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Structure
1.1 1.2 Introduction
Objectives
Standard of Measurements
Standard Unit of Length Standard Unit of Weight Standard Unit of Time Standard Unit of Temperature Standard Units of Luminous Intensity of a Source of Light Standard Unit of Amount of Substance Standard Unit of Electrical Quantities
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In order that the investigators in different parts of the country and different parts of world may compare the results of their experiments on a consistent basis, it is necessary to establish certain standard units of length, weight, time, temperature and electrical, quantities. The National Bureau of Standards has the primary responsibility for maintaining these standard in the United States. In India, Indian Standard Institute (ISI), New Delhi has taken the responsibility for maintaining all the standard measurements. To monitor the standard of measurements, the same Institute issues instructions to put ISI mark on measuring instruments and items so that these may be compared with non-standard ones. In the measurement system, the quantity to be measured, in the direct method, is compared directly against a standard of same kind of quantity. The magnitude of quantity being measured is expressed in terms of a chosen unit for the standard and a numerical multiplier. A length can be measured in terms of meter and a numerical constant. Thus, a 10 meter length means a length ten times greater than a meter. Thus, by the means of standard, it is possible to provide means of establishing and maintaining the magnitudes of the various units. The simplest kind of standard is a physical object having desired property. This standard can be used as a basis of comparison.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand the importance of standard in the measurement systems, explain the sources and causes of errors in the measurements, and perform the analysis of experimental data to find the accuracy, precision and the general validity of the experimental results. 5
They are : 1 Fermi = 1 f = 10 15 m 1 Angstrom = 1 A = 10 10 m 1 light year 9.46 1015 m (distance that light travels in 1 year) Note : Velocity of light is 3 108 m/s .
o
Standard of Measurements
The fundamental unit of time, the second, has been defined in the past as
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 furnishes an experimental basis for a temperature scale which approximates as closely as possible the absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. In the International Scale, 11 primary points are established as given in Table 1.1. Secondary fixed points are also established as given in Table 1.2. In addition to the fixed points, precise points are also established for interpolating between these points. Table 1.1 : Primary Points for the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968
Point Normal Pressure = 14.6959 psia = 1.0132 105 Pa Triple point equilibrium hydrogen Boiling point equilibrium hydrogen at 25/76 normal pressure Normal boiling point (1 atm) of equilibrium hydrogen Normal boiling point of Neon Triple point of oxygen Normal boiling point oxygen Triple point of water Normal boiling point of water Normal freezing point of Zinc Normal freezing point of silver Normal freezing point of gold Temperature
o
F 434.81 428.99 423.17 410.89 361.82 297.33 32.018 212.00 787.24 1763.47 1947.97
259.34 256.108 252.87 246.048 218.789 182.962 0.01 100 419.58 961.93 1064.43
Table 1.2 : Secondary Fixed Points for the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968
Point Triple point, normal H2 Boiling point, normal H2 Triple point, Ne Triple point, N2 Boiling point, N2 Sublimation point, CO2 (Normal) Freezing point, Hg Ice point Triple point phenoxibenzene Triple point, benzoic acid Freezing point, In Freezing point, Bi Freezing point, Cd Freezing point, Pb Freezing point, Hg Freezing point, S Freezing point, Cu-AI-Eutectic Freezing point, Sb Freezing point, AI Freezing point, Cu Freezing point, Ni Freezing point, Co Freezing point, Pd Freezing point, Pt Freezing point, Rh Temperature, oC 259.194 252.753 248.595 210.002 195.802 78.476 38.862 0 26.87 122.37 156.634 271.442 321.108 327.502 356.66 444.674 548.23 630.74 660.74 1084.5 1455 1494 1554 1772 1963 2447 3387
More recently, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) has been adopted. The fixed points for ITS-90 that are differ only slightly from IPTS-68. For ITS-90, a platinum resistance thermometer is used for interpolation between the triple point of hydrogen and the solid equilibrium for silver, while above, the silver point black body radiation is used for interpolation. Derived Units The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of these base units. For example, we can express the unit of speed in metre per second, the unit of density in kilogram per cubic metre. Let us consider another physical quantity like force. From Newtons second law of motion, force can be defined as the product of mass and acceleration. We can therefore take the unit of force as 1 kilogram 1 metre/second2. We call this by the name, Newton for convenience. The unit of energy is Newton-metre. We call this by the name Joule. The unit of power is Joule per second. We call it Watt. The conversion factor for various units are 1 H.P = 746 watt (J/s) 1 H.P = 550 ft-1b/sec. 1 H.P = 75 kg-m/sec.
Standard of Measurements
International Ohm The international ohm is the resistance offered to the passage of an unvarying electric current at the temperature of melting ice by a column of mercury of uniform cross-section, 106.300 cm long and having mass of 14.4521 gm (i.e., about 1 sq. mm in cross-section). International Ampere The international ampere is the unvarying current which when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in water deposits at the rate of 0.0001118 gm per second. The International Volt and Watt The international volt and watt defined in terms of International ohm and ampere. As constructing standards, which did not vary appreciably with time, was difficult and also as, by 1930, it was clear that the absolute ohm and ampere could be determined as accurately as the international units. The International committee on Weights and Measures decided in October, 1946 to abandon the international units and choose January 1, 1948 as the date for putting new units into effect. The change was made at appropriate time and the absolute system of electrical units is now in use as the system on which electrical measurements are based.
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Why are standards necessary? What is the difference between primary and secondary standards? The Universal gas constant has a value of 1545 ft-lbf/1bm-mol oR. By applying appropriate conversion factors, obtain its value in SI unit. Mention the fundamental SI units which are used in mechanical system. What are the SI unit of the following : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Temperature, Current, Luminous intensity of light, and Amount of substance.
SAQ 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) The SI unit for heat generation is W/m3. Derive a factor to convert to B t u/h ft3. Pressure is measured in unit lbf/m2 in the English system of units. Derive the factors to convert to units of N/m2 (Pa) and kgf-m2. One gallon equal 231 in3. Derive a conversion factor to convert automobile fuel economy from miles/gallon to kilometer/litre. Derive a factor to convert density from g/cm3 to kg/m3.
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SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Derive a factor to convert volume flow rate from cm3/s to gal/min. How do you convert degree Kelvin to degrees Rankine? A unit for specific heat in the SI system is kJ/kgoK. Derive a factor to convert it to B t u/1bmoF and to kcal/gmoK. Derive a factor to convert flow rate lit/hr to m3/sec. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 0.2 cal/cm-s-oC. Find its value in SI unit.
Standard of Measurements
1.10 SUMMARY
On the basis of the accuracy of measurement, the standard can be classified into two categories, viz. Primary standard and Secondary standard. The meter is considered as one of the fundamental units upon which, through appropriate conversion factors, the other systems of length are based. The kilogram is considered as fundamental unit upon which, through appropriate conversion factors, other systems of mass are based. The standard units of time are established in terms of known frequencies of oscillation of certain devices. The fundamental unit of time is second. Both Farenheit (oF) and Celsius (oC) scales are widely used for measurement of temperature. The absolute Farenheit scale is called Rankine (oR) scale and absolute Celsius has been designated as the Kelvin (K) scale. The relationship between these scales is as follows : K = oC + 273.15
o
R = oF + 459.67
In mechanical systems, the fundamental units in SI system are meter, Newton, kilogrammass, second, and joule. International units of electrical systems are ohm, ampere, volt and watt. The SI unit of luminous intensity of light is Candela (Cd) and the SI unit of amount of substance is mole (mol).
Standard Meter
Standard Kilogram
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: These are established in terms of known frequencies of certain devices. : It was proposed by Lord Kelvin in 1854 and forms the basis for thermodynamic calculations.
(c)
(d) (e)
Metre, Newton, Kilogram, Second and Joule. (i) Kelvin, (ii) Ampere, (iii) Candela, and (iv) Mole.
Q 1 W/m3
SAQ 2 (a)
44.24 ft-pound/min.m3
(b)
P 1 Ibf/m2
1 Ibf
1
1 in 2 1550
4
1.45 10
1 N/m2 1550
4.45 N/m2
kg f / m2
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9174 kg f /cm2
(c)
F 1 miles / gallons
Standard of Measurements
1.609 km 231 in 3
6.965 10 3 km / in3
(d)
D 1 g / cm3
10 3 10
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SAQ 3 (a)
Q 1 cm3 / s
10 3 1 litre / min. 60
60 10 3 0.2642 gallon / min.
(b)
K = o C + 273.18
o o
R = o F + 459.67 F = o C + 32.00
o
R = o C + 32 459.67
K 273.18 + 32 + 459.67
= K + 218.51
(c)
C = 1 kJ / kg o K
1 10 3 kcal / gm o K 4.2
= 0.238 10 3 kcal / gm o K
= 0.238 10 3
= 0.01267 Bt u / lbm o F .
(d)
Q 1 lit/hr
1000 cm3 3600 sec
1000 10 3600
6
m3 / sec
0.028 10 5 m3 / sec
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(e)
Joule/sec = Watt 1 cm = 10 2 m
K 0.2 1 10 2 Joule/sec-m-k 4.2
4.76 10 4 W m1 k 1
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