Advantages and disadvantages of EVs [edit]

Environmental [edit]
Due to efficiency of electric engines as compared to combustion engines, even when the electricity used to charge EVs comes from aCO2-emitting source, such as a coal- or gas-fired powered plant, the net CO2 production from an electric car is typically one-half to one-third of that from a comparable combustion [48][49] vehicle. EVs release almost no air pollutants at the place where they are operated. In addition, it is generally easier to build pollution-control systems into centralised power stations than retrofit enormous numbers of cars. EVs typically have less noise pollution than an internal combustion engine vehicle, whether it is at rest or [50] in motion. EVs emit no tailpipe CO2 or pollutants such as NOx, NMHC, CO and PM at the point of use. Electric motors don't require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers. While electric and hybrid cars have reduced tailpipe carbon emissions, the energy they consume is sometimes produced by means that have environmental impacts. For example, the majority of electricity produced in the United States comes from fossil fuels (coaland natural gas), so use of an EV in the United States would not be completely carbon neutral. Electric and hybrid cars can help decrease energy use and pollution, with local no pollution at all being generated by EVs, and may someday use only renewable resources, but the choice that would have the lowest negative environmental impact would be a lifestyle change in favor of walking, biking, use of public transit or telecommuting. Governments may invest in research and development of electric cars with the intention of reducing the impact on the environment, where they could instead develop pedestrian-friendly communities or electric mass [citation needed] transit.

Mechanical [edit]

An Alk electric city van.

Electric motors are mechanically very simple. Electric motors often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative brakingsystems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for start-and-stop city use.
[51]

They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes andtorque converters. EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal [50] combustion engines. While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, automakers and individual companies are developing systems that produce warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation [52] (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.

Energy resilience [edit]

Electricity is a form of energy that remains within the country or region where it was produced and can be [53] multi-sourced. As a result it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.

Energy efficiency [edit]

EV 'tank-to-wheels' efficiency is about a factor of 3 higher than internal combustion engine [50] vehicles. Energy is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, unlike internal combustion engines which consume fuel while idling. However, looking at the well-to-wheelefficiency of EVs, their total emissions, while still lower, are closer to an efficient gasoline or diesel in most countries where electricity [54] generation relies on fossil fuels. It is worth noting that well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has far less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuel to a wind or tidal primary source of energy. Thus when "well-to-wheels" is cited, one should keep in mind that the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure - in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.

Cost of recharge [edit]

According to General Motors, as reported by CNN Money, the GM Volt will cost "less than purchasing a cup of your favorite coffee" to recharge. The Volt should cost less than 2 cents per mile to drive on electricity, compared with 12 cents a mile on gasoline at a price of $3.60 a gallon. This means a trip from Los Angeles to New York would cost $56 on electricity, and $336 with gasoline. This would be the [55] equivalent to paying 60 cents a gallon of gas. The reality is that the cost of operating an EV varies wildly depending on the part of the world in which the owner lives. In some locations an EV costs less to drive than a comparable gas-powered vehicle, as long as the higher initial purchase-price is not factored in (i.e. a pure comparison of gasoline cost to electricity cost). In the USA, however, in states which have a tiered electricity rate schedule, "fuel" for EVs today costs owners significantly more than fuel for a comparable gas-powered vehicle. A study done by Purdue University found that in California most users already reach the third pricing tier for electricity each month, and adding an EV could push them into the fourth or fifth (highest, most expensive) tier, meaning that they will be paying in excess of $.45 cents per KWH for electricity to recharge their vehicle. At this price, which is higher than the average electricity price in the US, it is dramatically more expensive to drive a pure-EV than it is to drive a traditional pure-gas powered vehicle. "The objective of a tiered pricing system is to discourage consumption. It's meant to get you to think about turning off your lights and conserving

electricity. In California, the unintended consequence is that plug-in hybrid cars won't be economical under this system," said Tyner (the author), whose findings were published in the online version of the [56] journal Energy Policy.

Stabilization of the grid [edit]

Since EVs can be plugged into the electric grid when not in use, there is a potential for battery powered vehicles to even out the demand for electricity by feeding electricity into the grid from their batteries during peak use periods (such as midafternoon air conditioning use) while doing most of their charging at [57] night, when there is unused generating capacity. This vehicle-to-grid (V2G) connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants, as long as vehicle owners do not mind their batteries being drained during the day by the power company prior to needing to use their vehicle for a returncommute home in the evening. Furthermore, our current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of variableoutput power sources such as windmills and PV solar panels. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged. Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. Clearly these will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for [58][59] short periods to stabilize some national grids.

Range [edit]
Many electric designs have limited range, due to the low energy density of batteries compared to the fuel of internal combustion engined vehicles. EVs also often have long recharge times compared to the relatively fast process of refueling a tank. This is further complicated by the current scarcity of public charging stations. "Range anxiety" is a label for consumer concern about EV range.

Heating of EVs [edit]

In cold climates, considerable energy is needed to heat the interior of a vehicle and to defrost the windows. With internal combustion engines, this heat already exists as waste combustion heat diverted from the engine cooling circuit. This process offsets thegreenhouse gases' external costs. If this is done with battery EVs, the interior heating requires extra energy from the vehicles' batteries. Although some heat could be harvested from the motor(s) and battery, their greater efficiency means there is not as much waste heat available as from a combustion engine. However, for vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with little or no need for battery energy, especially for short trips. Newer designs are focused on using super-insulated cabins which can heat the vehicle using the body heat of the passengers. This is not enough, however, in colder climates as a driver delivers only about 100 W of heating power. A reversible AC-system, cooling the cabin during summer and heating it during winter, seems to be the most practical and promising way of solving the thermal management of the EV. [60] Ricardo Arboix introduced (2008) a new concept based on the principle of combining the thermalmanagement of the EV-battery with the thermal-management of the cabin using a reversible AC-system. This is done by adding a third heat-exchanger, thermally connected with the battery-core, to the traditional heat pump/air conditioning system used in previous EV-models like the GM EV1 and Toyota

RAV4 EV. The concept has proven to bring several benefits, such as prolonging the life-span of the [61][62][63][64] battery as well as improving the performance and overall energy-efficiency of the EV.

Components [edit]
The type of battery, the type of traction motor and the motor controller design vary according to the size, power and proposed application, which can be as small as a motorized shopping cart or wheelchair, through pedelecs, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, industrial fork-lift trucks and including many hybrid vehicles.

Future [edit]
Main articles: Battery electric vehicle and Plug-in hybrid

Eliica Battery Electric Car with 370 km/h top speed and 200 km range

The number of US survey respondents willing to pay $4,000 more for a plug-in hybrid car increased from 17% in 2005 to 26% in 2006.

Ferdinand Dudenhoeffer, head of the Centre of Automotive Research at the Gelsenkirchen University of Applied Sciences in Germany, said that "by 2025, all passenger cars sold in Europe will be electric or [87] hybrid electric". Several startup companies like Tesla Motors, Commuter Cars, and Miles Electric Vehicleswill have powerful battery-EVs available to the public in 2008. Battery and energy storage technology is advancing rapidly. The average distance driven by 80% of citizens per day in a car in the US is about 50 miles (US dept of transport, 1991), which fits easily within the current range of the electric car. This range can be improved by technologies such as Plug-in hybrid EVs which are capable of using traditional fuels for unlimited range, rapid charging stations for BEVs, improved energy density batteries, flow batteries, or battery swapping. In 2006 GM began the development of a plug-in hybrid that will use a lithium-ion battery. The vehicle, initially known as the iCar, is now called the Chevrolet Volt. The basic design was first exhibited January 2007 at the North American International Auto Show. GM is planning to have this EV ready for sale to the public in the latter half of 2010. The car is to have a 40-mile (64 km) range. If the battery capacity falls below 30 percent a small internal combustion engine will kick in to charge the battery on the go. This in effect increases the range of the vehicle, allowing it to be driven until it can be fully charged by plugging it into a standard household AC electrical source. In December 2010 Nissan introduced the Nissan Leaf in Japan and the U.S. The Nissan Leaf is a five-door mid-size hatchback electric car. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency determined the range to be 117 kilometres (73 mi), with an energy consumption of 765 kJ/km (34 kWh per 100 miles). Among other awards and recognition, the Nissan Leaf won the 2010 Green Car Vision Award award, the 2011 European Car of the Year award, the 2011 World Car of the Year, and ranks as the most efficient EPA certified vehicle for all fuels ever. The Ford C-MAX Energi was launched that year in response to the [121] Leaf and Volt, to be available on the market within a year and estimated to have a 500-mile range. On October 29, 2007, Shai Agassi launched Project Better Place, a company focused on building massive scale Electric Recharge Grids as infrastructure supporting the deployment of EVs (including plug-in hybrids) in countries around the world. On January 21, 2008, PBP and the NissanRenault group signed a MOU - PBP will provide the battery recharging and swapping infrastructure and Renault-Nissan [122] will mass-produce the vehicles.

Improved long term energy storage and nano batteries [edit]

There have been several developments which could bring EVs outside their current fields of application, as scooters, golf cars, neighborhood vehicles, in industrial operational yards and indoor operation. First, advances in lithium-based battery technology, in large part driven by the consumer electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable EVs to be propelled as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours, and now last longer than the typical vehicle. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase. Rechargeable lithium-air batteries potentially offer increased range over other types and are a current [123] topic of research.

Introduction of battery management and intermediate storage [edit]

Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, employing ultra-capacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative braking energy. The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty.

Faster battery recharging [edit]

By soaking the matter found in conventional lithium ion batteries in a special solution, lithium ion batteries were supposedly said to be recharged 100x faster. This test was however done with a specially designed [124] battery with little capacity. Batteries with higher capacity can be recharged 40x faster. The research was conducted by Byoungwoo Kang and Gerbrand Ceder of MIT. The researchers believe the solution [125] may appear on the market in 2011. Another method to speed up battery charging is by adding an additional oscillating electric field. This method was proposed by Ibrahim Abou Hamad from Mississippi [126] State University. In addition, the research done by Junqing Pan, Yanbin Qiu, Yanzhi Sun, and Zihao Wang of Beijing University of Chemical Technology suggests the possibility of using Silver Cuprate (chemical formula AgCuO2) to charge batteries, which could make the charging time as fast as refueling [127] [128] the gasoline vehicles. The company Epyon specializes in faster charging of EVs.

Free Software EVs [edit]

The Tumanako Project aims to provide open hardware and software to drive and recharge [129] EVs. Author Morgen E. Peck covers the project and talks with developer Philip Court. "The main offering of the Tumanako project is a drive package and inverter for a 200kW induction motor. This includes all of the software necessary to take a go command from a driver and the calculations for how much power to feed to the motor. Court says his code works but will not be fully open source meaning [130] there are still snippets of proprietary code for another 6 months to a year."

Performance Goals
Requirement Range Passenger Capacity Cargo Capacity Acceleration Terrain Weather Conditions Max sustained speed on flat Value 80km (50 miles) 2 people. Must easily fit a 6'2" driver. 50kg must be able to keep up with traffic 0-50kmh in 6 secs 50-80km/h in 8 seconds Mixed, some 10km hills at 4% grade average temperature: 5o-25o Celsius dry and rain. Maximum 0o-20o Celsius with 2" of snow 110kmh (70 mph)

Design Constraints

GVWR must support drive system, payload and batteries Standard transmission, preferably no shifting required 1990 vehicle or later, with readily available parts Vehicle mechanics and body must be in good repair Power brakes Front wheel/Rear wheel drive does not matter

Essential Parts See also the Tool List here Donor Car Batteries, Lead , Lithium, or Others Charge Controller (AKA Charger) Motor, DC or AC Motor Controller or Inverter Shaft Coupler Adapter Plate DC-DC converter/12V Charger Battery/Motor cables & connectors Contactor(s) Fuse(s) Ammeter Shunt Voltmeter Throttle signal

Conditionally Necessary Parts Battery Management System/Battery Monitoring System (BMS) Brake Upgrades Front and Rear Sprocket (motorcycle) Motor mount SOC Gauge/monitor

Recommended Parts Circuit Breaker/Emergency disconnect Temperature sensor(s) Tachometer Inertia switch 12V AUX Battery Motor/controller cooling Battery Box(es) Battery Insulation AH Counter Suspension Springs Heat Shrink J1772 Connector

Optional Parts

AC Clutch Heater Low Rolling Resistance Tires Power Steering Solar Panel(s)

CHAPTER 7

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

1) Control of Maximum Acceleration : In any automobile driving pattern, the consumption of fuel in a accelerating mode of operation form the major contributor to the fuel consumption. In a conventional automobile it is difficult to set the limit to the acceleration but is very simple in vehicle where the dependence on driver for acceleration limit or control is eliminated.

2) Stability of Factory setting for optimum Performance: The factory setting for the optimum performance like fuel consumption, acceleration limits. Etc can be maintained with put deviation for many years in battery vehicle which is not practicable in conventional vehicles. 3) Stability to sophisticated electronic and perfection: In these days automotive manufactures in the technologically advanced countries using micro-computers and other electronic circuitry to optimize the performance and it incorporate many protective features in the automobiles. The battery vehicle can be easily incorporated with these sophisticated equipments at much lowest cost as compared to that of an I.C engine. 4) Driving comfort:

The battery vehicles offers very high driving comfort compared to a conventional I.C engine vehicle. The factors improving the driving in battery vehicle are: Noise less operation. Low vibration level. FRP body which is used because of its weight, better resilience and also easy in attractive fabrication.

CHAPTER 8

LINITATION OF PRESENT DAY ELECTRIC VEHICLE AND FUTURE SCOPE

The high cost of installation of the propulsion battery affects the scale of electric vehicle as this as to be replaced at the end its life period, which is about 4-5 years. The maximum distance that can be travelled at a stretch is the major limitation of todays electrical vehicle. The range can be increased to 100km and above by using higher density (45W-hr/kg) batteries available in some of the advanced countries like Japan, USA, UK, also the range can be increased 150km if a best charge is given in the non-continues mode of operation in between runs. This process of charging the batteries when vehicle is not in use is called BINEONNAGE charging. For this purpose an extensive network of electrical outlets for battery charging I required in all the places where electric vehicle is parked. In order to conserve the fossil fuels, solar electricity using photovoltaic cells can be used to charge the propulsion batteries. The solar panels can be directly mounted on the car roof for direct charging of batteries. These schemes have restricted use.

In the other concept solar cells are mounted at suitable points including the roofs of houses of every electro car. The electricity generated is fed into the official grid and trapped at any point from the grid for filling up. This grid connection concept has advantageous in that the vehicle batteries can be charged at any desirable point and independent of the respective climate conditions.