Analysis- Calculations, Conclusions and Graphs

Sam Barnes

Part 1- Calculating the concentration of C4H5O6-(aq), Ksp, G, H and S at different concentrations of potassium chloride solution Calculating concentration of C4H5O6-(aq)
Given the average titre values found in the investigation, basic chemical formulae can be used to calculate the concentration of C4H5O6-(aq)/moldm-3 in the saturated potassium bitartrate solution. As an example, consider the case where the concentration of potassium chloride solution was 0.10M. Here, the average titre value was 1.51 cm3. To calculate the concentration of bitartrate ions in solution, the number of moles of sodium hydroxide solution used needs to be calculated. Equation 11: Moles NaOH(aq)/mol = Concentration NaOH(aq)/moldm-3 x volume/dm3 In this case, the concentration of NaOH(aq) was 0.20M, and the volume was 1.51cm3. To convert the volume from cm3 into dm3, the given volume needs to be divided by 1000. Volume/dm3= (1.51/1000)cm3 = 0.00151dm3 Then, using the formula given in equation 11, the number of moles of sodium hydroxide solution added can be calculated: Moles NaOH/mol = 0.20M x 0.00151dm3 = 0.000302 mol Now that the number of moles of sodium hydroxide solution is known, the number of moles of potassium bitartrate present in solution can be found by using stoichiometric ratios. This is done by taking the equation for the reaction of potassium bitartrate with sodium hydroxide, and comparing how many moles of one react with the other: Equation 12: C4O6H5- (aq)+ OH- (aq) C4O6H42-(aq) + H2O(l) As equation 12 shows, one molecule of hydroxide reacts with one bitartrate ion. Therefore, we know that the number of moles of bitartrate ions present in solution is equal to the number of moles of sodium hydroxide added, and so: Moles C4H5O6-(aq) = 0.000302 mol Using this, the concentration of bitartrate ions can be calculated by using a rearrangement of equation 11: Equation 13: Concentration/moldm-3 = moles/mol volume/dm-3 As 25.0cm3 of potassium bitartrate solution was added via the pipette, the volume used in dm 3 is: (25.0/1000)cm3 = 0.0025dm3 Now, as the number of moles and the volume are known, the concentration of potassium bitartrate ions present when the concentration of potassium chloride solution was 0.10M is:
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Concentration/moldm-3 = 0.000302/0.0025 = 0.01208 However, since the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution is only accurate to 2 significant figures, we can only be confident in this value to 2 significant figures: Concentration/moldm-3 to 2 s.f. = 0.12 Below, table 3 gives the rest of the values at the different concentration of KCl. Both the intermediate values and the values to s.f. are given:

Concentration KCl/M Concentration of (C4O6H5)-(aq)/M unrounded Concentration of (C4O6H5)- /M (aq) to 2 s.f. 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.01208 0.01312 0.01408 0.01576 0.01712 0.01792 0.01872 0.02128 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.021

0.02 0.02384 0.024 0.01 0.02704 0.027 0.00 0.03864 0.039 Table 3: The concentration of (C4O6H5) (aq) changes of the concentration of potassium chloride solution changes Below, figure 12 presents this data in the form of a scatter graph, using the values accurate to 2 s.f.:
0.045 0.040 Concentration of (C4O6H5)- (aq) to 2 s.f./M 0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010

0.005 page: Figure 12 is a scatter graph to show how changing the concentration of a common ion Previous affects the concentration of a salt dissolved in solution. 0.000 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10

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Concentration of KCl/M

A hand-drawn graph can be found in appendix 1 at the end of this report. Calculating Ksp at different concentrations of KCl(aq) Once the concentrations of (C4O6H5)- (aq) have been calculated, the value for the solubility product (Ksp) at different concentrations of KCl can be found. The solubility product of an ionic compound is found by multiplying together the concentrations of the two ions in solution. In this case, the two ions present are K + and (C4O6H5)-, which are the component ions of potassium bitartrate. Since they have the same magnitude in their charges, it can be stated that the concentration of each in solution is equal. Again, consider the case where the concentration of KCl(aq) is 0.10M. As shown in table 3, the concentration of (C4O6H5)- here was 0.01208M. Although I can only be confident in this concentration to 2 s.f., I will use the unrounded values for subsequent calculations to ensure accuracy. So in this case: Ksp/mol2dm-6 = [K+]moldm-3 x [(C4O6H5)-]moldm-3 = 0.012082 = 1.459264 x 10-4 mol2dm-6

Again, we can only be confident in this result to 2 significant figures, as the concentration used to calculate Ksp is also only accurate to 2 significant figures. So here: Ksp/mol2dm-6 = 1.5 x 10-4 Below, table 4 shows the values for Ksp at different concentrations of potassium chloride solution, giving both the rounded and unrounded values calculated using the method given above. The final values are given multiplied by 10,000 for easier interpretation, both in the table and in the graph shown in figure 13. Concentration of (C4O6H5)- /M Ksp/mol2dm-6 Concentration KCl/M unrounded unrounded 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01208 0.01312 0.01408 0.01576 0.01712 0.01792 0.01872 0.02128 0.02384 0.02704 0.03864 0.0001459264 0.0001721344 0.0001982464 0.0002483776 0.0002930944 0.0003211264 0.0003504384 0.0004528384 0.0005683456 0.0007311616 0.0014930496 Ksp/mol2dm-6 x 10-4 to 2 s.f 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.5 4.5 5.7 7.3 15.0

Table 4: Ksp changes as the concentration of bitartrate ions changes due to the altered concentration of common ion present in solution.

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16 14 12 Ksp /mol2dm-6 x 10-4 to 2 s.f. 10 8 6 4 2 0 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 Concentration of KCl/M

Figure 13: A scatter graph to show how Ksp changes as the concentration of bitartrate ions changes due to the altered concentration of common ion present in solution. A hand-drawn version of this can be found in appendix 2. Calculating G at different concentrations of KCl Once the solubility product has been calculated, it is quite simple to translate this into a value for G using the identity G = -RTln(Ksp), where R is the ideal gas constant of 8.314J/molK, and T is the temperature in Kelvin. Again, unrounded values will be used in the calculations for the sake of accuracy, but the final value of G will be rounded to 2 significant figures as this is the level of confidence in this value. Using the value of Ksp at a concentration of KCl of 0.10M, G can be calculated. Here, K sp is 1.5x10-4 mol2dm-6 and the average temperature for the set of titrations was 295K, or 22oC. Celsius is converted to Kelvin by simply adding 273. Ln(Ksp) represents the natural logarithm of Ksp, which can also be written as loge(Ksp.), which is the logarithm of Ksp to base e, where e is then: G= -RTln(Ksp) G/Jmol = -8.314 x 295 x ln(1.4592646 x 10-4) = -2452.63Jmol-1 x -8.832410914 = 21662.62926Jmol-1
-1

Note there is a discrepancy between the value given above and the value achieved by doing the same sum in a calculator. This is because Excel can calculate the natural logarithm of a small number to a greater

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degree of accuracy than a calculator as it has a greater amount of processing power to form an approximation of the value. Again, I can only be confident in the value of G to 2 significant figures, so I will give both the rounded and unrounded values in table 5 below. Concentration Solubility Change in Gibbs free Change in Gibbs free 2 -6 -1 KCl/M product/mol dm energy/Jmol unrounded energy/Jmol-1 to 2 s.f. 0.10 21662.62926 0.0001459264 0.09 21329.57995 0.0001721344 0.08 20982.00819 0.0001982464 0.07 20427.21429 0.0002483776 0.06 20025.57159 0.0002930944 0.05 19661.28532 0.0003211264 0.04 19447.774 0.0003504384 0.03 18816.58023 0.0004528384 0.02 18265.83785 0.0005683456 0.01 17645.28412 0.0007311616 0.00 15901.63157 0.0014930496 Table 5: G changes in accordance to changes in Ksp This data is represented as a scatter graph in figure 14 below.
23000

22000 21000 21000 20000 20000 20000 19000 19000 18000 18000 16000

22000 Change in Gibbs free energy/Jmol-1 21000 20000 19000 18000 17000 16000 15000 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 Concentration of KCl/M

Figure 14: A scatter graph to show how G changes as the concentration of common ion present in solution decreases. This graph can be found hand-drawn with error bars in appendix 3.
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Calculating the equation of a line of best fit Given that the results lie relatively close to a straight line, it is possible to calculate the accurate equation of the line of best fit to ensure that the line of best fit is as reliable as possible. This is done by calculating the least squares regression line, which means that the line of best fit passes as close to the points of the graph as possible. As the line of best fit is a straight line, the unknown line is y = a+ bx. To find the equation of the line, I need to calculate the value of a and the value of b. The value of b is equal to S xy/Sxx, where: Sxx = x2 (x)2/n Sxy = xy (xy)/n Here, y is the change in Gibbs free energy, and x is the concentration of KCl. N is the number of points on the graph, which in this case is 11. The notation x represents the sum of, meaning that the values of all x terms must be added together. Now, calculating Sxx and Sxy: Sxx = 0.102+0.092+0.082+0.072+0.062+0.052+0.042+0.032+0.022+0.012 0.552/11 = 0.0385 0.0275 = 0.011 Sxy = (0.10x22000)+(0.09x21000)+(0.08x21000)+(0.07x20000)+(0.06x20000)+(0.05x20000)+(0.04x19000)+ (0.03x19000)+(0.02x18000)+(0.01x18000) 0.55x214000/11 = 11240 10700 = 540 So b = 540/0.011 = 49091 Then, a = (average of y)- b(average of x) = 19455 49091 x 0.05 = 17000 Therefore, the line of best fit on figure 14 has the equation y= 17000+49091x, which can be applied directly to this investigation to read: G = 17000 + 49091([KCl(aq)]) Calculating H and S When changing the concentration of potassium chloride in solution, I also alter the entropy of the system. This is because as the concentration of potassium chloride increases, the common ion effect prevents some potassium bitartrate from dissolving into solution. Therefore, there are fewer molecules present in the system, and with fewer molecules there is less disorder. Consequently, entropy decreases as discussed in the chemical ideas section. As the entropy of the system is being altered without changing temperature, it is not possible to calculate a value for Ssystem without the accurate values for Stotal and Ssurroundings. This will instead be done in part two, where the temperature of the solution changes and equation 15 can be used to solve simultaneously for H and S:
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Equation 15: G = H TS

Part 2- Calculating the concentration of C4H5O6-(aq), Ksp, G, H and S at different solution temperatures
Calculating the concentration of C4H5O6-(aq) Using the method given in part 1 on page 26, the concentration of bitartrate ions in solution at different temperatures can be calculated. The only difference between part 1 and part 2 is that only distilled water is used as a solvent, and this has no impact on the method of calculation- it only affects the values calculated. Below, table 6 shows the results calculated using the method. Final values are given to 2 significant figures, as this is the degree of accuracy to which the 0.20M sodium hydroxide solution is given. Actual average temperature/0C 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Concentration of (C4O6H5)- (aq) unrounded 0.04264 0.0476 0.0544 0.05655 0.058 0.06055 0.06176 Concentration of (C4O6H5)-(aq) to 2 s.f. 0.043 0.048 0.054 0.057 0.058 0.061 0.062

60 0.06248 0.062 Table 6: A table to show how concentration of potassium bitartrate varies as solution temperature changes This data is represented in a scatter graph below in figure 15. A hand-drawn version can be found in appendix 4:
0.065

0.060 Concentration of C4H5O6-(aq).

0.055

0.050

0.045

0.040

0.035 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature of 45 solution/oC 50 55 60 65

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Calculating Ksp at different solution temperatures As shown previously, for potassium bitartrate Ksp is equal to [C4H5O6-(aq)]2. The results for this set of calculations are given below in table 7. Unrounded values for the concentration of (C4O6H5)- (aq) were used to find Ksp at different temperatures, as this maximises accuracy. Actual average temperature/0C 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Concentration of (C4O6H5)- unrounded 0.04264 0.0476 0.0544 0.05656 0.058 0.06056 0.06176 Solubility product/mol2dm-6 unrounded 0.00181817 0.00226576 0.00295936 0.003199034 0.003364 0.0036675136 0.003814298 Solubility product/mol2dm-6 x 10-3 to 2 s.f. 1.80 2.30 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.70 3.80 3.90

60 0.06248 0.00390375 Table 7: Ksp varies as both temperature and the concentration of potassium bitartrate changes These results are plotted in a scatter graph in figure 16:

4.00

Solubility product/mol2dm-6 x 10-3

3.50

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature of 45 solution/oC 50 55 60 65

Figure 16: A scatter graph to show how Ksp varies with solution temperature. A hand-drawn version can be found in appendix 5.
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Calculating G at different solution temperatures Using the identity G= -RTlnKsp, G can be calculated for the values of Ksp calculated above and at different solution temperatures. As an example, consider the case where the solution temperature was 25 oC and the value for Ksp calculated was 0.001820444 mol2dm-6. Here, G equals: G = -8.314 x (25+273) x ln(0.00181817) = 15633.29295 The results for G at the other solution temperatures are given below in table 8. In table 8, the values for G are given to 3 s.f. instead of 2 s.f. as used throughout the investigation. This is because to 2 s.f., all but one of the values calculated for G comes out to be 15000Jmol-1. This is not particularly informative, and so the values are given to 3 s.f. Unfortunately, I cannot be confident these values are accurate for reasons discussed earlier. Below table 8 gives a summary of the calculated values of G. Change in Gibbs free Actual average energy/Jmol-1 to 3 s.f. 0 2 -6 -1 temperature/ C Solubility product/mol dm Change in Gibbs free energy/Jmol 15600 25 0.00181817 15633.29295 15300 30 0.00226576 15341.1844 14900 35 0.00295936 14910.46838 15000 40 0.003199034 14964.19576 15100 45 0.003364 15055.74447 15000 50 0.003664284 15046.5066 15200 55 0.003814298 15186.61503 15400 60 0.00390375 15353.93972 Table 8- G varies as Ksp and T vary, but not in the way that was expected. As table 8 shows, the values for G form no obvious sort of pattern. Theoretically, G should decrease at a constant rate as both T and Ksp increase. This is because the value of TS will increase, and it is known that H varies minimally with temperature. So increasing T will increase that value of TS, and so G will decrease. However, as the table shows, G is high at 25 oC and then decreases until 45oC until it starts increasing again. The graph of G against T is plotted on the next page in figure 17. This graph should only be taken as an indication of the data, and is not completely representative of the data due to the lack of error bars. After calculating the error bars, a hand-drawn version of figure 17 can be found in appendix 6. Here, the line of best fit goes through all the error bars and provides a more accurate representation of the data. Also, a graph of G given to 2 s.f. can be found in appendix 7, complete with error bars. Although the points alone are not representative of what I expected, when error bars are added the line of best fit is representative of the accepted trend. Calculating H and S using simultaneous equations Using the values calculated for G at 2 different temperatures, I can solve simultaneously for H and S. I will use G values to 1 decimal place, as this will simplify the calculations and have no effect on the values of H and S to 2 s.f.
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I will use the values calculated at 25oC and 30oC as I believe these are most likely to be accurate. This is because the solutions were nearest room temperature. So, using equation 15 on page 32, my equations are: 15630.2 = H 298S 15341.2 = H 303S
15700 15600 15500

Change in Gibbs free energy/Jmol-1 to 3 s.f.

15400 15300 15200 15100 15000 14900 14800 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature of 45 solution/oC 50 55 60 65

Figure 17: The scatter graph of G against temperature without error bars- see appendices 6 and 7 for more useful versions of this graph

Rearranging to isolate H gives: H = 298S+ 15630.2 H = 303S + 15341.2 Since both equations are equal to H, I can rewrite these two equations as one single equation and remove H for now: 298S + 15630.2 = 303S + 15341.2

Subtracting 298S and 15341.2 from both sides gives: 289 = 5S So dividing 289 by 5 will give S:
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289/5 = S = 57.8JK-1 = 58JK-1 ( 2 s.f.) By using this value, it is simple to solve for H: H = 298S + 15630.2 = 289 x 57.8 + 15630.2 = 32334.4J = +32kJ ( 2 s.f.)

Part 3- Conclusions
The aims of my experiment were:
1) To calculate the concentration and solubility product of potassium bitartrate at different temperatures of water. 2) To find the effect of temperature on the solubility product of potassium bitartrate. 3) To use the solubility product to find the Gibbs free energy, entropy and enthalpy of the system at different temperatures. 4) To find the effect of the common ion effect on the solubility product of potassium bitartrate at different concentrations of potassium chloride solution.

As figures 15 and 16 show, increasing the temperature of the solution caused additional potassium bitartrate to dissolve into solution, and therefore the concentration increased. The increase in concentration then causes an increase in the solubility product of potassium bitartrate, since K sp is equal to ([C4H5O6-(aq)])2. Therefore, I can conclude that increasing the temperature of distilled water causes the concentration of potassium bitartrate to increase, and consequently the solubility product also increases. As temperature increases from 25oC to 40oC, an increase in temperature caused a relatively constant increase in the concentration of the bitartrate ion in solution, and also caused a relatively constant increase in the solubility product. After 40oC, a further increase in temperature had less of an effect. This is shown by the decreasing gradient of the line of best fit on both graphs. Table 8 provides a summary of the values for G calculated as the temperature increases. The table is given below for reference: Change in Gibbs free Actual average energy/Jmol-1 to 2 s.f. 0 2 -6 -1 temperature/ C Solubility product/mol dm Change in Gibbs free energy/Jmol 16000 25 0.00181817 15633.29295 15000 30 0.00226576 15341.1844 15000 35 0.00295936 14910.46838 15000 40 0.003199034 14964.19576 15000 45 0.003364 15055.74447 15000 50 0.003664284 15046.5066 15000 55 0.003814298 15186.61503 15000 60 0.00390375 15353.93972 Table 8: G varies as both Ksp and the temperature of the solution alter
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Using the values for G calculated, I also found the values of H and S for the dissolution of potassium bitartrate. These, with their related uncertainties are: H = +32kJ 1.5kJ S = 58JK-1 2.7JK-1

The method by which these uncertainties were calculated will be explained in my evaluation section. It makes sense that S will be positive, as when potassium bitartrate dissolves, it changes from one compound into two ions. With more molecules there is more disorder, and therefore entropy will increase. However, it is known that if S>0, the reaction is spontaneous. This directly contradicts what I found with the values for G. It is possible for the dissolution of a compound to have a negative entropy change. When it dissolves, solvent-solute bonds form between the compound and the solvent, in this case distilled water. If it is the case that the dissolved ions form many solute-solvent bonds, then it is possible that the net effect of dissolution is to reduce the number of molecules in the system, as many solvent molecules are arranged around the dissolved ions. As the bitartrate ion is large, this is feasible here. However, entropy is not only a measure of disorder; it is also a measure of the likelihood of a reaction to occur. So even though the disorder of the system may increase due to an increase in the number of molecules, it is actually possible for S to be negative in this case. Also, another way of interpreting the case where S>0 is that the reaction is non-spontaneous yet H is so large that G is still more than 0. Therefore, I can tentatively draw three alternative conclusions. The first is that the dissolution of potassium bitartrate is a non spontaneous process with a value of G>0, yet the value of S calculated is incorrect due to systematic error. Instead, S should be less than 0 becau se the dissolution reaction is non spontaneous. Alternatively, I could conclude that the dissolution of potassium bitartrate is a spontaneous process with S>0, and the value of G calculated is incorrect due to systematic error. Thirdly, I could conclude that G is more than 0, S is also more than 0 and the reaction is non-spontaneous because H is sufficiently large that H TS is more than 0. The third conclusion makes the most sense, as I would expect S to be positive in a dissolution reaction. However, the other two conclusions are certainly possible, but less likely. To determine which is definitely accurate, I would need to repeat the experiment with different methods to see if similar results are found. If so, I would know that the unusual nature of the results is not caused by systematic error, and the results are therefore more likely to be accurate. The value calculated for H is positive as expected. As the concentration of potassium bitartrate increases with temperature, I can infer that the dissolution reaction must be exothermic. This is because the dissolution reaction is reversible, with potassium bitartrate dissolving and reforming simultaneously. Le Chateliers principle states that increasing the temperature of the system will favour the endothermic reaction. Since temperature is increasing and the concentration of potassium bitartrate in solution is increasing, I know that the dissolution reaction is endothermic, and consequently H is more than 0 as energy is being added to the system. However, the value of H is extremely large, calculated as being 32kJ to 2 s.f. The reason behind this is that G is also relatively high, and so H must also be a large positive number so that H- TS is also a large positive number. Possibly the values calculated for G are too high, which subsequently affected the value of H.

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By comparing the values of G at similar temperatures, the influence of the common ion effect on the Gibbs free energy of the system can be quantitatively measured. Considering table 9: Concentration Solubility Change in Gibbs free Change in Gibbs free 2 -6 -1 KCl/M product/mol dm energy/Jmol unrounded energy/Jmol-1 to 2 s.f. 0.10 21662.62926 0.0001459264 0.09 21329.57995 0.0001721344 0.08 20975.02183 0.0001982464 0.07 20427.21429 0.0002483776 0.06 20025.57159 0.0002930944 0.05 19661.28532 0.0003211264 0.04 19447.774 0.0003504384 0.03 18816.58023 0.0004528384 0.02 18265.83785 0.000568346 0.01 17645.28412 0.000732604 0.00 15901.63157 0.001495111 Table 9: How Gibbs free energy varies with the concentration of KCl

22000 21000 21000 20000 20000 20000 19000 19000 18000 18000 16000

As table 9 shows, G decreases as the concentration of potassium chloride solution decreases. On page 31, I showed that the line of best fit to the scatter graph of this data has the equation: G = 17000 + 49091([KCl(aq)]) The significance of the 49091 in front of the [KCl(aq)] is that it gives the gradient of the line of best fit. Therefore, I can say that for an increase of 1.0moldm-3 in the concentration of KCl, G will increase by 49091Jmol-1. This provides a measure of how changing the concentration of the common ion in solution affects the Gibbs free energy of the system. However, since I only have values from 0.00M-0.10M potassium chloride solution, I cannot make predictions outside this range as this requires extrapolation, which is not reliable. Instead, I can say that increasing the concentration of KCl by 0.01M between 0.00M0.10M causes G to increase by 490.91Jmol-1. This was calculated by dividing 49091/100. This works because 49091 represents the change in G with a change of 1.0M in the concentration of KCl. Therefore, a change of 0.01M is equal to a hundredth of this value, because 0.01 is a hundredth of 1. Also, by comparing the values for G when there was a common ion present against when the solution was made with pure distilled water, I can say that having a common ion present in solution increases the change in Gibbs free energy. For example, the highest value for G when altering temperature was 15630Jmol-1, whereas the highest value calculated when potassium chloride solution was used is 15902Jmol-1. When comparing the concentrations of the bitartrate ion in solution between both experiments, I can see that the presence of a common ion (K+) prevents some potassium bitartrate from dissolving. This is shown by the concentration of (C4H5O6-(aq)) being lower when potassium chloride solution was used. Also, as the concentration of potassium chloride solution increased, the affect of the common ion effect decreased. Figure 13 shows that the gradient of the line of best fit decreases as the concentration of potassium chloride solution increased. Therefore, I can say that the common ion effect has a large effect on the concentration of potassium bitartrate in solution, but having large amounts of a common ion causes little additional effect. The same is true for the solubility product- at first, the line of best fit has a steep negative
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gradient. Initially, an increase in the concentration of potassium chloride solution causes a sharp decrease in the value of Ksp, and then a further increase in the concentration of potassium chloride solution caused little further change. This is shown by the gradient of the line of best fit decreasing. In summary Increasing the temperature of the solution increases the concentration of potassium bitartrate and the solubility product of potassium bitartrate. The rate of this change decreases as temperature increases. The change in Gibbs free energy does not vary with any particular pattern as temperature changes, but when error bars are plotted a trend appears which is what was expected. As G>0, the reaction is most likely spontaneous. The change in entropy of the system is +58JK-1 2.7JK-1, although whether this value is accurate is not entirely certain. This means that the entropy of the system increased as the dissolution reaction progressed. The enthalpy change of the system is +32kJ 1.5kJ, although this value may well be too high. The positive value means that the dissolution reaction is endothermic. By having a common ion present in solution, the change in Gibbs free energy is more positive and increases as the concentration of common ion is increased. The presence of a common ion caused the concentration of (C4H5O6-)(aq) to decrease, and the concentration decreased sharply at first, but little further change was achieved as the concentration of KCl was increased. The same is true of the solubility product. Increasing the concentration of KCl by 0.01M between 0.00M-0.10M causes G to increase by 490.91Jmol-1.

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