1

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, T, and deformation?
For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and T?
Electrical Properties
Electrical Conduction
Resistivity, and Conductivity, o:
geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law
E: electric
field
intensity
resistivity
(Ohm-m)
I/A J: current density
Resistivity is a material property & is independent of sample
=
A
A
I
L
V
Ohm's Law:
AV = I R
voltage drop (volts = J/C)
C = Coulomb
resistance (Ohms)
current (amps = C/s)
I
e
-
A
(cross
sect.
area)
AV
L
conductivity

o =
1

Resistance:
o
=

=
A
L
A
L
R
2
Electrical Properties
Which will conduct more electricity?
Analogous to flow of water in a pipe
So resistance depends on sample geometry, etc.
D
2D
I
VA RA
= =
Definitions
Further definitions
J = o c <= another way to state Ohms law
J current density
c electric field potential = V/ or (AV/A )
flux a like
area surface
current
A
I
= =
Current carriers
electrons in most solids
ions can also carry (particularly in liquid solutions)
Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient
J = o (AV/A )
3
Conductivity: Comparison
Silver 6.8 x 10
7
Copper 6.0 x 10
7
Iron 1.0 x 10
7
METALS conductors
Silicon 4 x 10
-4
Germanium 2 x 10
0
GaAs 10
-6
SEMICONDUCTORS
semiconductors
Room T values (Ohm-m)
-1
= (O - m)
-1
Polystyrene <10
-14
Polyethylene 10
-15
-10
-17
Soda-lime glass 10
Concrete 10
-9
Aluminum oxide <10
-13
CERAMICS
POLYMERS
insulators
-10
-10
-11
Electronic Band Structures
Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister 7e.
4
Band Structure
Valence band filled highest occupied energy levels
Conduction band empty lowest unoccupied energy levels
valence band
Conduction
band
Adapted from Fig. 18.3, Callister 7e.
Conduction & Electron Transport
Metals (Conductors):
Thermal energy puts many e
-
into
accessible higher energy states.
+
-
e-
filled
band
Energy
partly
filled
valence
band
empty
band
GAP
f
i
l
l
e
d

s
t
a
t
e
s
Energy
filled
band
filled
valence
band
empty
band
f
i
l
l
e
d

s
t
a
t
e
s
5
Energy States:
Insulators & Semiconductors
Insulators:
Higher energy states not
accessible due to gap (> 2 eV).
valence
E
n
e
r
g
y
filled
band
filled
band
empty
band
f
i
l
l
e
d

s
t
a
t
e
s
GAP
Semiconductors:
Higher energy states separated
by smaller gap (< 2 eV).
E
n
e
r
g
y
filled
band
filled
valence
band
empty
band
f
i
l
l
e
d

s
t
a
t
e
s
GAP
Charge Carriers
Two charge carrying mechanisms
Electron negative charge
Hole equal & opposite
positive charge
Move at different speeds
- electron vs. hole drift velocity
Higher temp. promotes more electrons into the conduction band
o as T
Electrons scattered by impurities, grain boundaries, etc.
6
Metals: Resistivity vs T, Impurities
Imperfections increase resistivity
grain boundaries
dislocations
impurity atoms
vacancies
These act to scatter
electrons so that they
take a less direct path.
Resistivity
increases with:
-- temperature
-- wt% impurity
-- %CW
=
thermal
+
impurity
+
deformation
d
e
fo
r
m
e
d
C
u
+
1
.1
2
a
t%
N
i
T (C) -200 -100 0
C
u
+
3
.3
2
a
t%
N
i
C
u
+
2
.1
6
a
t%
N
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

(
1
0
-
8
O
h
m
-
m
)
0
C
u
+
1
.1
2
a
t%
N
i

P
u
re

C
u
Pure Semiconductors: Conductivity vs T
Data for Pure Silicon:
o increases with T
(opposite to metals!)
electrical conductivity, o
(Ohm-m)
-1
50 100 1000
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
pure
(undoped)
T(K)
electrons
can cross
gap at
higher T
material
Si
Ge
GaP
CdS
band gap (eV)
1.11
0.67
2.25
2.40
Selected values from Table
18.3, Callister 7e.
kT / E
gap

o e
undoped
Energy
filled
band
filled
valence
band
empty
band
f
i
l
l
e
d

s
t
a
t
e
s
GAP
?
7
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon & germanium
Group IVA materials
Compound semiconductors
III-V compounds
Ex: GaAs & InSb
II-VI compounds
Ex: CdS & ZnTe
The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.
Conduction: Electron and Hole Migration
Electrical Conductivity given by:
# electrons/m
3
electron mobility:
e
in m
2
/V-s
# holes/m
3
hole mobility:
h
in m
2
/V-s
electric field electric field electric field
+
-
electron hole
pair creation
+
-
no applied applied
valence
electron
Si atom
applied
electron hole
pair migration
8
Intrinsic:
# electrons = # holes (n = p)
case for pure Si
Extrinsic:
n p
occurs when impurities are added with a different
# valence electrons than the host (e.g., Si atoms)
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p)
no applied
electric field
5+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
4+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
4+ 4+
Phosphorus atom
valence
electron
Si atom
conduction
electron
hole
e
e n ~ o
p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
no applied
electric field
Boron atom
3+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
4+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
4+ 4+ h
e p ~ o
n-type extrinsic
donor: high energy e-
high-lying HOMO
reductant
e.g., P
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
p-type extrinisic
donor: low energy hole
low-lying LUMO
oxidant
e.g., B
acceptor
state
h
+
9
n-Type Si
p-Type Si
10
Si Oxidation
Doped Semiconductor: Conductivity vs. T
Data for Doped Silicon:
o increases w/ doping
reason: imperfection sites
lower the activation energy to
produce mobile electrons.
doped
0.0013at%B
0.0052at%B
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

o
(
O
h
m
-
m
)
-
1
50 100 1000
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
pure
(undoped)
T(K)
Comparison: intrinsic vs
extrinsic conduction...
extrinsic doping level:
10
21
/m
3
of a n-type donor
impurity (such as P).
for T < 100 K: "freeze-out,
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons.
for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic"
for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic"
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
1
0
2
1
/
m
3
)
T(K) 600 400 200 0
0
1
2
3
f
r
e
e
z
e
-
o
u
t
e
x
t
r
i
n
s
i
c
i
n
t
r
i
n
s
i
c
doped
undoped
11
Doped Semiconductor: Conductivity vs. T
Number of Charge Carriers
Intrinsic Conductivity
o = n|e|
e
+ p|e|
e

n =
o
e
e
+
n
( )
=
10
6
(O m)
1
(1.6x10
19
C)(0.85+ 0.45 m
2
/V s)
For GaAs n = 4.8 x 10
24
m
-3
For Si n = 1.3 x 10
16
m
-3
for intrinsic semiconductor n = p
o = n|e|(
e
+
n
)
Ex: GaAs
12
Hole vs. Electron Mobility
Number of Charge Carriers
13
Basic Semiconductor Devices
p-n Rectifying Junction: Barrier Potential
p-type
n-type
p-type
n-type
Depletion
zone
Barrier
Potential
Initial
Real:
after e- diffusion
14
p-n Junction:
Band Bending & Barrier Potential
Level bands:
NOT in equilibrium
Fermi Levels not equal
Band Bending:
In equilibrium
Fermi Levels equal
Forward Bias in p-n Rectifying Junction
potential drives majority carriers:
strong current
15
Reversed Bias in p-n Rectifying Junction
potential drives minority carriers ONLY:
greatly reduced current
Allows flow of electrons in primarily in one direction only.
No applied potential: no net current flow.
Forward bias:
carrier flow through holes in p-type and
e- in n-type regions;
holes and e- recombine at p-n junction;
current flows.
Reverse bias:
carrier flow away from p-n junction;
carrier conc. greatly reduced at junction;
little current flow.
p-n Rectifying Junction
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
+ -
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
p-type n-type
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
- +
16
p-n Rectifying Junction
p-n Rectifying Junction
17
p-n Rectifying Junction: LED
p-type
n-type
resistor
light
emission
-ve
+ve
I
LED from p-n Rectifying Junction
18
Transistor MOSFET
MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor)
Fig. 18.24,
Callister 7e.
Transistor
varistor = variable resistor = rheostat
19
Transistor MOSFET
Transistor MOSFET
20
Transistor MOSFET
Silicon Purification
21
Growth of single crystals:
Bridgman-Stockbarger-process
(moving temperature gradient)
Zone melting
a small slice of the sample is molten
and moved continuously
along the sample
impurities normally dissolve
preferably in the melt
(icebergs in salt water dont contain any salt)
segregation coefficient k:
k = c
solid
/c
liquid
(c: concentration of an impurity)
only impurities with k < 1
can be removed by zone melting !
22
Czochralski process: Si (!)
a rotating seed crystal is raised slowly from a melt with equal composition
Silicon Purification
23
Basic Semiconductor Devices
Integrated Circuit Devices
Integrated circuits - state of the art ca. 50 nm line width
1 Mbyte cache on board
> 100,000,000 components on chip
chip formed layer by layer
Al is the wire
Fig. 18.26, Callister 6e.
24
Scanning electron microscope images of an IC:
A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
Si shows up as light regions.
A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):
Al shows up as light regions.
Fig. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. 18.0,
Callister 7e.
Fig. (d) from Fig. 18.27 (a), Callister 7e. (Fig. 18.27 is
courtesy Nick Gonzales, National Semiconductor Corp.,
West Jordan, UT.)
(b)
(c)
View of an Integrated Circuit
0.5mm
(a)
(d)
45m
Al
Si
(doped)
(d)
View of an Integrated Circuit
Transistors here are a few microns; current size ~100 nm
25
Organic Semiconductors
Organic Semiconductors
26
Organic Semiconductors
Organic Semiconductors
27
Organic Semiconductors
Organic Semiconductors
28
Organic Semiconductors
Organic Semiconductors
29
Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
material parameters.
geometry independent.
Electrical resistance is:
a geometry and material dependent parameter.
Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
differ in accessibility of energy states for
conductance electrons.
For metals, conductivity is increased by
reducing deformation
reducing imperfections
decreasing temperature.
For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
increasing temperature
doping (e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type).
Summary