
mapping the agricultural soils, according to their
suitability (kind and rate of application) for N-
fertilization. The methodology is based on easily
available analytical data and soil–fertilizer rela-
tionships and can be used for the production of
maps at local and farm level. The fuzzy set
approach used, maps the continuous nature of the
soils and classifies them in continuous classes,
which provide more precise information than that
provided by the use of the conventional discrete
classes. On the contrary, the defuzzification pro-
cess applied produces a polygon map, which
although better understood by non-experts retains
all the detailed information of the fuzzy maps.
The maps produced, can answer important ques-
tions concerning the protection of soils, the pollu-
tion of waters and the better use of N by plants
and they can be used by the soil scientists, the
agricultural extension services and the local agri-
cultural authorities, for planning the N-fertilization
policy. Further work could be oriented to the
storage in the GIS system all the available soil
data at national level.
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