A HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1.English Present and Future

1. Language and Culture Among other things, one thing which distinguishes man from animal is taking interest in his past . As we feel that our education is not complete without some basic knowledge of economics, every day science and history, so we have a keen desire to discover how our mother tongue (or any other language) started and developed into the present shape. We are keen to study the details about the medium through which we communicate with our family and friends, the tool with which we conduct our business and the vehicle by which science, philosophy and poetry have been transmitted to us. Thus an educated man must know something of the structure of his language, its position in the world, its relation to other tongues, the richness of its vocabulary; and political, social and cultural influences on his mother tongue. 2. Influence on Language While political and social events of history have profoundly affected the English peoples life, they have overwhelmingly affected their Language also. Christianizing of Britain in 597 brought England into contact with Latin civilization and made significant additions to the vocabulary of English language. The Scandinavian invasions resulted in a considerable mixture of the two peoples and their languages. After Norman Conquest, English language for two centuries remained the language of the lower class; while the nobles used French all the time. And when the English once again came to power, English language became the language of all population. But it was now an English greatly changed both in form and vocabulary from what it was in 1066. Similarly, the Hundred Years War, the rise of middle class, Renaissance, maritime power of England, expansion of British Empire, and growth of commerce, industry, science and literature all have contributed to make the English language what it is today. Thus the English language reflects in its entire development the political, social and cultural history of the English people. 3. Growth and Decay of Language All languages have a history of growth and decay. English language has also seen many ups and downs. Such as plants and animals live and die, so is the language. Sometimes, it is living and sometimes it is dead. This process of change in Language is essential for its progress. When a language ceases to change, we call it a dead language. Classical Latin is a dead language because it has not changed for

nearly two thousand years. Change in a living language can be mostly seen in its vocabulary. Old words die out, new words are added and existing words change their meaning. For instance Nice in Shakespeares days meant foolish, rheumatism meant a cold in the head. Pronunciation also changes. Old English word stan has become our stone; cu has become cow. Grammar also changes. Previously, knowed was the past tense of know. This process of change is called analogy. It is interesting to trace the influences which alter a language (spoken and written) from age to age. These are the influences which have made the English language of 900 quite unintelligible to the people of 1900. 4. Importance of Language There is a strong relationship between a language and the people who speak it. The two can never be thought apart. A language lives only so long as there are people who speak it. A language is important because the people who speak it are important politically, economically, commercially, socially and culturally. English, French and German languages are important because they are the languages of important peoples. Hence they are widely studied even outside their native countries. But Romanian, Serbian and Malay are seldom learned by outsiders. Sometimes cultural importance of a nation has been so great that its language remains important for a long time even though that nation has lost its political, commercial or cultural greatness. Greek language, for example, is studied in its classical form because its literature preserves the most complete record of its great civilization. As for the Modern Greek language spoken today, it is largely neglected by the outside world. 5. Importance of English English is the largest language spoken in Europe and America by more than 340 million people. A comparison with the speakers of other European languages is as follows:-

Language English Spanish Russian Portuguese German French Italian

Number of Speakers 340 m 210 m 200 m 115 m 105 m 80 m 62 m

Importance of a language is not only due to the large number of its speakers. It also depends on the importance of the people who speak it. It is closely associated with the political role played by the nations who use it; with their influence in international affairs; with the extent of their business and international trade; with the conditions of life under which their people live; and with the part played by them in art and literature and music, in science and inventions; and in exploration and discovery in short with their contribution to the material and spiritual progress of the world. English is the mother tongue of the nations whose combined political influence, economic soundness, commercial activity, social well-being and scientific and cultural contributions to civilization have made English the largest language of the world. It is interesting to note that Arabic is spoken by 325 million people. But since the Arabs today are not living like a strong and powerful nation, their language is not as important as English. If they are united as one Muslim nation, Arabic can become the language of the world. 6. The Future of the English Language What will be the future of the English Language? It is very difficult to predict about the future of a language because we cannot predict about the future of the nations. Existence of a language mostly depends on the population of its speakers. Current trends show that the population of developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America is growing faster than the population of developed countries in Europe and North America. Thus the population of the English speaking countries is shrinking. But we should remember that the future of a language is not merely the matter of the number of people who use it. A language lives as far as its speakers live like a strong and powerful nation. Besides, English is widely used as a second language throughout the world. In some developing countries which are experiencing fast economic growth, such as India, Nigeria and Philippines, English is one of the official languages. Although such countries try to adopt their native language as official language, but these efforts mostly fail and English language continues to play its vital role in the developing countries. It is hoped that English language will remain important and indispensable throughout the world in future. 7. Will English become the language of the world? Will English become some day the language of the world? This is a very interesting question. What a pleasant idea it is: if a traveler is not required to rely on a foreign language while visiting any country of the world; if we can conduct our business using one single language;

if scientists and scholars can learn and exchange information without any barrier of language; if we could avoid misunderstandings among nations and promote peace through direct contacts among the world leaders all of them using one common language.

The world is fully aware of the need of one international language. Several attempts made in the past to create a new artificial language have, however, failed. The official languages of United Nations are English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic. When we compare the present status of English with other five languages, we see that English is the most popular language of international communication and media, its number of speakers is increasing, in many countries it is either the primary (official) language or a compulsory second language in schools, courts and business. Thus it can be hoped that if some day the whole world agrees to adopt one single language for communicating with one another, it will be none but the English language. As John Galsworthy remarked, any impartial scrutiny made at this moment of time must place English at the head of all languages as the most likely to become, in a natural, unforced way, the single intercommunicating tongue. 8. Assets and Liabilities (Strengths and Weaknesses of English Language) Every language has some strong points and some weak points. Strengths of English Language English language has the following 3 strong points which have made this language easy to learn for foreigners:1. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary 2. Inflectional Simplicity (Simplicity in variations) 3. Use of Gender 9. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary English is called a Germanic language, which means that it belongs to the group of German, Dutch, Flemish (Belgian), Danish, Swedish and Norwegian languages. It shares with these languages similar grammatical structure and many common words. More than half of its vocabulary is derived from Latin (through French, Italian and Spanish). It frequently borrows words from many other languages, such as:WORDS Caravan, divan, khaki, shawl, sherbet, BORROWED FROM Persian

jasmine, paradise, check, chess, lemon, turban, spinach Brandy, golf, wagon, uproar Balcony, duet, granite, opera, piano, umbrella, volcano Cargo, contraband, cork, stampede, tornado, vanilla mosquito, Dutch Italian Spanish Greek Russian

Anthology, barometer, catastrophe, chronology, elastic, magic, tactics Vodka, ruble,

Besides, English has borrowed many words from Arabic, Hungarian, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Malay, Chinese; and also from the languages of Java, Australia, West Africa and Brazil. Such a cosmopolitan vocabulary can easily make a language international. 10. Inflectional Simplicity (Simplicity in Variations) A language in which variation of words is simple can sustain and can progress. In the process of simplification, English has gone further than any other language in Europe. For instance, to make plural of a noun, generally, we have to add s after it and for apostrophe, we are required to add s after the noun. For making past tense of a verb, we may simply add ed after it. For making comparative and superlative degrees of adjective, we generally add er and est respectively. These things are very complicated in other languages like German and French. 11. Use of Gender Handling of Gender in English language is very simple when compared to other European languages. Gender in English is determined by meaning and there is a very simple rule for this: All living creatures are masculine or feminine according to their sex; while all non-living things are called Neuter Gender. We say: Man is brave. He is not afraid of any one. Lady is beautiful. She is wearing a nice dress. I have a chair. It is made of wood.

For non-living things, we never bother whether we should use for them He or She; we simply use It.

12. Liabilities (Weaknesses of English Language) Like all other languages, English also has some weak points, which make it difficult to learn, especially for foreigners:1. Difficult idiomatic expressions: An idiom is a form of expression peculiar to the language. Foreigners often complain that they cannot easily express themselves idiomatically in English. English language is not alone to face this problem. All languages have their special ways of saying things. Let us see these sentences expressed in German and English:German Was fur ein Mann (What for a man) Il fait froid (It makes cold) English What kind of man It is cold

The French visitor, who had learned the English idiom: to press a person to do something said: Can we not squeeze the young lady to sing? His substitution squeeze for the word press was logical; but it was not idiomatic. Similarly, note the difference in the meanings of these sentences:My husband isnt up yet Go fast (Run fast) My husband isnt down yet Stand fast (Stay firm)

But such difficulties we find in every language. Specially, the languages which are simple have to face these kinds of problems. Their mastery largely depends on their memory. 2. Relation between spelling and pronunciation: The most adequate system of spellings is that which best combines simplicity with consistency a system in which the same sound is regularly represented by the same character and a given character always represents the same sound. There is only one language in the world which perfectly fulfils this condition; and that is Arabic the language of the Holy Quran. Among European languages, Italian and German are much better than English in this respect. In English:1) The vowel sound in each of the following words is represented by a different spelling:Believe, receive, leave, machine, be, see 2) The character a sounds differently in the following words:-

Father, hate, hat 3) There are 14 spellings for the sound of sh:Shoe, sugar, issue, mansion, mission, nation, suspicion, ocean, nauseous, conscious, chaperon (protector), schist (rock), fuchsia (bush), Pshaw (hate) This shows that there is lack of uniformity in spelling in English language. One cannot tell how to spell an English word by its pronunciation or how to pronounce it by its spelling. The English-speaking child wastes much valuable time during the early years of his education in learning to spell his own language; and to a foreigner, English spelling is extremely difficult. About a hundred years back, an attempt was made to simplify English spellings as follows:Existing Spelling Have Are Were Simplified Spelling hav (like has and had) ar (like is) wer (like was)

But though logically sound, these spellings seemed strange to the eye. So this change could not be accepted. But there is a possibility that some day we are forced to reform our spelling from international point of view.

2.Indo-European Family of Languages

13. Language Constantly Changing Language is not writing. Actually it is speech. Writing is only a device of recording sounds. Since language is speech, therefore, it is not uniform and fixed; it is always changing. Speech is produced by moving certain muscles of human body. When muscles are moved repeatedly, this movement is subject to alteration. This alteration takes place largely without our being conscious of it. Thus each individual is constantly and quite unconsciously introducing slight changes in his speech. There is no such thing as uniformity in a language. Speech of one community differs from that of another; speech of different individuals of a single community differs from one another; even speech of different members of the same family differs from one another. Members of a group, however, are influenced by one another. Therefore we find a general similarity in the speech of a particular community. Changes in speech are general and common to a large part of the community. Alteration that is going on in a language is so gradual that we hardly notice it. But after a period of time it becomes visible. Classical Poet, Alexander Pope writes: Good-nature and good-sense must ever join; To err is human, to forgive, divine .. Here it is apparent that he pronounced join as jine. Again he says: Here thou great Anna! Whom three realms obey, Dost sometimes counsel take and sometimes Tea. This shows that he pronounced Tea as Tay. At other places Pope has used the words fullrule, givebelieve, glassplace, earrepair etc. Similar examples can be seen in Chaucers and King Alfreds works. Alfred used the words: ban (bone), hu (how), heah (high). These words can hardly be recognized by the ordinary Englishspeaking person today. 14. Dialectal Differentiation In a community, individual differences of speech remain merged in the general speech of the community, so they are not visible. But if any separation of one community from another takes place and lasts for quite some time, differences grow up between them and become visible. We call them Local Dialects. If separation is still longer, so as the language of one district is not understood by the other district, then we have Development of a separate language. Common

features in two languages indicate that at one time in the past they were one, such as English and German:German Milch Brot Fleisch Wasser Milk Bread Flesh Water English

Let us have a look at the English words Father and Brother in other languages: English German Dutch Greek Sanskrit Father Vater vader Pater Pitar Brother Bruder Broeder Phrater Bhratar

This shows that the languages of Europe and Asia were at one time identical. 15. The Discovery of Sanskrit In late 18th century, it was discovered that Sanskrit, a language of ancient India, was also one of the language of this European group. The rich literature of India, reaching back further than that of any of the European languages, preserves features of the common language. Besides, the inflections (variations) of these languages also have a common origin. Compare the inflection of is and are :English Old English Gothic (German) Latin Greek Sanskrit Is Is Ist Est Esti Asti are sindon sijum sumus semen smas

Analysis carried out by Hindu grammarians also proves that a close relation exists in Sanskrit and European languages, which shows that Sanskrit is also from the family of European languages. 16. Grimms Law In 1822 a German Philologist, Jacob Grimm discovered that there was a great similarity between some consonants in Germanic languages and those found in Sanskrit, Greek and Latin. According to him a p in Indo-European languages remained as p in Latin and Greek; but it was changed to f in Germanic languages. So the Latin word piscis (pish) became fish in English. Similarly, c (sounding as

k) in Latin was changed to h and t to d in English. So the Latin word centum (sounding as kentum) became hundred in English. Formulation of these correspondences is known as Grimms Law. The cause of this change is not known. It is said that it took place in fifth century B.C., after the Germanic dialect was separated from the neighboring dialect of the parent language. It is also assumed that the change was due to the migration of Germanic tribes and their contact with non-Germanic population. Another possibility is that a foreign population had entered into Germanic territory which caused this change. There were some exceptions in Grimms Law. For instance, Latin word centum became hundred in English. Here change from c to h was according to rule; but change from t to d was an exception (because according to rule, t should have been changed to th (sounding as th-e) and not d). In 1875, Karl Verner showed that some voiceless spirants became voiced in Germanic languages. So th-e became the and then d in English. 17. The Indo-European Family The languages brought into relationship from a parent speech are called a family language. Previously, the name Aryan was used for the Indo-European family languages. But now this word is used only for the language of the family located in India. Another common term used for the Indo-European family languages is IndoTeutonic (i.e. the languages of Indians, Germans, Scandinavians and British). German Philologists name this family as Indo-Germanic. But this is open to objection of giving undue emphasis to Germanic languages. The term now most widely used is Indo-European, suggesting more clearly the geographical extent of the family. We have no written record of the common Indo-European language. By comparison of its descendants, however, it is possible to form a fair idea of it and to reconstruct with approximate accuracy its vocabulary and inflections. There are 11 surviving languages of Indo-European family, which show various degrees of similarity to one another. 18. Indian The oldest literary texts preserved in any Indo-European language are the Vedas (sacred books) of India. These books form the basis of Brahman philosophy. Oldest of these books go back to 1500 B.C. These are written in Sanskrit language (or Vedic Sanskrit). This language is also found in certain prose writings containing directions for various religious activities of Hindus. Sanskrit was later used for writings other than religion. It was now given a literary form and was known as Classical Sanskrit. Two great epics (long poems) Mahabharata and Ramayana

were written in this language. Besides, numerous scientific and philosophical works are also available in Classical Sanskrit. However, long ago Sanskrit ceased to be a spoken language. Later, some local dialects of Sanskrit got a literary form. One of these, Pali became the language of Buddhism. The present official languages of India (Hindi), Pakistan (Urdu) and Bangladesh (Bengali) have also descended from these local dialects. These languages are spoken by about 600 million people. Other important languages of India and Pakistan are Panjabi and Marathi. Urdu is closely related to Hindi. However it is differentiated from Hindi for its considerable mixture of Persian and Arabic words and also for its script which is Arabic, not Sanskrit. 19. Iranian To be completed

5.The Norman Conquest and the Subjection of English (1066-1200)

81. The Norman Conquest When we study the history of English language, an important event that had a great impact on English Language is the Norman Conquest in 1066. If William the Conqueror had not succeeded in getting the throne of England, the English language, like other Germanic languages, would have retained its limited vocabulary, without absorbing a lot of words from the French language. The Norman Conquest brought a lot of changes in the civilization and living style of the English people and thus changed the whole course of English Language. 82. The Origin of Normandy On northern coast of France, directly across from England, is the district of Normandy, where the groups of Northmen (Scandinavians) had settled in 9 th and 10th century. They also included the Danes (groups from Denmark). After King Alfred, an agreement was made with Northmen in England to live with peace. Similar agreement was also concluded between Rollo, the leader of the Danes in Normandy and Charles, the Simple, king of France. In 912, the right of the Northmen to occupy this part of France was recognized. Rollo accepted the French king as his lord. In turn, he was made the first duke of Normans. After this, there was a series of Norman dukes and this institution became so powerful that at times it overshadowed the powers of king of France. Scandinavians are famous for their adaptability. Thus Rollo, the first duke very quickly adopted the ideas and customs of French civilization. He also injected fresh elements to it. He profited from his contact with French military and, using his own courage, created the best army in Europe. Taking French idea of Jury, he created an outstanding legal system of the world. He accepted Christianity and constructed big modern cathedrals. Most important, he soon gave up his own Scandinavian language and learned French. So rapidly did the old Scandinavian tongue disappear in the Norman Capital that the second duke was forced to send his son abroad for learning Scandinavian language the language of his forefathers. Thus the civilization of Normandy became essentially French and the Normans became the most advanced and progressive people of Europe. Earlier, in 1002 AEthelred, the king of England had married a Norman wife. Later when he was exiled by the Danes, he took refuge with his brother-in-law, the duke of Normandy. His son Edward was brought up in France, so he was almost more

French than English. In 1042, when the Danish line died out, Edward was restored to the throne. He brought with him a number of Norman friends, enriched them and gave them important places in the government. Thus a strong French atmosphere prevailed in England during the 24 years of his rule. 83. The Year 1066 In 1066 Edward died childless. Godwin, the earl of West Saxon district was very powerful and influential. He had also worked as Edwards Adviser. He was the actual ruler of England. His son Harold succeeded him. He was also very influential in national affairs. The day after Edwards death, Harold was elected the king of England. William, who was the duke of Normandy at this time, was cousin of Edward. He was expecting to become Edwards successor. But the English had had enough of French favorites, so Harold was accepted as king of England. But William, who was very bright and talented, realized that he could get the crown only by force. He secured cooperation from his influential supporters by promising rewards to them; made agreements with his rivals and enemies; appealed to the Pope for blessings of the Church and finally landed on the south coast of England with a heavy army. At this time Harold was facing another attack from king of Norway in north of England. Hurrying south, he drew up his forces on a broad hill where he was in a very advantageous position. The desperate William thought of a trick. He ordered his men a fake retreat. The English fell into the trap. Now the war was being fought on even terms. But suddenly, a Norman hit an arrow in the eye of Harold and he died at the spot. Deprived of their leader, the English became disorganized. They ran for shelter here and there. Thus William won the battle. After his victory, he burnt and spoiled the southeast of London. Hence the citizens of London decided that further resistance would be useless. Accordingly, William was crowned as king of England in 1066. 84. The Norman Settlement Williams victory was not merely replacement of one ruler by another ruler. It was more than that. He was not chosen as the successor of Edward. His possession of the throne was a matter of conquest, bringing with it all the consequences of the conquest of one people by another. After his victory, William, the Conqueror took the following steps:1) A new nobility was introduced, as many of the English higher class had been killed in war and those who escaped were treated as traitors. All these positions were filled by Williams Norman followers. 2) Williams coronation did not win immediate recognition throughout England. He was accepted only in southeast. Next year, he was faced with serious rebellions at many places in England. He handled them with severity and proved his mastery over the land.

3) As a result of his strict behavior, the old nobles of England were wiped out. In 1072, only one of the 12 earls in England was an Englishman; and he was also killed 4 years later. 4) For several generations after the Conquest, the important positions and the great estates were held by Normans the men of foreign blood. 5) Normans were introduced in all important positions in the Church. The two archbishops were Norman. The English abbots were replaced by Norman abbots gradually as the vacancies occurred. In 1075, there were 13 abbots who were English. After 12 years, their number was reduced to 3 only. The same example was followed in case of monks and priests. 6) Many Normans in the lower walks of life came into England with Williams army. They remained in England and their number gradually increased. 7) Many castles were built which were occupied by foreign troops. 8) Merchants and craftsmen from the continent (Normandy) settled in England in considerable numbers. 9) Several towns and streets were named as French. Thus the Normans left a deep influence of French culture and French civilization on the English people during 1066 to 1200. 85. The Use of French by the Upper Class After occupying England, the Normans continued to use their language. This was natural enough as they knew no English. But with the passage of time, they started picking up some knowledge of English, but making no effort to do so as a matter of policy. For two hundred years after Norman Conquest, French remained the language of the upper class in England. In the beginning, those who spoke French were only Normans; but soon through intermarriages and association with the ruling class, many people of English origin found it useful to learn French language. Thus learning French became a social need. The language of the common people, however, remained English. Thus it was natural that a French soldier settled in a village with a few hundred peasants would soon learn the language of the people with whom he was staying. This bilingual character of England can be explained further with another example of Belgium today. Here we find Flemish (Dutch) and French being used side by side. This is due to geographical and social conditions. Flemish is spoken in the northern part of Belgium which is closer to Holland; while French is spoken in those areas which are closer to France. In cities, people from working class speak Flemish, while higher economic and social groups speak French and go to French theaters. 86. Circumstances Promoting the Continuous Use of French

The most important factor in the continued use of French by the English upper class until the beginning of 13th century was the close connection that existed through all these years between England and Normandy. From the time of Conquest, kings of England were also the dukes of Normandy. To the end of his life, William, the Conqueror remained attached to Normandy more than to England (the country which he had conquered). He was buried in Normandy. Before his death, he gave Normandy to his eldest son and England to his second son. Later in the period of Henry I, Normandy and England were combined. When Henry II became the king of England, he was controlling about two-third of France. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that the attention of the English should often be focused upon affairs in France. English kings often spent a great part of their time in Normandy. No English king, except for Henry I, sought a wife in England till 1461. This shows how French-minded English Royalty was and why French was used continuously at the English court. What was true of royal family was equally true of the nobility in general. All great English landlords had lands in Normandy; they married the French Women and spent much time in France either for their own interest or for the interest of the king. King and his nobles frequently visited France in connection with military operations. Similarly, nobles from the Church and Business Community had to travel time and again between England and Normandy. This constant going and coming across the English Channel made the continued use of French not only natural but essential. 87. The Attitude toward English The preference which the governing class showed for French was merely a result of natural circumstances. The idea that the newcomers were hostile to English language is without foundation. It is true that English was now an uncultivated tongue, the language of a socially inferior class. But this is exaggeration to say that it was considered a disgrace to be called Englishman. No doubt that the English, although now a conquered people, were feeling resentment against the Normans and the Normans were showing arrogance as a victorious people, but still there is evidence of mutual respect. This peaceful cooperation is also evident from intermarriages between the Normans and the English from the very beginning. Historian Orderic Vitalis, son of a Norman father and an English mother, who spent his whole life in Normandy always called himself an Englishman. According to him, William the Conqueror himself at the age of 43 made an effort to learn English so that he should render justice in the disputes, but he could not make much progress due to his busy activities. It is a foolish idea to believe that William wanted to destroy the language of the Saxon with the intension that the English and the French might speak the same language. We find that he used English alongside Latin in his charters. During the period up to 1200, the attitude of the kings and

upper classes towards the English language may be called as one of simple indifference (unbiased and unconcerned). It is true that they did not cultivate English, but it does not mean that they hated English. They did not promote English because their activities in England did not necessitate it and their concern with Normandy affairs made French for them much more useful. zma 88. French Literature at the English Court The literature produced during this period shows that that the English court was completely French at this time. Literature played an important role in the lives of the people as there were no modern means of entertainment. French literature produced in England from the beginning of twelfth century was addressed to English patrons for meeting their special tastes and interests. William, the Conqueror, was himself a learned person. His daughter, Adela was a patron of poets. His son Henry I was married to two queens who always supported the poets. His court was center for literary activities. His two wives were supportive of foreign poets. Gaimar wrote History of the English in French verse. In the period of Henry II, Wace wrote his Roman de Brut and presented it to the queen. Later he also wrote an account of dukes of Normandy. All this literature was of a great interest to the Royal family of France. It shows that the French culture had taken very firm roots on English soil. That is why so important literature for England was written in French language, much of it under the direct patronage of the court. 89. Fusion of the two peoples A few years after the Norman Conquest, the stings of defeat, hardships and political & social disturbances were gradually forgotten. People accepted the new order as a fact; and adjusted themselves to it. The fusion of Normans and English was rapid, but it went through in normal pace. The distinction between French and English did not survive long. This early fusion of French and English is clear from the following facts:1) Many Normans married English Women. 2) The English gave their support to Norman rulers and Norman religious leaders. 3) William II and Henry I drove off foreign invaders with the help of army of English troops. 4) Norman religious leaders found their best supporters among the English. 5) A spiritual federation was established between the Norman and English religious leaders, under which they decided to bind themselves together in the closest spiritual fellowship, irrespective of their birthplace. 6) Norman nobles established their religious centers on their English estates and preferred to be buried in England rather than in Normandy. 7) The trade developed between the two peoples on a large scale.

90. The Diffusion of French and English To what extent English and French were used in England after the Norman Conquest? This is a difficult question to answer. How many people spoke both French and English and how many were ignorant of one or the other language? This aspect has to be looked into very carefully. The thirteenth century works throw some light on this issue. From this time onward, proceedings of the court show that there was some consciousness about the language in which evidence was given in the court. The poets and writers started giving explanation about the language they were using in their works. They were now making observations of linguistic nature. Letters, public and private, Acts, Records of towns, Agreements etc, all had now become language conscious. From all this, it is evident that French was the language of the court and the upper class, while English was the speech of the masses during this period. 91. Knowledge of English among the Upper Class Although French was the language of the Upper Class during the 12 th Century in England, yet all those common people who were brought in association with the governing class soon learned French, which had become a mark of social distinction. On the other hand, English was the language of a greater part of population; hence many of the upper class had to acquire some knowledge of English. Henry II himself understood English though he did not speak it. The peasants talked to him in English. He understood them but replied them in French through interpreter. Among Churchmen, the ability to speak English was very common. Gilbert Foliot, bishop of London who was a Norman was very fluent in Latin, French and English. Abbot Samson could speak Latin and French; he could read the books in English very well; and could preach to the people in English. But it does not mean that all French people in England knew English. Many bishops and abbots were unable to preach in anything but Latin or French. So they required an interpreter for English. Among the men of lower rank, whose position brought them into contact with both the upper and lower class, the ability to speak English and French was quite general. In case of children whose fathers and mothers spoke different languages (French and English), the children mostly had the knowledge of both these languages. Thus the knowledge of English was not uncommon among those who mostly used French. It was also expected among churchmen and men of education. Those who were in contact with both upper and lower class had the ability to speak both French and English. 92. Knowledge of French among the Middle Class By the end of 12th century, as the Knowledge of English was common among the upper class, so the knowledge of French was also common among the middle class.

Among the knightly class, French was important even when the mother tongue was English. In the time of Henry II, a knight in England got a man from Normandy to teach his son French. Ability to speak French was expected among this class. After the knights, the inhabitants of towns contained the largest number of those among the middle class who knew French. Merchants in all trade centers used French. Preaching was almost done in French which shows that common people also understood French. But it does not mean that all the people in England understood and spoke both English and French at that time. There were some who only spoke French and many more who spoke only English. Some were bilingual. Many were those who had some understanding of both the languages, while speaking only one.

7.Middle English
111. Middle English - a period of great change: There was a tendency of changes that were being brought in English language since the old English period but the Middle English period marks the period of greatest changes that were ever brought in English language. This period ranges from 1150 to 1500. Most of the changes were the result of the Norman Conquest of 1066.The changes of this period affected both grammar and vocabulary of English. 112. Decay of Inflectional endings: In English grammar the changes that occurred were basically the reduction of inflections (word endings) that were most commonly and excessively found in old English nouns and adjectives. General trend found in Middle English is loss of inflections. For example, the vowels in inflectional endings like a, o, u, e were replaced by e only. Thus grammar became simplified. 113. The Noun: In early middle English period only two methods of indicating the plural noun remained common and those were the -s and the -es. These forms we still have in modern English as well. By 1200 s was the standard plural ending in the north and north midland areas. Fifty years later it had spread in the rest of the Midlands and in the course of the fourteenth century it had definitely been accepted all over England. 114. The Adjective: Like noun, the Adjective also lost its inflections by the close of the Middle English period, especially in the 14th century. Earlier the form of nominative singular was extended to all cases of the singular and that of nominative plural to all cases of the plural, but 14th century English dropped these inflections. 115. The Pronoun: Although there was much loss of inflection in nouns and adjectives but this phenomenon in pronouns was of a much lesser degree. Most of the inflections were retained and only a few were lost.

Hi became he Here became her (e was lost) Hem became them. By the end of the Middle English period the form they, their, them may be regarded as normal English plurals. Much influence in English pronoun was due to Scandinavian invasion also. 116. The verb: After the Norman Conquest, the loss of native words further reduced in quantity the strong verbs. The vocabulary was now French and thus many English verbs had been lost. After the Norman Conquest the loss of native words further reduced words especially strong verbs in quantity. Nearly a third of the strong verbs in old English seem to have died out easily in the Middle English period. About 90 of them have left no traces in written record after 1150. Today more than half of the old English strong verbs have disappeared completely from the standard language. At the time when English was the language of lower classes and largely removed from the restraining influences of education and literacy standard, it was natural that many speakers should wrongly apply the use of verbs. This trend became clear in written literature of 13th century. Verbs like burn, brew, bow, climb, flee, flow, step, weep, walk were undergoing certain changes. Strangely enough it was seen that past participle of strong verbs retained their form. According to linguists about 68 of Old English strong verbs survived to this day. 121. Loss of Grammatical Gender: The gender of old English nouns was often not determined by meaning. In fact sometimes it was in direct contradiction to meaning. Old English word (wif-mann) meaning wife was masculine. Due to loss of inflections overall and, especially in adjectives and demonstratives, there was a loss of inflections in grammatical gender too. 123. French Influence on Vocabulary When English and French languages came into contact with each other, the fusion of words was inevitable as both peoples had friendly relations for a long period. Many French words were adopted by English as the English was representing an inferior culture. But some English words also found their way in French. English language accepted the following French words as part of its vocabulary:124. Govt. and Administrative words:

Government, state, crown, empire, reign, royal, majesty, authority, tax, revenue, traitor, treason, rebel, public, liberty all came from French to English. 125. Ecclesiastical words: Ecclesiastical words are the words relating to Religion. Thus the words like religion, theology, baptism, clergy, clerk, prayer, sermon, miracle, saint, virgin, redemption etc. all entered from French into English. 126. Law: English borrowed legal terminology from French, such as Judge, advocate, arrest, blame, criminal, legal, ransom, kidnap, bail, evidence, felon, proof etc. 127. Army and Navy: Words relating to military such as Guard, spy, Garrison, soldier, retreat, siege, defence, ambush, peace etc. were adopted by English. 128. Fashion, Meals and Social Life: Frock, collar, coat, cape, veil, gown, button, robe, ivory, russet, ruby, pearl, diamond etc. are French words which became a part of English vocabulary. 129. Art, Learning, Medicine: Art, painting, music, sculpture, beauty, color, story, remedy, tragedy, pain, ointment, sulpher, poison etc made their way into English. 130. Breadth of French Influence: French vocabulary that became a part of English was widely distributed in every field of life, and hence was quite universal. Nouns like adventure, crocodile, error, flower, manner, spirit, unity etc were adopted from French. Verbs include apply, arrive, betray, carry, defeat, enjoy, obey, surprise etc. Some very common adjectives like curious, fierce, horrible, nice, simple, usual etc were also adopted from French. Even some phrases like by heart, in vain etc entered English through French language. Hence French influence on English was quite widespread, concerning various departments of thought. 132. Popular and Literary Borrowings:

Most words taken from French were popular ones i.e. used in everyday life. However, some words also entered through literature. As most of Middle English literature is based on French themes, so it is natural that French words also made their way in English literature. Some writers like Layamon avoided this addition but most others did not. Hence words like adolescence, combustion, ingenious furtive etc entered English by this means. In the 15th century, French was no longer the spoken language in England. Therefore, most French words adopted at that time surely came through literary language rather than daily communication. 133. The Period of Greatest Influence: Otto Jespersen (1905) made a study which reveals the time period when French words were added to English. The findings show that there was a slight increase in French words being adopted after 1150, which improved further from 1200 to 1250. It was after 1250 that the French vocabulary started adding in English with full force, and this went on till the end of 14th century. In the 15th century, the addition of French words faced a sharp decline and ended gradually. The time when most French words were being added i.e. 1250-1400 is the time when the French people who had now become English nobles, started adopting English language. This must have caused mixing of French in English. 142. Latin Borrowings in Middle English: Apart from the Latin words that entered English through French, some Latin words also entered English directly in this period. These words were less popular than French words, and came mainly through written language. Some examples are adjacent, custody, innate (by birth), lunatic (mad), project, spacious, tributary etc. Several words with endings able (comfortable), ible, (eligible), al (cultural), ive (comprehensive) were also added and became a part of English. 143. Aureate Terms: During the 15th century, many poets and few prose writers made use of unusual or strange-sounding Latin words in their work to give it a style. Such words are known as aureate (ornamented) terms. Such words include abusion, dispone, equipolent etc. Such aureate diction was used by Chaucer, Lydgate, and Scottish Chaucerians. Such style seemed artificial and it was believed that these terms cannot be a part of English language but some words like mediation, oriental, laureate etc, that seemed aureate in Chaucer, later became a part of common language. However, aureate terms are of more interest in the history of literature rather than of language. 147. The Middle English Dialects:

Many varieties of English language dialects prevailed during this period. These dialects differed in pronunciation, vocabulary and inflection (word ending). The following 4 dialects are very prominent:Dialects Northern dialect East Midland dialect West Midland dialect Southern dialect Area Example loves Loves loven Example loving Lovande Lovende Lovende Lovinde

extending till Humber River covering the area between Humber and Thames covering the area between loven Humber and Thames used in area beyond loveth Thames

The East and West Midland dialects shared many characteristics and were similar in many ways. The differences in North and South were more prominent. For instance, the sound f and s in North dialect was changed to v and z in South dialect; such as fox and vixen (vikson) in the North were voiced as vox and vikzen in the South. This voice of North dialect in these two words we still have in modern English. 148. The Rise of Standard English: There was a need for one standard variety of language which emerged in the 14th century and was generally accepted as the recognized, standard spoken and written language in the 15th century. This standard was mostly made up of the East Midland dialect, especially the language of London. Midland dialect became standard due to many reasons. First, that it was in the middle area, rather than North and South extremes, and it shared many combined characteristics of North and South. Secondly, East Midland was the most populated and largest area. Thirdly, universities like Oxford and Cambridge were present in this area, which were intellectual centers. Moreover, the language used by Chaucer lent support to the dialect of his region and ultimately to the standard form. 149. The Importance of London English: The most important factor of East midland becoming the Standard English was the importance of London-the capital city of England. London was the political and commercial center of England, and the main hub for social and intellectual activities. People from all over the country visited it for various affairs and hence here, all varieties of language were mixed, which became the Standard English.

10.

The Nineteenth Century and After

211. Influences Affecting the Language The events of 19th and 20th centuries affecting the English-speaking countries have been of great political and social importance, but in their effect on language they have not been of a revolutionary character. In 1805 England got victory over the sea after Napoleonic Wars which gave her control over most of the worlds commerce. The war against Russia (1856) and India turned the attention of England to the East. English Society established itself on a more democratic basis through: Reorganization of parliament Revision of penal code and the poor laws Restrictions on child labor and other industrial reforms

They lessened the distance between the upper and the lower classes and increased the opportunities for common people to share in the economic and cultural advantages. First cheap newspaper (1816), cheap postage (1840), telegraph, rails, roads and boats helped in uniting more closely the different parts of England. Thus the influence of standard speech was spread over a vast area. The world wars left their mark on the language. Englands colonies in various parts of the world and their independence, and the rapid development in the Unites States produced different forms of English spoken in these countries. This led their population to the belief that their English is as standard as that of England. Development in science, rapid progress in every field of intellectual activity, participation of all classes in this activity, both in work and play, the great development in industry, the increased public interest in sports and amusements, and the many improvements in the mode of living in which even the humblest worker has shared all these factors have contributed a lot to the vocabulary of the English language during 19th century and after. 212. The Growth of Science Science has played a very important role in bringing us to our present day civilization. Progress made during last few generations by medicine (bacteriology, biochemistry, etc.) in diagnosis, treatment prevention and cure of disease is remarkable. Same progress we can find in the short period from Wright Brothers (who invented and flied first airplane in 1905) to the landing of astronauts on the moon in 1969 and landing of un-manned spacecraft on the Mars in 1971. In every field of science, there has been need in last hundred years for thousands of new

terms. Most of these are technical words known only to the specialists, but a certain number of them in time become familiar to the layman for general use. Here are some familiar words which have come into use of every one during 19 th and 20th century:Medicine: appendicitis, homoeopathic, clinics, vaccination, aspirin, iodine, insulin, antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin), glands, hormones, stethoscope, metabolism, proteins, carbohydrates, allergy, cholesterol, DNA. Electricity: dynamo, electron, ultraviolet rays, atomic energy, radioactive, hydrogen bomb, chain reaction. Chemistry: alkali (salt), benzene (hydrocarbon), radium, biochemical, petrochemical. Psychology: behaviorism, inhibition (nervous breakdown), inferiority complex, psychoanalysis. Space: astronaut, cosmonaut, launch pad, countdown, blast off, spacecraft, space walk, space shuttle, splashdown, ozone. Consciously or unconsciously, we have become scientifically-minded in the last few generations and our vocabularies reflect this extension of our consciousness and interest. 213. Automobile, film, broadcasting In these fields, not only that new words have been added, we find new uses of old words. Parking a car was previously used for parking cannon or carriage (military term). Automobile or motor car was previously called sedan, saloon, coach, or coupe. Truck is the old lorry to which a trailer was attached. The following words have now new meanings:Carburetor, spark plug, choke, clutch, gear shift, piston rings, throttle, differential, shock absorber, radiator, bumper, chassis, power steering, radial tires, garage, engine tuning, knocking, backfire, skid, service station, motel, highway, gas (America), petrol (England). This is how a new thing which becomes popular makes demands upon and extends the resources of the language. Same is the case with movies, radio and television.

The words cinema and movie picture are very old (1899), while motion picture is somewhat later. Some new words which are very common are:Screen, reel, newsreel, film, scenario, projector, close-up, fade out, feature film, animated cartoon, Technicolor, broadcast, aerial, antenna, lead, loudspeaker, standby, announcer, reception, microphone, transmitter, FM (frequency Modulation), AM (Amplitude Modulation), UHF, VHF, videotape, deck, stereo. 214. The World Wars As another example of how great developments or events leave their mark upon language, we may observe some of the words that came into English between 1914 and 1918 as a direct consequence of World War I. Military Terms: air raid, antiaircraft gun, tank, blimp (airship for observation), Gas mask, liaison officer, camouflage (borrowed from French, meaning disguise or misrepresentation), hand grenade, dugout, machinegun, no mans land, blighty (vilayati i.e. of England; or a wound that sent a soldier back to England), war bride. Old words used with new meanings: Sector = Fighting line; Barrage = Protective screen of heavy artillery; dud (Anything not genuine) = Shell that did not explode. During World War II, we find larger number of memorable songs than memorable words. Among new words, we have:Alert (air-raid warning), blackout, blitz (from German, meaning lightning war), blockbuster (powerful), dive-bombing, evacuate, air raid shelter, commando, cold war, front organization. Some words were initially introduced as military terms, but now they have become a part of the vocabulary of civilian life, such as:Priority, bottleneck, ceiling (upper limit), backlog, stockpile The following words are not found in Oxford Dictionary or its 1933 supplement:Parachutist, paratroop, landing strip, crash landing, road block, jeep, fox hole (shelter for one or two men), bulldozer, task force, resistance movement, radar.

215. Language as a Mirror of Progress Words are the symbols of mans ideas. They are an accurate measure of his range of thoughts at any given time. They indicate the things he knows. The vocabulary of a language must keep pace with the advance of his knowledge. The date when a new word enters the language is in general the date when the object, experience or observation that calls it forth has come to his mind. Oxford Dictionary gives us the date of each word introduced and the date of its meanings. Thus we could write the history of civilization merely from this evidence. In early 19th century, growing of the word horsepower indicates to some form of mechanical power which needs to be measured in familiar terms. In 1835, the words like railway and locomotive tell us that steam railways were then coming in. In 1839, the words photograph and photography mark the beginning of additional vocabulary of special words like camera, film, enlargement, focus and shutter. The word concrete (mixture of crushed stone and cement) first appeared in 1834, but reinforced concrete (concrete mixed with metal) came in 20 th century. The word cable occurred a few years before laying of first Atlantic cable in 1857. The word refrigerator came in 1841. Some other words having special meanings which were introduced during 19th century are: emancipation (freedom of women), abolitionist (one who makes efforts to abolish slavery), typewriter, telephone, apartment, blueprint, oilfield, motorcycle, feminist, fundamentalist, marathon (1896 when Olympics at Athens were revived after the battle of Marathon).

In 20th century, the process of vocabulary growth was accelerated. Some words with special meanings introduced during the century are:1901: Questionnaire 1906: Suffragette (right to vote) 1907: Dictaphone, raincoat, thermos 1908: Free verse 1910: Futurist 1921: Cellophane 1924: Rayon 1972: Credit card, freeze-dried, bionic, cybernetics, 1985: Supersonic transport (SST).

electronic

computer,

automation,

216. Sources of New Words: Borrowings English is a cosmopolitan language and has always borrowed words from other languages. During 19th and 20th centuries also, many of the new words have been taken over ready-made from the people from whom the idea or thing has been obtained. For instance:French: Garage, chauffer, bengaline (silky fabric) Italian: Confetti (Small pieces or streamers of colored paper thrown around on a wedding etc.) Spanish: Bonanza (Gold, Top prize) Russia: Vodka Czech: robot India: loot, Thug China: Chop soy (Meat fried in vegetables) 217. Self-explaining Compounds Making self-explaining compounds is a very old method of word-formation in the language. Some recent formations in this regard are:Think tank, skydiving, body language, life-style, put-on, software, mobile home. 218. Compounds formed from Greek or Latin Elements Greek: Eugenics (well-born by selecting healthy parents) Genetics (study of hereditary) Stethoscope (steth=chest, scope=watcher) Telescope, telephone, television (tele = far) Automobile (movable) Orthodontia (to straighten irregular teeth) Latin: Fluoroscope (X-ray, combined with screen to see the result) 219. Prefixes and Suffixes Another method of enlarging the vocabulary is by appending prefixes (at the beginning of the words) or suffixes (at the end of the words). Examples of Prefixes: Transoceanic, transcontinental, transliterate, transformer, postgraduate, postclassical, preschool, prehistoric, preheat, pre-cool, preview, prerelease, prenuptial (wedding), counterattack, counterintelligence, superman, subtitle, decode, defrost, deflate (currency), debug (machine or program).

Examples of Suffixes: Useful, hopeless, handsome, filmdom (of film), fandom (fans of a famous person). 220. Coinages

stardom

(star/fame),

Coinage means introducing new words to explain an invention. It has been in practice since long. However, in our age of media and advertisements, such words are easily adopted by the people. The word Kodak was initially used for any brand of camera, but now it is a specific company for photography. The following words were initially used in general terms, but now they are specific brands:Frigidaire (refrigerator), Kleenex (tissue paper), Xerox (photocopier). The word zipper which was initially a shoe company is now used in general terms. Acronyms: Acronyms are the words formed by combining the initial (or first few) letters of two or more words. Here are some examples:Radar = Radio detecting and ranging OPEC = Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Dictaphone = Dictation and Telephone Travelogue = Travel and Dialogue Blends: Blend is a word which is made by combining two different words, such as:Electrocute = Electricity and Execute Snark = Snake and Shark Brunch = Breakfast and Lunch (initially used as humor) Cinemactress = Cinema Actress Cinemaddict = Cinema Addict 221. Common Words from Proper Names Another source from which many English words have been derived in the past is the names of persons and places. For instance:Morocco: It is a country in northwestern Africa; but it is actually name of a person. Sandwich: The Earl of Sandwich once placed slices of meat between pieces of bread. Tabasco sauce: Tabasco is a river in Mexico.

Limousine: It is a luxury car. Limousine is a province in France. Boycott: Captain Boycott, the agent of an Irish landowner refused to accept rents from the tenants. The people began a campaign of isolation against Boycott in the local community. This campaign included the refusal of shops to serve him, and the withdrawal of laundry services. Even the boy who carried his mail was threatened with violence if he continued. Thus came the word boycott. Lynch law: It is the practice of punishing people by hanging without due process of law. It is named against its originator, Captain William Lynch of Virginia (1776). Mackintosh: A rubber raincoat named against a chemist of Glasgow who made it. 222. Old Words with New Meanings It is very common in a language that the old words are given new meanings. Here are some examples:Word Skyline Old Meanings Horizon New Meanings View of a city's buildings and structures against the sky Radio program Files, previous performance etc. Car engines part which provides steam heat Finish a radio program Wait, pause Lifting of airplane up To start a game or some other activity

Broadcast Record Radiator

Seed Gramophone disc Heat

Sign off Stand by Take off Kick off

Signing a document Standing near someone To take something To strike

223. The Influence of Journalism Journalism is gradually becoming an important factor in introducing new words. Newspapers and magazines spread words with special meanings. Reporters are busy and have no time to search for a proper word. So they adopt an informal style. Some expressions introduced through journalism are as follows:-

To To To To To

back a horse = To ride a horse back a candidate = To support a candidate boost economy = To strengthen economy hop (jump) the Atlantic = To cross the Atlantic oust (throw) a politician = To defeat a politician

Some other words which have entered through journalism are:Probe, cleanup, business deal, go-between, egghead (clever) On Sports page of newspapers, we find:To show white feather = from cockfighting Out of the running = from race track Neck and neck (equal strength) = from boxing 224. Changes of Meaning The branch of linguistic study which concerns itself with the meanings of words and the way meanings develop is called Semasiology or Semantics. It has been observed that the words have the following tendencies:Extension of meaning or Generalization: Lovely originally meant worthy to be loved. But now it also means beautiful or charming. Great meant large in size. But now it also means great in quality, such as great leader, great work, great book etc. Dean was the head of a Church or Faculty. But now it is used in the sense of Leader: We say Dean of American critics or Dean of sportswriters. Narrowing of meaning: Doctor was a learned person in any profession, but now it is primarily a medical doctor. Sometimes narrowing of meaning is specific to a group or class of people. For instance:Enlargement to a photographer means only enlargement of a picture. Senior in education circle is a member of graduating class.

Gas has 3 different restricted meanings for a chemist, a housewife and an American owner of a car. Nickel in America is a coin; prohibition is prohibition of intoxicants; democratic is a member of Democratic Party and republican is a member of Republican Party. Degeneration: When a word is generalized, sometimes its original sense is lost. This process is called degeneration. Garble originally meant to purify spices from dirt and dust (grocery). Later it meant selecting in an unfair way. Today it means mutilation (altering) of a statement to give it different wrong meanings. Smug originally meant neat or trim, but now it is used in a bad sense of selfsatisfied or arrogant. Bug was used in the sense of insect. Now it is a fault or defect (we use debugging). Regeneration: Regeneration is revival of dead words after some period. The following words which were dead are now part of our standard speech:Budge (move), coax (influence, urge), shabby (having wear and tear), stingy (unwilling to spend), touchy. 225. Slang Slang is informal, inappropriate and non-standard language, which is not spoken by respectable people. But it always exists and we cannot avoid it. Sometimes, slang of yesterday becomes a normal expression of today. What on earth was slang, but now it is a normal expression. Row (quarrel) was slang in 18 th century, but now it is a standard word. Boom, slump, crank and fade are some more examples of slang but now these are in common use. Slang is introduced for the sake of freshness and novelty of expression. A man in the street would like to say bad-mouth instead of criticize. Slang does not live for long. It changes frequently. Some slang expressions become important because their meaning cannot be conveyed in any other way. For instance: hassle, clout (special advantage), knee-jerk, trendy.

Slang plays a greater role today compared to the past. In 19 th century, a scientific approach was adopted towards slang. Study of a language without referring to slang expressions will remain incomplete. Slang will continue to play its role in future also. 226. Cultural Levels and Functional Varieties Language is spoken by various groups of different levels. So a language has a number of local and class dialects. Broadly, they are in 3 categories:Spoken Standard: This is the language spoken by educated people in which grammar rules are strictly followed. Written Standard: This is the language of books poetry and prose. Illiterate (Vulgar) Speech: This is the language of those who are ignorant of correctness of educated people. It is rich in slang. We cannot draw a sharp line between these categories; they usually overlap. Spoken and written language is sometimes close to the language of common people. Sometimes illiterate people adopt the words of educated people and sometimes slang expressions find their way into the standard language, which are tolerated by the educated people. I seen it and I knowed it are grammatically incorrect; but they convey their meanings very clearly and are now in accepted use. Similar is the case of its me and use of double negative. It is not the question of correctness; it is the question of appropriateness. We do not expect everyone to talk like Mathew Arnold and we do not condemn all those who fail to speak Standard English of the educated. These issues are social, psychological, political and economic. 227. The Standard Speech Spoken Standard in England is the English spoken by those educated in great public schools and other civilized people. It is a class rather than a regional dialect. After the spread of English all over the world, especially in the United States, Australia and in the colonies (countries) controlled by UK and USA, the concept of Standard English has changed. Now the educated speech of these countries is also considered to be Standard English. It is very difficult to reduce the differences of pronunciation that distinguishes the speech of England, Australia, India and USA. English is a cosmopolitan language and must show a cosmopolitan attitude towards its various standard forms.

228. English Dialects: In newer countries where English has spread in modern times, regional dialects are not so numerous as they are in British Isles. In English colonies, various dialects were fused in a common speech. These could not grow up because of improvement in transportation and communication. But in Great Britain, these differences are very prominent since olden time. There are a large number of regional dialects in Britain. Broadly, they can be divided into 5 categories of regional dialects:1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Northern England Southern England Midland District (It has the mixture of Eastern and Western varieties) Southern Scotland Ireland

229. English in the Empire In the various parts of former British Empire, as in the United States and Canada, the English language is different from England. Australia: Australian English uses many words which would not be understood in England or America. Some English words have got new meaning in Australia. For instance, robin and jackass are the names of birds not known in Europe. Kangaroo is now general English. Rowdy in England is larrikan in Australia. American ranch is Australian station. Pronunciation of many words in Australia is different from England. Africa: Africa is the most multilingual continent on the earth. Its English is different from the English of England. Commando and trek (long journey) have entered into English from Africa. English sentence He threw a stone over the hedge and hit me is He threw me over the hedge with a rock in Africa. India: Like Africa, Indian English is also very different from the English spoken in England in many ways. The problems of Indian English have been summarized by Raja Rao as follows:One has to convey in a language that is not ones own an alien language. Yet English is not really an alien language to us. It is the language of our intellectual make-up.but not our emotional makeup. We are all instinctively bilingual, many of us writing in our own language and in English. We cannot write like the English. We should not. We cannot write only as Indians. We have grown to

look at the large world as part of us. Our method of expression therefore has to be a dialect which will someday prove to be as distinctive as the Irish or the American. Time alone will justify it. Indian pronunciation, vocabulary and syntax (arranging words in a sentence) which the British regarded with condescension (disrespect) during the days of Empire is now received with a neutral response. Difference in pronunciation can be explained from an example. In Hindi language, a word cannot start with sk, st or sp. So the words sky, station and sparrow are pronounced in India as esky, estation and esparrow. Similarly, Indians do not differentiate in pronouncing v and w. They pronounce d and t in a different way. The Indian Constitution of 1950 recognized 14 Indian languages, of which Hindi was to be the first national language. English was to serve as a transitional language till 1965, but it is still continuing as official language. Whatever the policies of the Government, English will be spoken and written in India and in Pakistan by the people, especially by the leaders in the government, education and press. This will be South Asian variety of English which will continue to be affected by the culture and native languages of South Asia. 230. Spelling Reforms Spelling has always been a major problem of the English language. In the end of 19th century, we see a renewed interest to solve this problem by simplifying the spelling. In 1837, when Isaac Pitman introduced a system of short hand, he suggested several plans for introducing phonetic spellings for general use. In 1883, American Philological Association recommended a long list of new spellings which was also approved by the English Philological Society. Spelling Reform Associations were formed in both the countries. The issue was disseminated (spread) through press and media. In 1898, National Education Association formally adopted the following twelve simplified spellings:Tho, altho, thoro, thorofare, thru, thruout, program, catalog, prolog, Decalog (in Bible), demagog (political leader) and pedagog (one who educates young people). In 1906, US Simplified Spelling Board published a list of 300 simplified words. They included judgement--judgment and mediaevalmedieval etc. This was a moderate proposal and was accepted with some favor, although there was some opposition from some circles. However, subsequent lists, which went further, were not received well.

The above efforts though not completely successful helped in stimulating public interest. Still there was opposition from conservatives. One thing was clear: The reform of spelling has to be gradual. 231. The International Aspect Between the two World Wars, renewed efforts were made for spelling reform. It was observed that the simplified spelling would benefit the foreigners who want to learn English. In 1930, a Swedish philologist R. E. Zachrisson remarked that no new artificial language could be devised for use as one single international language. Among the present languages, English has the strongest claim to become the universal language because: It it it it it is spoken by several hundreds of million people in the four continents; is the official governing language of many countries; is taught as a compulsory subject in numerous schools in Europe and Asia; has a simple grammar; and has cosmopolitan vocabulary

But its present spelling is a great hindrance in this way. Any radical attempt to reform the spelling would never succeed. So he proposed that we should devise a spelling that does not conflict too violently with the old habits. He named this respelled English as ANGLIC. This proposal was received well by the public. It was supported by the linguists. An amount of US $ 20 thousand was allocated for spreading its knowledge. It was expected that this will lead the entire world towards adopting one universal language. But, unfortunately, World War II put an end to its promotion; and the death of Professor Zachrisson in 1937 left it without a leader. After this, one more such attempt was made by Axel Wijik, another Swedish scholar, which received highly favorable reviews; but it could not win acceptance of the general public. It seems that the English-speaking world still does not feel the necessity for spelling reform. Besides, it is the nature of language to change slowly over a period of time. 232. Purist Efforts Purist is someone who insists on great exactness and correctness of words. The conservative in the matter of language always stick to old customs. They look at new things with suspicion and view all changes in language as corruptions. They were dominating in 18th century. But from 19 th century onward, they are becoming weak. Now they have no option but to accept the changes in language. For instance, use of Implicit (vague, which is only implied) as the opposite of explicit was greatly objected to in the beginning, but now it has been generally accepted. In our midst was once a slang expression, but now it is in common use. Damaging,

pleasing, misleading, encouraging all these adjectives have been recently introduced in English. Many more examples can be found in todays journalism. 233. The Society for Pure English In 1913, Society for Pure English (S.P.E.) was founded. However it started working after World War I. Its aim was to agree upon a modest and practical scheme for informing popular taste on sound principles, for guiding educational authorities, and for introducing into practice certain slight modifications and advantageous changes. The members of the Society believed that the best word-makers are the un-educated classes, so we would prefer vivid popular terms to artificial words. Thus recognition was given to local dialects from which the standard speech has always been enriched. Most importantly, the Society decided that instead of adopting an authoritative attitude, these facts should be disseminated (spread) among the public. They proposed to issue from time to time short Tracts on various linguistic topics and promote discussions on related questions. The movement of S.P.E. faced opposition from the beginning. But it is still getting support from both sides of the Atlantic. In 1922, a committee was formed to prepare a plan of cooperation between England and America. A few years later, a number of English and American writers formed International Council for English to consider the problems of the common language of the English-speaking countries. Thus it is hoped that in future some control will be exercised over the development of the language. 234. The Oxford English Dictionary About 1850, inadequacy of the existing dictionaries of Jonson and Richardson was felt. These were incomplete and far below the standards of modern knowledge. In 1857, a committee was formed to collect the words which were not found in these dictionaries for publishing a supplement. The committee, however, suggested in 1858 that instead of supplement, a new dictionary may be produced. The aim was to record every word which could be found in English since the year 1000 and to give the history of each word its forms, its various spellings, and all its uses and meanings, past and present, along with quotations from the whole range of English writings. A call or volunteers was issued and hundreds of readers from all over the world began to send material. In 1864, the Early English Text Society was formed which published 400 volumes of Middle English. In 1879, the task of publishing of the dictionary was given to Oxford University Press. In 1884, first installment covering part of the letter A was published. By 1900, it was published up to the letter H. The final section was issued after World War I in 1928. Named The Oxford English Dictionary, it has 10 large volumes, 15,487 pages and 240,165 main words. This is the greatest dictionary of any language in the world. It has provided a wealth of exact data which has helped to resolve many questions relating to the history of

the language. It gives the history of words and idioms, their forms and various spellings, their changes of meaning, rise and fall in their usage and many other aspects. It has increased our linguistic perspective and has taught us to view many questions of language in a more scientific and less dogmatic (without proof) way. The future historian will say that Oxford Dictionary made us historically minded about matters of English speech. 235. Grammatical Tendencies During 18th century, English grammar had become much stable because of printing press, popular education, improvement in travel communication and social consciousness. In 19th century onward, very few changes in grammar can be observed: In 1820 you was became you were. We notice some loss of inflection (word ending) but only in informal speech, e.g. he dont. Objective case form Whom was disregarded in the interrogative (Who do you want?). A new form of grammar was coming up: The get passive (he got hurt).

236. Verb-adverb combinations In modern vocabulary, we find expressions made up of a common verb (often of one syllable) combined with an adverb:Set out, gather up, put off, bring in. These are similar to withstand and overcome which were very common in Old English, but were abandoned as a result of Norman Conquest. Before modern period, we find these expressions being used just to emphasize the meaning of the simple verb. For instance: climb up, fall down. But in modern time, they are used to convey idiomatic expressions, e.g. catch on (comprehend), give out (become exhausted), keep on (continue), put up with (tolerate), turn over (surrender). It has been objected that the above combinations are sometimes just slang. Sometimes they are redundant, just an attempt to avoid the use of more formal and exact verb. But it is a fact that the verb-adverb combination conveys a force or a shade of meaning that could not be otherwise expressed. They have also increased the flexibility of the language and its beauty.

237. A Liberal Creed What should be an enlightened modern attitude toward linguistic issues? This is a question which needs to be answered very carefully. Our attitude should never be based on our individual concepts. We should never show intolerance. Our knowledge warns us not to make illogical decisions on the questions which only time can settle. It should make us tolerant of colloquial (dialect of common people) and regional forms. And finally it should prepare us for further changes since language lives only on the lips and fingers of living people and must change as the needs of people in expressing themselves change. We must avoid thinking that there is only one region where the best English is spoken, the region in which we ourselves live; and that the speech of all other regions is inferior. We must not think that the English of London or Oxford is the one with which all other speech must be judged. Good English is the usage of civilized people in that part of the Englishspeaking world in which one happens to be.

11. The English Language in America

238. The Settlement of America: The English language was brought to America by colonists (settlers) from England. This happened in the seventeenth century when English people went to colonize America. Beside English colonists, people from other European countries also migrated to America. There were three great periods of European immigration. During first period, the settlers came from England, during second period from Germany and during third period from France. Early colonists established the form of English language. The later people also affected the language but no to a large extent. For the student of language, the most important period is the first one when colonists came from England. 239. The Thirteen Colonies: During first period of migration, 13 colonies were formed from Maine up to Georgia (states of America), along the coast line of Atlantic seaboard. These early settlements were called New England. The majority of the settlers came first to Massachusetts. 242. Uniformity of American English: Settlers in one place of America constantly mingled with the settlers of the other two parts. Their speech also comes into contact with each other. This has contributed to a sort of uniformity in language all over America. This is not to say that there are no dialectical differences but they are not as prominent as in other countries. There is little local variation. In matters of pronunciation the differences are even less. The American people are very fond of travelling from one place to another. They like exploring their vast country and are accustomed to large distances. They like conformity. They readily accept standardization, be it linguistic matters or other topics. Another reason for the uniformity is the uniform American education system. It has a standardizing influence. Thus the element of homogeneity (uniformity, similarity) remains. The standard language in America rests upon general use. Noah Webster, whose contribution to the American English is undisputed, defines general use as either universal undisputed practice or The principle of analogy where there is a difference of opinion. 243. Archaic (old) features in American English:

American English still retains the old features of the language which have gone out of use in the standard speech of England. It has qualities of the 17th and 18th centurys words. For instance, Americans still pronounce r in words before consonants like park. Similarly, differences in pronunciations of either and neither still exist. British pronounce them with diphthong, while Americans pronounce them with short vowels. American English has preserved some old features but has introduced some new words also. 244. Early Changes in the Vocabulary: When Colonists settle in a new country, they encounter some things that they had never encountered before. Therefore, they adopt new words for new concepts. When colonists from England became acquainted with the physical features of this continent, they were impressed by its mountains and forests. Hence words like bluff (steep bank of river), gap, foothill, notch (cut), divide, watershed etc. came into use. Colonists also learnt some words from Indians like moose (deer), skunk (hated), raccoon (an animal), chipmunk (squirrel) etc. Self explanatory words like warship, paleface, medicine man, etc. came into the American language. New words were needed for political and administrative purposes as these situations were different from England and required a different vocabulary. Thus the words like congressman, statehouse, land, office came into use in American language. Americans also adopted words from other foreign colonists. From French, they adopted words like Cache, bureau, portage, and from Germans they learnt noodle, smearcase, and pretzel (salted cracker). More interesting, however, are the cases where colonists applied an old word to a slightly different thing. For example, they started to call a distinctive American bird as turkey. They transferred the word corn to an entirely new cereal. Americans also coined and continued to coin new phrases. These are imaginative, slightly humorous phrases like face the music, fly off the handle (to get angry), to bark up the wrong tree (to look in the wrong place) etc. Beginning of such differences between the American and British English started as early as in the 17th century. 246. Noah Webster and an American language: After American independence, a change occurred in their psychology. Earlier they used to look towards England for books and ideas. After independence the Americans demanded an end to this dependency. They wanted a civilization

different from Europe. Noah Webster (1758-1843) was one such man. He undertook practice of law but later became a teacher. He found that the available school books were unsatisfactory and not up to the mark. He set about compiling three elementary books in English- a spelling book, a grammar and a reader. These he published in 1783, 1784 and 1785 under the title A Grammatical Institute of the English Language. These books met with unexpected success. In 1789, he published a volume of Dissertations on the English language. His greatest work was to follow in 1828. An American dictionary of the English Language was his greatest work published in 1828. He wanted American English to be different from its mother tongue because it was meant to express an entirely different nation with its own norms and customs. 247. Websters Influence on American Spellings: Noah Webster was not very keen on spelling reform in the beginning. In 1768, Franklin, a contemporary of Webster devised A Scheme for a new Alphabet and reformed mode of spelling. Initially, Webster rejected this book, but by 1789 Franklins work began influencing American minds. Later, Webster admitted his mistake of overlooking this important fact. His initial attempt was met with strict opposition. He then presented a moderate proposal. Some of the important modifications in the spelling suggested by him are:English Spelling American Spelling sceptre (stick of Scepter authority) theatre Theater Metre Meter honour Honor favour Favor colour Color cheque Check masque Mask Risqu Risk Some of his proposals were rejected but by and large his recommendations have been followed since the time they were proposed. It must be mentioned that some of his recommendations are followed in England also. 248. Websters Influence on American Pronunciation: There is no doubt that to Webster are attributed some of the characteristics of American pronunciation and its uniformity. He was in favor of pronouncing the

unaccented syllables of words. The American people were in favor of pronouncing vowel sounds in words like Fast while British pronounced it as fst. English people do not pronounce r, unless it is before vowel. In most American English r is pronounced. However these differences are minor. 256. Is American English Good English? In the past, American English was often considered as the inferior form of English. Such sentiments even prevail now, at some places. However, this is not true. Language is a living organism which grows and changes with time, otherwise it is considered as dead. The role of a language is to fully express the culture, thought, ideas and life experiences of the community it represents and American English has succeeded in doing so. Moreover, good and bad use of English together, can always be found in many other countries. The pronunciation, idioms and some vocabulary of American English may be different from so-called good English, however, as Bradley states Americans have acquired the right to frame their own standards of correct English on the usage of their best writers and speakers. Hence it is not a matter of good or bad, its a matter of difference only.

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